POTENTIAL PESTS OF OHIA
(METROSIDEROS POLYMORPHA) AND
OTHER MYRTACEAE
Prepared by:
Forest Starr , Kim Starr1, and Lloyd L. Loope2
1
2
1
Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Dept. of Botany, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822
U. S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, P.O. Box 369, Makawao, Maui, HI 96768
2007
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
INSECTS
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Bradysia coprophila - Fungus gnat
Diptera : Tephritidae - Fruit Flies
Hemiptera : Eriococcidae and Margarodidae - Scales
Hemiptera : Psyllidae - Psyllids
Hymenoptera : Torymidae and Eulophidae - Wasps
Metaleurodicus cardini - Cardin's whitefly
Phoracantha recurva - Eucalyptus longhorned beetle
PATHOGENS
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Botryosphaeria spp. - Botryosphaeria canker
Coniothyrium spp. - Coniothyrium canker
Corticium salmonicolor - Pink disease
Cryphonectria cubensis - Cryphonectria canker
Meloidogyne spp. - Root knot nematodes
Mycosphaerella spp. - Crinkle leaf disease
Phaeophleospora spp. - Phaeophleospora leaf diseases
Phellinus noxius - Brown root rot
Puccinia psidii - Ohia rust, guava rust, Eucalyptus rust
Ralstonia solanacearum - Bacterial disease, bacterial wilt
Seiridium eucalypti - Seiridium stem canker
REFERENCES
2
INTRODUCTION
3
Introduction
As the global economy expands and more plants and foliage are imported from abroad,
the risk that damaging pests or diseases will enter our environment in the U.S. and in
Hawaii is increased. For example, a large portion of the U.S. nursery industry relies on
imported immature plants for planting to grow into a finished product. A recent analysis
by the California, North Carolina, and Florida Farm Bureaus states that 1.5 billion plant
units (75% of the total arriving in the U.S.) come in annually through the Port of Miami;
the Los Angeles airport receives 217 million units (Groot and Kister 2006). Inspectors at
the Miami inspection station are able to inspect about 2% of the plant material that
arrives. They reject material when actionable pests are found, but lack the ability to
provide serious deterrence of pests - for example they are unable to track growers/
importers that repeatedly send contaminated material (Groot and Kister 2006). Much of
the imported plant material is planted in Florida, but material is also shipped via Miami to
other locations in the U.S., including Hawaii. Many new imported pests from Latin
America establish first in Florida, then later spread to Hawaii either via southern
California or directly.
Another major and increasing source of pests in Hawaii is Asia. Taiwan and Thailand
have long been agricultural trading partners of the U.S. China, a relatively new member
of the World Trade Organization is said to be the world’s largest horticultural producer;
China’s horticultural exports have almost doubled in value over the past decade (Rae et
al. 2006).
The flower/foliage trade has expanded remarkably over the past two decades, bringing
billions of flowers into the U.S. from foreign countries; pesticides are frequently applied
liberally to avoid rejection in agricultural inspection at the U.S. border (Stewart 2007).
The domestic flower trade flourishes as well. Fungal infections, especially of rusts, are
notably prevalent and damaging in the flower trade, given that these pathogens cannot be
adequately detected on asymptomatic but contaminated or infested plant material entering
the U.S. or moving state-to-state (Wise et al. 2004).
The arrival in early 2005 of a “rose apple strain” of the internationally notorious rust
Puccinia psidii (Killgore & Heu 2005) provided a wake up call to Hawaii, putting nearly
one million acres of the state’s ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) forests in jeopardy.
The rust strain present has a severe impact on non-native rose apple (Syzygium jambos) at
a landscape scale, but has so far had only minor effects on ohia. Additional rust strains
will only be kept out of the state if comprehensive regulations limiting trade in members
of the myrtle family are established and enforced. As of July 2007, Hawaii Department
of Agriculture (HDOA) is in the process of establishing an interim rule and a long-term
rule to restrict import of Myrtaceae from the U.S. mainland. Similar action by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS)
is highly desirable.
Ironically, a second devastating pest arrived in Hawaii in early 2005 - the erythrina gall
wasp, Quadrastichus erythrinae (Heu et al. 2005). Two of Hawaii’s dominant signature
4
trees, wiliwili and ohia, are now under siege. This juxtaposition of events has brought
about the realization that Hawaii’s dominant native plant species must be proactively
protected from plant pests, just as sugar cane, pineapple, coffee, and orchids have
traditionally been protected by quarantine.
This concept is in harmony with a recent concept paper produced by the International
Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO Unit 7.03.12 2006). The concept
paper states: “Many forest pests have been introduced into new locations on plants for
planting. Mounting scientific evidence suggests that the current pest-by-pest regulatory
approach and reliance on inspection to detect pests is untenable in today’s global
marketplace. Much recent experience demonstrates the need to curtail the introduction of
plant pests that are present in an exporting territory but not yet known to science.
Therefore, the forest entomology and pathology science community recommends a
pathway approach to regulating nursery stock, similar to that adopted for wood packaging
material (WPM). Best management practices effective at preventing known pests will
significantly reduce the risk of introducing unknown pests as well.”
Without quarantine rules regulating high-risk imports, inspections are incapable of
providing protection. As pointed out by Hedley (2004), “successful phytosanitary
systems are not grounded in inspections at ports... but rather, in the establishment of
specific import regulations. Regulations... identify the pests that a country believes
constitute a potential danger to its plant health. They also identify the possible ways that
these pests can enter their country and where measures can affect this entry. Finally, they
set a range of import measures, from visual inspections to long periods in quarantine
premises for intensive testing..”
Although there is superficially a gulf between federal and state approaches in Hawaii,
USDA-APHIS has strong generic authority through the Plant Protection Act to assist
HDOA whenever it makes a compelling case for species protection.
The objective of this report is to present necessary information to more clearly define the
threat to Hawaii’s ohia and other native and non-native Myrtaceae, including a nascent
Eucalyptus industry on the Big Island. We intend that this information be used in
whatever risk analysis is needed for justifying stronger measures for effective protection
of Myrtaceae by HDOA and USDA-APHIS.
Acknowledgments
We thank the steering committee of Hawaii’s Coordinating Group on Alien Pest Species
for advocating this project and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service for providing the funding.
We thank Dr. David Duffy and his staff of the Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit for major
administrative assistance.
References
5
Groot, N., and J. Kister. 2006. Commentary: Wanted - An environment of pest-free
imports. Issued November 29, 2006, in AgAlert, online. California Farm Bureau
Federation.
<http://www.cfbf.com/agalert/AgAlertStory.cfm?ID=721&ck=ABA3B6FD5D186D28E0
6FF97135CADE7F> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Hedley, J. 2004. The International Plant Protection Convention and alien species. Pages
185-201. In M.L. Miller and R.N. Fabian (eds.), Harmful invasive species: Legal
responses. Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C.
<http://www.esajournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&issn=10510761&volume=016&issue=06&page=2035> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Heu, R.A., D.M. Tsuda, W.T. Nagamine, and T.H. Suh. 2005. Erythrina Gall Wasp,
Quadrastichus erythrinae Kim (Hym.: Eulophidae). State of Hawaii, Department of
Agriculture - New Pest Advisory No 05-03. <http://www.hawaiiag.org/hdoa/npa/npa0503-EGW.pdf> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
IUFRO Unit 7.03.12. 2006. Recommendation of a pathway approach for regulation of
plants for planting: A concept paper from the IUFRO unit on alien invasive species and
international trade. International Union of Forestry Research Organizations. 8 pp.
<http://www.forestry-quarantine.org/Documents/IUFRO-ConceptPaper-%20PlantsPlanting.pdf> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Rae, A., F. Zhong, Y. Zhou, and X. Geng. 2006. China’s expanding role in global
horticultural markets. Working paper 3/06, Centre for Applied Economics and Policy
Studies, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. 24pp.
<http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/123456789/3199/1/cp06ra02.pdf> (Accessed:
July 5, 2007).
Stewart, A. 2007. Flower Confidential: The Good, the Bad, and the Beautiful in the
Business of Flowers. Algonquin Books. Chapel Hill, NC. 306pp.
<http://www.amazon.com/Flower-Confidential-Beautiful-BusinessFlowers/dp/1565124383/sr=8-1/qid=1170530270/> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Wise, K.A., D.S. Mueller, and J.W. Buck. 2004. Quarantines and ornamental rusts.
APSnet Feature Story Feb. 2004. American Phytopathological Society.
<http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/quarantine/> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
6
INSECTS
7
Bradysia coprophila
Fungus gnat
Species
Bradysia coprophila (Lintner), fungus gnat, Diptera: Sciaridae.
Hosts
Known to host on species in Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Pinaceae. In
Brazil, B. coprophila hosts on Eucalyptus urophylla (Ciesla et al. 1996). In greenhouses
in Florida, B. coprophila was found to be a severe problem on Zygocactus truncatus
(Christmas cactus) at Apopka in 1977 and on Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) at Punta
Gorda in 1975, where it damaged 50% of 1000 seedlings (Mead and Fasulo 2001). In
South Africa, B. coprophila was found on Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia) (Hurley
2006).
Pathways
Fungus gnat larvae can be found in highly organic soils or potting mixes (IPM 2004).
Eggs are laid in soil or under bark of cuttings, and larvae feed on organic matter and plant
material (Ciesla et al. 1996, IPM 2004). It is possible that fungus gnats could be spread
in contaminated soil or plants.
Impact
In Florida, fungus gnats are a problem mainly in greenhouses, mostly due to the damage
they do to plants, but also because large numbers of gnats can be a nuisance to workers
(Mead and Fasulo 2001). B. coprophila affects mainly seedlings and cuttings. Ciesla et
al. (1996) report that B. coprophila is the most important pest of Eucalyptus seedlings in
southeastern Brazil, resulting in the loss of millions of seedlings. Damage is caused
when larvae feed on plant root hairs and feeder roots, or tunnel into the base of cuttings
or leaves near the soil, resulting is reduced plant vigor, yellowing of leaves, discolored
bark of cuttings, and cuttings that fail to sprout and die (Ciesla et al. 1996, IPM 2004). In
addition, both adult and larvae have been implicated in spreading spores of soil
pathogens, such as Botrytis, Fusarium, Verticillium, Pythium, and Phoma (IPM 2004).
Treatment
Cultural control measures include reducing organic matter in potting media, reducing wet
areas near plants, reducing algal growth, and keeping sanitation levels high (IPM 2004).
Adults can be monitored with yellow sticky traps (IPM 2004). To reduce fungal food
sources, some growers apply hydrated lime (Price 1997). Chemical control measures
include insecticidal drenches for larvae and foliar sprays for adults. Microbial
insecticides can also provide effective controls (IPM 2004). For drenching, the insect
growth regulators fenoxycarb, pyriproxyfen and azadirachtin resulted in the most
8
significant reduction of fungus gnat emergence (Ludwig and Oetting 2001). Bacillus
thuringiensis var. israelensis and a nematode, Steinernema feltiae, have proven to be an
effective biological control for B. coprophila (Hurley 2006).
Distribution
Native: Brazil? (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Introduced: Florida: Apopka area of Orange County; Punta Gorda, Charlotte County;
and Gainesville, Alachua County (Mead and Fasulo 2001).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
References
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Hurley, B. 2006. Fungus gnats in forestry nurseries and their possible role as vectors for
Fusarium circinatum. Magister Scientae. University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
<http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-02272007-172542/> (Accessed: May 24,
2007).
IPM (Integrated Pest Management). 2004. Fungus gnats (Bradysia cocprophila).
University of Illinois, College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences.
<http://ipm.uiuc.edu/hyg/insects/fungus_gnats/index.html> (Accessed: May 24, 2007).
Ludwig, S.W. and R.D. Oetting. 2001. Evaluation of medium treatments for
management of Frankliniella occidentalis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera) and Bradysia
coprophila (Diptera: Sciaridae). Pest Manag Sci. 57(12): 1114-8.
<http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/86513205/ABSTRACT>
(Accessed: May 24, 2007).
Mead, F.W. and T.R. Fasulo. 2001. Featured Creatures: Fungus gnats. Originally
published as DPI Entomology Circular 186. University of Florida Institute of Food and
Agricultural Services, Department of Entomology and Nemetology and Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry.
<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/orn/darkwinged_fungus_gnats.htm> (Accessed: May 24,
2007).
Price J, Short D, Osborne L. 1997. Management of Fungus Gnats in Greenhouse
Ornamentals. UF/ IFAS Insect Management Guide. <http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IG125>
(Accessed: May 24, 2007).
9
Diptera : Tephritidae
Fruit Flies
Species
Bactrocera correcta (Bezzi), guava fruit fly, Diptera: Tephritidae. Synonyms:
Chaetodacus correctus Bezzi, Dacus (Strumeta) correctus (Bezzi), Bactrocera zonata
Bezzi.
Bactrocera zonata (Saunders), peach fruit fly, Diptera: Tephritidae. Synonyms: Dacus
zonatus (Saunders), Dasyneura zonata Saunders, Rivellia persicae Bigot.
Hosts
Bezzi (1915) notes that B. correcta and B. zonata occupy similar distributions and host
species. These species have been found hosting on a broad range of families, including
Anacardiaceae, Arecaceae, Combretaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceaee, Moraceae,
Myrtaceae, Punicaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Santalaceae,
Sapotaceae, and Solanaceae. The following species are listed as host plants for B.
correcta and B. zonata (CDFA 2007, Weems and Fasulo 2001): apple (Malus sylvestris),
bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), citrus (Citrus spp.), coffee (Coffea canephora), Chinese date
(Ziziphus jujube), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), fig (Ficus carica), guava (Psidium
guajava), mango (Mangifera indica), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), orange (Citrus
sinensis), papaya (Carica papaya), peach (Prunus persica), pomegranate (Punica
granatum), quince (Cydonia oblonga), rose apple (Syzygium jambos), sandalwood
(Santalum album), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora),
tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), tropical almond (Terminalia catappa\chebula), and
white gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris).
Pathways
Introduction of fruit flies can occur when they "hitch-hike" on imported fruit from areas
where the fly is present (FDACS 2007).
Impact
The guava fruit fly and the peach fruit fly have the potential to become major pests of
fruit, including citrus, guava, mango, peach, papaya, and other tropical and subtropical
fruits (CDFA 2007). Damage to fruit trees occurs when a female fruit fly punctures the
flesh of the fruit and lays her eggs. Punctures in the fruit admit decay organisms which
break down tissue. Eggs then develop into larvae, which feed on the fruit, causing further
breakdown of tissue, and making fruit unfit for human consumption (CDFA 2007b).
Treatment
10
Detection of fruit flies is necessary in order to respond to infestations. Bactrocera spp.
adults are attracted to methyl eugenol-baited traps, which are hung in host trees, along
with sticky traps, to aid detection efforts (Weems and Fasulo 2001). Insecticides are
added to these traps which disable flies that are caught. Other potential treatments
include sterile male programs, male annihilation programs, and chemical programs using
pesticides, such as protein bait sprays and bait stations with lure and kill components
(IAEA 1999). Prior to export, the following treatments are recommended: fumigation,
hot force air, hot water dip, vapor heat, cold treatment, pest free areas, and irradiation
(IAEA 1999).
Distribution
Native: B. correcta and B. zonata are native to south and southeast Asia, from India,
Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand (CDFA 2007).
Introduced: According to Weems and Fasulo (2001), B. correcta "was detected for the
first time in the Western Hemisphere when one female was found on August 6, 1986 in
Garden Grove, Orange County, California. Two additional adult males were detected in
Orange County on August 9, 1986. B. correcta has been detected numerous times in
California since then, but has not become established." This species has also been
detected in Florida, but is not known to be established. In 1999, two flies were found in
the Titusville area, Brevard County (Weems and Fasulo 2001). In 2001, one single male
fly was detected in Apopka, Orange County, and one single male was detected in Oviedo,
Seminole County. Then in 2002, a single male was again detected in a trap near a rural
business in Homestead, Miami-Dade County (FDACS 2007). After additional traps were
set, no more guava fruit flies were found, so no eradication effort took place (FDACS
2007). Folks in Florida believe that these events are the result of a "hitch-hiker" fly
where an individual is detected, with no indication of a larger established population
(FDACS 2007).
B. zonata was recently introduced to Egypt (IAEA 1999) where it is now widespread and
has also been intercepted in Israel (EPPO 2006). It is feared that from these areas, B.
zonata has the potential to threaten countries in the Near East and North Africa, and to a
lesser extent in Southern Europe. International cooperation has been initiated by IAEA
(International Atomic Energy Agency) and FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) to
eradicate B. zonata in these areas and prevent any further spread (EPPO 2006). Within
EPPO it has been recommended that B. zonata be listed as an A1 quarantine pest and
appropriate measures taken in consequence. As a first step, it is recommended that
consignments of fruits from countries where B. zonata occurs should be free from the
pest. Detailed phytosanitary measures and a regional Technical Cooperation Project
(TCP) by FAO and IAEA are currently being developed to prevent the establishment of
B. zonata in the Middle East and North Africa (EPPO 2006).
Hawaii: B. correcta and B. zonata are not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum
1999).
11
References
Bezzi M. 1915. On the fruit-flies of the genus Dacus (s. 1.) occurring in India, Burma,
and Ceylon. Bulletin of Entomological Research 7: 99-121.
Bishop Museum. 1999. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, HI. <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html> (Accessed: May 21,
2007).
CDFA (California Department of Food and Agriculture). 2007. Guava Fruit Fly Pest
Profile. Pest Detection Emergency Projects Branch, California.
<http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/pdep/guava_fruit_fly_profile.htm> (Accessed: May 22,
2007).
EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2006. Bactrocera
zonata. <http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/bactrocera_zonata/bactrocera.htm>
(Accessed: May 22, 2007).
FDACS (Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services). 2007. Single
guava fruit fly detected in Homestead. Department Press Release.
<http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/press/2002/07252002.html> (Accessed: May 22, 2007).
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). 1999. Thematic plan for fruit fly control
using the sterile male technique.
<http://www.iaea.org/programmes/nafa/d4/public/ff_thematic_plan.pdf> (Accessed:
May 22, 2007).
Weems, H.V. Jr. and T.R. Fasulo. 2001. Featured Creatures: Guava Fruit Fly.
Originally published as DPI Entomology Circular 291. University of Florida Institute of
Food and Agricultural Services, Department of Entomology and Nemetology and Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry.
<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/fruit/tropical/guava_fruit_fly.htm> (Accessed: May 22,
2007).
12
Hemiptera : Eriococcidae and Margarodidae
Scales
Species
Eriococcus coriaceus Maskell, gum tree scale, Hemiptera: Eriococcidae.
Icerya purchasi Maskell, cottony cushion scale, Hemiptera: Margarodidae.
Hosts
Eriococcus coriaceus: Known to host on Myrtaceae. Ciesla et al. (1996) report that a
wide range of Eucalyptus species are affected by E. coriaceus. Phillips (1992) report that
Eucalyptus globulus, E. nitens, and E. leucoxylon are favored hosts. Patel (1971) and
Kliejunas et al. (2003) report the following Eucalyptus species as hosts of Eriococcus
coriaceus: E. amygdalina, E. anceps, E. annulata, E. behriana, E. burdettiana, E.
camaldulensis, E. calycogona, E. coccifera, E. eugenioides, E. forrestiana, E. globulus,
E. grandis, E. gunnii, E. incrassata, E. lansdowneana, E. macandra, E. macarthuri, E.
microtheca, E. morrisii, E. nitens, E. nutans, E. obliqua, E. platyphylla, E. pilularis, E.
redunca, E. regnans, E. saligna, E. stowardi, E. tereticornis, E. tetraptera, E. torquata,
and E. viminalis. Eriococcus coriaceus is reported from Psidium guajava and Myrtus
communis in nurseries (Froggatt 1900, Patel 1971).
Icerya purchasi: Known to host on Anacardiaceae, Casuarinaceae, Fabaceae,
Juglandaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Pinaceae, Pittosporaceae, and Rutaceae. Ciesla et
al. (1996) report that a wide range of host plants are known, including Eucalyptus spp.,
and other species of many different families, such as Acacia spp., Cassia spp., Casuarina
equisetifolia, Delonix regia, Juglans regia, Mangifera indica, Morus alba, Pinus radiata,
and Pseudotsuga menziesii. It also commonly hosts on Citrus spp. and Pittosporum spp.
(Hamon 2005).
Pathways
Scales can be transported on infested materials, including rooted cuttings (Ciesla et al.
1996). Once established, scales tend to stay near mother scales, though they can achieve
long distance dispersal on the wind or by hitch-hiking on birds (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Eriococcus coriaceus was accidentally introduced to New Zealand on imported seedlings
from Australia (Kirk 1905).
One account, Hamon (2005), reports that in 1893, Icerya purchasi was shipped to Florida
from California when some farmers in Florida inquired about biological control agents,
vadalia beetles (Rodalia cardinalis). The beetles were shipped from California to
Florida, along with some I. purchasi to provide food for the beetles in transit. Upon
arrival in Florida, the farmers did not think anything of the scales and opened the box
near some citrus trees, which became infested with the scales. These trees were then
13
destroyed. Later, in 1895, I. purchasi were again found in Florida, believed to have been
brought in "from a tramp peddler of nursery stock" (Gossard 1901, Hamon 2005).
Impact
In general, scales cause damage by sucking on the twigs and branches of plants as they
feed with their piercing and sucking mouth parts (Phillips 1992). Large colonies cluster
together on the main stem and branches of their host, concealing themselves under
leathery coverings (Phillips 1992). Scales produce a sticky sugary substance called
honeydew and are tended and protected by ants that collect the honeydew (Phillips 1992).
Sooty molds then grow on the honeydew, causing further damage to plants, especially
young leaves (Phillips 1992). Heavily infested plants become weakened by the mold and
infestation, leaves and fruit may drop prematurely, and eventually some plants may
succumb to death (Baker 1994).
Eriococcus coriaceus: A very serious pest of Eucalyptus species (Phillips 1992). Sooty
molds may cause loss of photosynthesis (Ciesla et al. 1996). A major pest of Eucalyptus
plantations in New Zealand in the early 1900's before biological control agents were
introduced (FAO 1979, Ciesla et al. 1996). E. coriaceus can cause severe dieback and
death in young Eucalyptus trees (Hoy 1962, AFD 2007).
Icerya purchasi: Mostly affects trees in plantations, though occasionally known to cause
stunting of seedlings and transplants in nurseries (Ciesla et al. 1996). Most damage
occurs during the early immature stages of the scale when it feeds, in rows, on veins and
midribs of leaves and on younger, smaller, twigs (Hamon 2005), which are more
vulnerable. As nymphs grow older, they migrate towards larger branches.
Treatment
Phillips (1992) notes various ways to control scales in general, though once established,
they are hard to eradicate. Natural predators and parasites include birds, frogs, and insect
predators, such as lacewings, hoverflies, and ladybird beetles. Mechanical control
includes physical removal and adhesive bands which help control the ants which protect
scales from natural predators. Chemical control includes spraying with oils or pesticides,
and trunk injections.
Eriococcus coriaceus: Destroy germplasm suspected of being infested (Ciesla et al.
1996). In New Zealand, the biological control agent, Rhizobius ventralis, a ladybird
beetle, has shown successful control (Zondag 1977).
Icerya purchasi: Destroy infected germplasm (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Distribution
Eriococcus coriaceus
14
Native: Australia (Ciesla et al. 1996)
Introduced: New Zealand (Zondag 1977, Ciesla et al. 1996).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
Icerya purchasi
Native: Australia (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Introduced: While Icerya purchasi is native to Australia, it was first described from New
Zealand, hosting on kangaroo Acacia (Hamon 2005). Now, widely distributed in the
tropics and mild temperate areas (Ciesla et al. 1996). Reported from Eucalyptus spp. in
India and Malawi (Browne 1968, FAO 1979, Ciesla et al. 1996). I. purchasi arrived in
California on Acacia plants around 1868 or 1869 and was causing damage to citrus
groves within ten years (Ebeling 1959, Hamon 2005). Widely known from most counties
in Florida and thought to have been introduced there from California (Hamon 2005).
Hawaii: Known from the following islands: Kure, Midway, French Frigate Shoals,
Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
References
AFD (Australian Faunal Directory). 2007. Online Directory. Australian Government,
Department of the Environment and Water Resources.
<http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/onlineresources/fauna/afd/index.html> (Accessed: May 21, 2007).
Baker, J.R. 1994. Cottony Cushion Scale. Ornamentals and Turf, Department of
Entomology Insect Note 51. North Carolina State University, North Carolina
Cooperative Extension.
<http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/O&T/shrubs/note51/note51.html> (Accessed:
June 6, 2007).
Bishop Museum. 1999. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, HI. <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html> (Accessed: May 21,
2007).
Browne, F.G. 1968. Pests and diseases of forest plantation trees: list of the principal
species occurring in the British commonwealth. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
15
Ebeling, W. 1959. Subtropical fruit pests. University of California Press, Los Angeles.
436 p.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1979. Eucalypts for
planting. FAO Forestry Series No. 11. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Froggatt, W. 1900. Notes on Australian Coccidae (scale insects). Agric. Guz. N.S.W .
11: 101-102.
Gossard, H.A. 1901. The cottony cushion scale. Florida Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin 56: 309-356.
Hamon, A.B. 2005. Featured Creatures: Cottony Cushion Scale. Originally published
as DPI Entomology Circular 407. University of Florida Institute of Food and
Agricultural Services, Department of Entomology and Nemetology and Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry.
<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/fruit/cottony_cushion_scale.htm> (Accessed: June 6, 2007).
Hoy, J.M. 1962. Eriococcidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea) of New Zealand. N.Z. DSIR
Bull. 146: 1-219.
Kirk, T.W. 1905. The gum-tree scale, Eriococcus coriaceus. Rep. N.Z. Dep. Agric. 13:
421-422.
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
J.A. Micales, B.M. Tkacz, and M.R. Powell. 2003. Pest risk assessment of the
importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 206 p.
<http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/9705> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Patel, J.D. 1971. Morphology of the gum tree scale Eriococcus coriaceus Maskell
(Homoptera: Eriococcidae), with notes on its life history and habits near Adelaide, South
Australia. J. Aust. Ent. Soc. 10: 43-56. <http://www.blackwellsynergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1440-6055.1971.tb00009.x> (Accessed: June 6, 2007).
Phillips, C. 1992. Forest Insects: Gum Tree Scale - Eriococcus coriaceus Mackell.
Forest Health Fact Sheet 3. Forestry South Australia, Government of South Australia.
<http://www.forestry.sa.gov.au/privateforestry/insect_fact_sheets/Fact_Sheet_html/FHS
%2003%20Gum%20tree%20scale.htm> (Accessed: June 6, 2007).
Zondag, R. 1977. Eriococcus coriaceus Maskell, Gum tree Scale. Forest and Timber
Insects in New Zealand, no 22. Forest Research Institute, New Zealand Forest Service.
16
Hemiptera : Psyllidae
Psyllids
Species
Note: Previously placed in Homoptera, now in Hemiptera.
Blastopsylla occidentalis Taylor, Eucalyptus psyllid, Hemiptera: Psyllidae.
Cardiaspina squamula Taylor, lerp psyllid, Hemiptera: Psyllidae.
Ctenarytaina eucalypti (Maskell), blue gum lerp psyllid, Hemiptera: Psyllidae.
Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore, red gum lerp psyllid, Hemiptera: Psyllidae.
Trioza eugeniae Froggatt, Eugenia psyllid, Hemiptera: Psyllidae.
Hosts
Known to host on Myrtaceae.
Blastopsylla occidentalis: Australia: Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. forrestiana, E.
gomphocephala, E. microtheca, E. oleosa, and E. rudis (AFD 2007).
Cardiaspina squamula: Australia: Eucalyptus sp., E. viminalis.
Ctenarytaina eucalypti: Australia: Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus sp. Portugal and
Spain: E. globulus and E. maideni (Ciesla et al. 1996). California: Eucalyptus
pulverulentus (Percy 2000).
Glycaspis brimblecombei: Australia: Eucalyptus blakelyi, E. brassiana, E. bridgesiana,
E. camaldulensis, E. dealbata, E. mannifera, and E. tereticornis (AFD 2007). California:
E. camaldulensis, E. polyanthemos, E. globulus, E. cinerea, E. rudis, E. tereticornis, E.
grandis, E. paniculata, E. diversicolor, E. citriodora, E. macandra, E. viminalis, E.
spathulata, E. nicholii, E. ficifolia, E. sideroxylon, E. camaldulensis, E. platypus, E.
nitens, E. nutans, E. pulverulenta, E. cladocalyx, E. robusta, E. saligna, E. leucoxylon
(AFD 2007, Paine et al. 2007). Mauritius: E. sp. (AFD 2007). Preference for members
of the red gum species group, particularly river gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) (Paine
2000, Nagamine and Heu 2001).
Trioza eugeniae: Australia: Syzygium paniculatum [syn. Eugenia myrtifolia] and
Acmena smithii (AFD 2007). California and Florida: Syzygium paniculatum and
Metrosideros excelsa (Dreistadt and Dahlsten 2001).
Pathways
Psyllids may be transported on infested material.
17
Blastopsylla occidentalis and Glycaspis brimblecombei are believed to have been
introduced to Florida along with imported plants from infested areas of California
(Halbert et al. 2003).
Trioza eugeniae have been spread on infested host material which is transported for use
in horticulture. According to Dr. Susan Halbert (Florida Department of Agriculture and
Consumer Services-Division of Plant Industry), "This psyllid pest was eradicated in 1993
and has not been found again until recently, when it was detected at several nurseries on
material shipped this year from California. Probably the only Florida host is Syzygium
paniculatum, a plant that is popular for hedges and topiaries. The topiaries are sold in
discount stores, so the potential for distribution is high if infested material leaves the
original nurseries." (Osborn 2004). According to Dahlsten et al. (1999), rapid spread of
the Eugenia psyllid in California was "undoubtedly facilitated by the frequent movement
of nursery stock throughout the state."
Impact
Psyllids, in general, are pestiferous due to their feeding damage on host plants, which
makes plants unaesthetic. Damage to host plants include distortion, wilting of foliage,
mostly at the tips, followed by leaf drop (Ciesla et al. 1996). Dieback of twigs and
branches may also occur, especially with heavy infestations, and young plants have
reduced growth due to leaf loss (Ciesla et al. 1996). Psyllids also produce honeydew, a
sticky substance that can be a nuisance to surrounding infrastructure, cause reduced plant
vigor and reduced new shoot growth, distort leaves and stems, and cause an ugly
appearance due to sooty molds growing on honeydew, ultimately lowering the economic
value of plants (Dahlsten et al. 1999). In lerp psyllids, nymphs exude waxy secretions or
lerps under which they shelter (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Blastopsylla occidentalis does not make lerps, but nymphs of these insects do secrete a
waxy substance (Halbert 2003). In Florida, Wineriter et al. (2003) describe B.
occidentalis as introduced but not invasive.
Cardiaspina squamula is known to have sudden outbreaks, likely due to weather
conditions, natural enemies, water stress, and nutritional quality of host plant (Ciesla et
al. 1996, Morgan and Taylor 1988).
Ctenarytaina eucalypti has been accidentally introduced to numerous countries where it
has caused significant damage to Eucalyptus spp. (Ciesla et al. 1996). In Portugal, C.
eucalypti is considered to be the most important forest insect (Ciesla et al. 1996). In
California, this species has become an important pest of Eucalyptus pulverulentus, a tree
grown for it's silver foliage which is used in flower arrangements (Percy 2000).
Glycaspis brimblecombei is known to cause senescence and eventual death in E. globulus
in California (Brennan et al. 2001; Brennan & Weinbaum 2001). G. brimblecombei can
stress trees, making them more susceptible to fatal attack by other insects (Dahlsten
2000).
18
Trioza eugeniae: Upper surfaces of young leaves above feeding pits of Eugenia psyllid
nymphs turn red and distort (Dreistadt and Dahlsten 2001).
Treatment
Control methods for psyllids in general are discussed in Dreistadt and Dahlsten (2001).
These include monitoring with sticky traps or other baited traps; cultural control, such as
planting other resistant species, not over irrigating, not fertilizing, and limiting pruning or
cutting; biological control, including ladybird beetles and lacewings; and chemical
control, such as oils, insecticidal soaps, and pesticides.
Blastopsylla occidentalis: No specific treatment methods were found.
Cardiaspina squamula: No specific treatment methods were found.
Ctenarytaina eucalypti: In California, a successful biological control program is under
way using the parasitoid, Psyllaephagus pilosus Noyes (Chauzat et al. 2002; Purvis et al.
2002).
Glycaspis brimblecombei: Predators, such as birds, the convergent lady beetle
(Hippodamia convergens) and multicolored Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis), green
lacewings (Chrysoperla spp.), syrphid flies, pirate bugs (Anthocoris spp.), spiders, and
dragonflies (Order Odonata) (Paine et al. 2007). A biological control agent,
Psyllaephagus bliteus, a wasp introduced from Australia, has shown some reduction of
G. brimblecombei in coastal areas of California (Paine et al. 2007).
Trioza eugeniae: Once leaves have feeding pits, no pesticide or treatment will reverse
the damage (Dreistadt and Dahlsten 2001). A biological control agent, Tamarixia sp.
(Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) was introduced from Australia and released at Orange
County, California in 1992 and at several other California sites in 1993 (Dahlsten et al.
1999). Eugenia psyllid and the introduced biological control agent are currently being
monitored. Apparently, the wasps are having some impact in warmer areas of California,
with pesticide use reduced (Dahlsten et al. 2002). Though in cooler areas, such as San
Francisco, wasp populations are not doing as well and different pruning techniques are
being tested to try to enhance parasitoid activity in these areas (Dahlsten et al. 2002).
They suggest further to shear off new growth every three weeks and to leave clippings
nearby for up to three weeks so that the wasps can emerge (Dreistadt and Dahlsten 2001).
Distribution
Blastopsylla occidentalis
Native: Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia
(Halbert et al. 2003, AFD 2007).
19
Introduced: Well established in California (Halbert et al. 2003). It is also known from
Florida, presumably from infested plants from California (Halbert et al. 2003). In
Florida, B. occidentalis was first found in 2001 at two tourism parks in Orlando (Halbert
et al. 2003). The following year in 2002, it was also documented in Miami, Dade County
(Artaud 2007). B. occidentalis is also known from New Zealand, Hong Kong, Kenya,
USA (California and Hawai'i), Mexico, Brazil, Chile and Paraguay (Burckhardt and
Elgueta 2000, AFD 2007). B. occidentalis was recently documented from Italy in 2006
(EPPO 2006b).
Hawaii: Known from the islands of Kauai and Oahu (Bishop Museum 1999, Beardsley
and Uchida 2002).
Cardiaspina squamula
Native: Australia, New South Wales (AFD 2007).
Introduced: No information on introduced range was found for this species.
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
Ctenarytaina eucalypti
Native: Australia, Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, South Australia,
Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia (AFD 2007).
Introduced: New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, S Africa, Madeira, Canary Is.,
S Europe, Germany, United Kingdom, Eire, USA (California), Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia
(AFD 2007). First recorded in California in 1990 (Percy 2000). C. eucalypti has more
recently become established in Portugal and Spain (Goes 1977). It is also known from
Burundi, Tanzania, and Ethiopia (CABI 1993).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
Glycaspis brimblecombei
Native: Australia, Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, South
Australia (Halbert et al. 2003, AFD 2007).
Introduced: Known to be introduced to Mauritius and California (AFD 2007). In
California, G. brimblecombei was first found in Los Angeles in 1998 (Paine et al. 2007)
and is now well established throughout the state (Halbert et al. 2003). It is also known
from Florida, presumably introduced from infested plants from California (Halbert et al.
2003), Arizona, Hawaii, and Mexico (Paine et al. 2007).
Hawaii: Known from the island of Oahu and Maui (Nagamine and Heu 2001). It was
first collected from Ulupalakua on Maui on March 7, 2001, by Hawaii Department of
20
Agriculture (HDOA) Entomologist W. Nagamine (Nagamine and Heu 2001). A light
infestation of the psyllid was then found at Waimanalo, Oahu, in July 2001.
Trioza eugeniae
Native: Australia, New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria (AFD 2007).
Introduced: California (Dahlsten et al. 1999) and Florida (Osborn 2004).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
References
AFD (Australian Faunal Directory). 2007. Online Directory. Australian Government,
Department of the Environment and Water Resources.
<http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/onlineresources/fauna/afd/index.html> (Accessed: May 21, 2007).
Artaud, C.R. 2007. New Records. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services, Division of Plant Industry. TRI-OLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 5.
<http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/02-sep-oct.htm> (Accessed: May 23, 2007).
Beardsley, J.W. and G.K. Uchida. 2002. Blastopsylla occidentalis Taylor (Homoptera:
Psyllidae), a new psyllid pest of eucalyptus in Hawaii. Proc. Hawaii. Entomol. Soc. 35:
155. <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/pdf/op76.pdf> (Accessed: June 8, 2007).
Bishop Museum. 1999. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, HI. <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html> (Accessed: May 21,
2007).
Brennan, E.B., G.F. Hrusa , S.A. Weinbaum, and W. Levison. 2001. Resistance of
Eucalyptus species to Glycaspis brimblecombei (Homoptera : Psyllidae) in the San
Francisco Bay area. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 77 (4): 249-253.
Brennan, E.B. and S.A. Weinbaum. 2001. Effect of epicuticular wax on adhesion of
psyllids to glaucous juvenile and glossy adult leaves of Eucalyptus globulus
Labillardiere. Australian Journal of Entomology 40: 270-277.
Burckhardt, D. and M. Elgueta. 2000. Blastopsylla occidentalis Taylor (Hemiptera:
Psyllidae), a new introduced Eucalypt pest in Chile. Rev. Chilena Ent. 26: 57-61.
CABI (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International). 1993. Forestry Pest
Management Newsletter for Eastern and Southern Africa 1: 3-5.
21
Chauzat, MP, G. Purvis, and F. Dunne. 2002. Release and establishment of a biological
control agent, Psyllaephagus pilosus for Eucalyptus psyllid (Ctenarytaina eucalypti) in
Ireland. Annals of Applied Biology 141: 293-304.
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Dahlsten, D.L., D.L. Rowney, and W.A. Copper. 1999. Eugenia psyllid biological
control. University of California at Berkeley, Center for Biological Control.
<http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/biocon/dahlsten/eugenia/eug-web.htm> (Accesses: May
21, 2007).
Dahlsten, D.L. 2000. Biological control of the red gum lerp psyllid, a pest of Eucalyptus
species in California. The Regents of the University of California.
<http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/biocon/dahlsten/rglp> (Accessed: June 1, 2007).
Dreistadt, S.H. and D.L. Dahlsten. 2001. Psyllids. Pest Notes. Publication 7423.
University of California, Davis, Agriculture and Natural Resources.
<http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu> (Accessed: May 21, 2007).
Dahlsten, D.L., D.L. Rowney, R.L. Zuparko, N. Erbilgin, and L.E. Caltagirone. 2002.
Annual Report of Contributing Project to Cooperative Regional Project W-1185,
Biological Control in Pest Management Systems of Plants. University of California,
Berkeley. <http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/biocon/PDF%202002/Dahlsten.pdf> (Accessed:
May 21, 2007).
EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2006b. EPPO
Reporting Service. <http://archives.eppo.org/EPPOReporting/2006/Rse-0612.pdf>
(Accessed: May 23, 2007).
Goes, E. 1977. Os eucalyptos (ecologia, cultura, producoes e rentabilidade).
PORTUCEL - Empresa de Celulose e Papel de Portugal, E.P. Centro de Producao
Florestal.
Halbert, S.E., R. Gill, and J.N. Nisson. 2003. Featured Creatures: Eucalyptus psyllid.
Originally published as DPI Entomology Circular 407. University of Florida Institute of
Food and Agricultural Services, Department of Entomology and Nemetology and Florida
Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry.
<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/trees/eucalyptus_psyllids.htm> (Accessed: May 23, 2007).
Morgan, F.D. and G.S. Taylor. 1988. The white lace lerp in southeastern Australia. In:
Berryman, A.A., ed. Dynamics of forest insect populations. Plenum Publishing: 129.140.
22
Nagamine, W.T and R.A. Heu. 2001. Red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei
Moore (Homoptera: Psyllidae). New Pest Advisory 01-02. State of Hawaii, Department
of Agriculture. <http://www.hawaii.gov/hdoa/pi/ppc/npa-1/npa01-02_rpsyllid.pdf>
(Accessed: June 1, 2007).
Osborn, L.S. 2004. Alert on the eugenia psyllid, Trioza eugeniae. UF/IFAS Pest Alert.
University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Mid-Florida Research
and Education Center. <http://pestalert.ifas.ufl.edu/lso-0510.htm> (Accessed: May 21,
2007).
Paine, T. D., S. H. Dreistadt, R. W. Garrison, and R. J. Gill. 2007. How to manage pests
and managed and garden landscapes: Eucalyptus red gum lerp psyllid. University of
California, Agriculture and Natural Sciences, Integrated Pest Management Online.
PestNote 7460. <http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7460.html>
(Accessed: June 1, 2007).
Percy, D.M. 2000. Psyllids of economic importance. UBC Botanical Garden and Centre
for Plant Research and Smithsonian Institution (NMNH).
<http://www.psyllids.org/psyllidsPests.htm> (Accessed: June 1, 2007).
Purvis, G, M.P. Chauzat, and A. Segonds-Pichon. 2002. Life history and phenology of
the Eucalyptus psyllid in Ireland. Annals of Applied Biology 141 (3): 283-292.
<http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7460.html> (Accessed: June 19,
2007).
Wineriter, S.A., S.E. Halbert, and J.P. Cuda. 2003. A Psyllid, Boreioglycaspis
melaleucae Moore (Insecta: Hemiptera: Psyllidae). University of Florida, Institute of
Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS), EENY-300 (originally published as DPI
Entomology Circular 410). <http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IN495> (Accessed: May 24, 2007).
23
Hymenoptera : Torymidae and Eulophidae
Wasps
Species
Megastigmus spp., Eucalyptus seed wasp, Hymenoptera: Torymidae.
Rhicnopeltella eucalypti Gahan, blue gum chalcid, Hymenoptera: Eulophidae, [syn.
Ophelimus eucalypti (Gahan).
Hosts
Known to host on plant species in the Myrtaceae family.
Megastigmus spp.: In Australia, Megastigmus spp. are known to host on Eucalyptus
baxteri, E. crebra, E. delegatensis, E. drepanophylla, E. globulus, E. obliqua, and E.
regnans (Kliejunas 2003). A fairly newly described species, Megastigmus zebrinus, was
first documented from South Africa hosting on Eucalyptus camaldulensis, an introduced
plantation tree in the Myrtaceae family. It has since host shifted to an endemic South
African plant, Syzygium cordatum, also in the Myrtaceae family (Grissell 2006).
Rhicnopeltella eucalypti: Known to host on Eucalyptus globulus, E. botryoides, E.
camaldulensis, and other species (Ciesla et al. 1996, EPPO 2006c).
Pathways
Wasps can be transported long distances in infested materials. Wasps establish in
introduced areas where host plants are present. From there, adult wasps can fly or get
blown on the wind to surrounding areas.
It is believed that Megastigmus zebrinus was introduced from Australia (Grissell 2006)
and was likely imported inadvertently with seeds for the establishment of new plantations
(ARC 2006).
Rhicnopeltella eucalypti could be transmitted in cuttings (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Impact
Megastigmus spp.: These wasps destroy seeds by forming galls in seedpods. Several
species are known to feed on Eucalyptus and other plants in the Myrtaceae family.
Rhicnopeltella eucalypti: These wasps lay eggs on soft new stems and foliage, forming
pimple like galls, from which adults emerge. Repeated attacks cause loss of foliage from
terminal branches and, in heavy infestations, can lead to death (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Treatment
24
No treatment methods were found.
In Greece, parasitoids of Rhicnopeltella eucalypti in the genus Cirrospilus were noted
(EPPO 2006c).
Distribution
Megastigmus spp.
Native: Victoria and Tasmania, Australia (Kliejunas 2003).
Introduced: South Africa (Grissell 2006).
Hawaii: The only Megastigmus sp. known from Hawaii is Megastigmus transvaalensis
which hosts on Christmas berry (Schinus terebinthifolius) and is reported from the islands
of Kauai, Oahu, and Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
Rhicnopeltella eucalypti
Native: Australia (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Introduced: New Zealand, where it is one of the most important pests of Eucalyptus
globulus (Ciesla et al. 1996). Europe: First documented in Italy in 2000, in Greece in
2002, and in Spain in 2003, where apparently the damage is not as severe on Eucalyptus
spp. as it is in New Zealand (EPPO 2006c). Africa: Known from Morocco, Kenya, and
Uganda (EPPO 2006c). Asia: Known from Iran and Israel (EPPO 2006c).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999).
References
ARC (Agricultural Research Council). 2006. Red River Gum (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis). ARC - Plant Protection Research Institute.
<http://www.arc.agric.za/home.asp?PID=1041&ToolID=63&ItemID=3012> (Accessed:
May 31, 2007).
Bishop Museum. 1999. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, HI. <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html> (Accessed: May 21,
2007).
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
25
EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2006c. EPPO
Reporting Service. First records of Ophelimus eucalypti on Eucalyptus in Italy, Greece
and Spain. 2006/188. <http://archives.eppo.org/EPPOReporting/2006/Rse-0609.pdf>
(Accessed: June 12, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
J.A. Micales, B.M. Tkacz, and M.R. Powell. 2003. Pest risk assessment of the
importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 206 p.
<http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/9705> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Grissell, E.E. 2006. A new species of Megastigmus dalman (Hymenoptera: Torymidae)
galling seedpods of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt (Myrtaceae) in South Africa
and Australia. African Entomology. 14:87-94. <http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/700>
(Accessed: June 6, 2007).
26
Metaleurodicus cardini
Cardin's whitefly
Species
Metaleurodicus cardini (Back), Cardin's whitefly, Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae.
Hosts
Known to host on a range of plant families, including Apocynaceae, Arecaceae,
Malpighiaceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae, and Verbenaceae. In Florida the most common
host is Psidium guajava. In Hawaii, the preferred host is Citharexylum spinosum. Other
host plants include: Citharexylum fruticosum, Citrus sinensis, Citrus sp., Dipholis
salicifolia, Duranta repens, Duranta sp., Eugenia sp., Manilkara zapota, Malpighia
glabra, Melaleuca quinquenervia, Paurotis wrightii, Pimenta dioica, and Plumeria sp.
(Mound and Halsey 1978, Haydee 2002, Hamon 2003, HDOA 2007).
Pathways
Whitefly may spread on infested plants. It is believed the Hawaii introduction probably
came from Florida (N. Reimer pers. comm.).
Impact
Typical Hemiptera damage is caused by whiteflies. Nymphs of whiteflies infest the
undersides of leaves and suck on the plants as they feed. Whiteflies, like scales, secrete
honeydew, a sticky sugary substance, which attracts sooty mold, a fungus, which causes
further damage to plants by reducing photosynthesis.
Treatment
Chemical control includes using sprays that are used for the control of scale insects
(Hamon 2003).
Natural Enemies include ladybird beetles, flies, wasps, and lacewings: Delphastus
diversipes, Ocyptamus parvicornis, Pseudodoros clavatus, Encarsia sp., Caraeochrysa
cincta, and Chrysopodes collaris (USDA 2007).
Distribution
Native: Cuba, Bermuda, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Virgin Islands, and
Jamaica (Hamon 2003, USDA 2007).
Introduced: Documented in Florida as early as 1917, and now known from Gainesville to
southern Florida (Hamon 2003).
27
Hawaii: HDOA (2007) report the following. In 2006, low levels of Metaleurodicus
cardini were reported from the island of Hawaii, in the Hilo area. No other islands were
known to be infested at the time. While some moderate outbreaks were observed, levels
of M. cardini were being kept in check by ladybird beetles (Halmus chalybeus,
Nephaspis spp.), and parasitic wasps (Encarsia hispida). Hosts included Plumeria spp.,
Citharexylum spinosum, and Duranta erecta, and Psidium guajava, with a preference for
Citharexylum. It had not yet been observed on Citrus spp.
References
Hamon, A.B. 2003. Featured Creatures: Cardin's whitefly. Originally published as DPI
Entomology Circular 316. University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural
Services, Department of Entomology and Nemetology and Florida Department of
Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry.
<http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/fruit/cardins_wfly.htm> (Accessed: June 8, 2007).
Haydee, L.J. 2002. New DPI host record. TRI-OLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 6.
<http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/02-nov-dec.htm> (Accessed: June 8, 2007).
HDOA (Hawaii Department of Agriculture). 2007. Cardin's whitefly (Metaleurodicus
cardini). 2006 Annual Report Files. <http://www.hawaii.gov/hdoa/pi/ppc/2006-annualreport/cardin-s-whitefly> (Accessed: June 8, 2007).
Mound, L.A. and S.H. Halsey. 1978. Whitefly of the World. British Museum (Natur.
Hist.) and John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. p. 244.
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2007. Whitefly fauna of the world.
USDA/APHIS. <http://www.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/whitefly/Homepage.htm>
(Accessed: June 8, 2007).
28
Phoracantha recurva
Eucalyptus longhorned beetle
Species
Phoracantha recurva (Newman), Eucalyptus longhorned beetle, Eucalyptus borer,
yellow phorancantha borer, Coleoptera: Cerambycidae.
Hosts
In Australia, Phoracantha recurva hosts on species in Cupressaceae and Myrtaceae,
including Corymbia [Syn. Angophora] maculata, Cupressus lindleyi, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, E. globulus, E. grandis, E. intermedia, E. melliodora, E. nova-anglica, E.
ovata, E. rostrata, E. saligna, Eucalyptus spp., and Syncarpia spp. (Kliejunas et al. 2001,
Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Pathways
Phoracantha recurva has recently spread to areas in both the northern and southern
hemisphere in infested materials, and is capable of surviving in its host as it is drying out
(Kliejunas et al. 2003). Once introduced, P. recurva spreads rapidly (Kliejunas et al.
2003).
Impact
Phoracantha recurva tend to infest large branches and boles of host trees undergoing
drought stress (Kliejunas et al. 2003). Damage includes holes in bark, stains or oozing
liquid on the trunk and limbs, and discolored and wilted foliage (Paine et al. 2007).
Morelli et al. (2002) report that Phoracantha recurva and P. semipunctata attack newly
felled timber or stressed Eucalyptus trees, usually killing them. Larvae bore through the
bark galleries along the cambium and phloem. The mature larvae bore through the
sapwood and then hardwood for pupation. Extensive larval boring can girdle trees or
result in a tree with a thin canopy, wilted and dry leaves, and cracked bark full of larvae
frass (Paine et al. 2007). Infested trees may die within weeks.
In California, both Phoracantha recurva and a related species, Phoracantha
semipunctata, occur, though P. recurva is now taking the place of P. semipunctata, likely
due to the fact that P. recurva hatches earlier in the spring and occupies available host
material before P. semipunctata take flight (Tim Paine, University of CaliforniaRiverside, CA, 1999, personal communication in Kliejunas et al. 2003). In California,
damage to trees is said to be severe, especially in urban environments (Kliejunas et al.
2003).
Treatment
29
Pesticides are generally not effective. Cultural practices can help prevent infestations of
longhorned beetles, such as limiting stress factors in trees, providing ample irrigation,
avoiding injury to the tree, and planting with non-susceptible host trees (Paine et al.
2007).
Tim Paine, University of California-Riverside, CA, 1999, personal communication in
Kliejunas et al. (2003) reports that P. recurva are also more difficult to control than P.
semipunctata, due to their lack of diapause, which makes cultural practices, such as
pruning, harder to time. In addition, P. recurva is less susceptible to the biological
control agent, Avetianella longoi, an egg parasitoid, which was introduced for P.
semipunctata.
Recently, In Uruguay, a nematode was found parasitizing P. recurva and P. semipunctata
(Bianchi 2004).
Distribution
Native: Australia (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Introduced: Recently documented from Chile in 1997 (Kliejunas et al. 2003). Also
known from Spain and Greece (Hoskovec and Rejzec 2006). Recently introduced to
South Africa (Kliejunas et al. 2003). First reported from Uruguay in 1998 and now
widely distributed (Morelli et al. 2002). First reported from California in 1995 (Paine et
al. 2007) and now known from Riverside, San Bernardino, Orange, San Diego, and Los
Angeles Counties (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Bishop Museum 1999). A related species,
Phoracantha semipunctata is known from the islands of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui (Bishop
Museum 1999).
References
Bianchi, M. 2004. A nematode found parasitizing Phoracantha recurva Newman, 1842
and Phoracantha semipunctata Fabricius, 1775 (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in Uruguay.
Agrociencia (Montevideo) 8(1): 85-88.
<http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20053082344> (Accessed:
June 8, 2007).
Bishop Museum. 1999. Hawaiian Arthropod Checklist Database. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, HI. <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/arthrosearch.html> (Accessed: May 21,
2007).
Hoskovec, M. and M. Rejzec. 2006. Cerambycidae: Longhorned beetles of the West
Palaearctic Region. <http://www.uochb.cas.cz/~natur/cerambyx/cerambyx.htm>
(Accessed: June 8, 2007).
30
Kliejunas, J.T., B.M. Tkacz, H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen,
and W.E. Wallner. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation into the United States
of unprocessed Eucalyptus logs and chips from South America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPLGTR-124. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory. 134 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/ea/downloads/eucalpf.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
J.A. Micales, B.M. Tkacz, and M.R. Powell. 2003. Pest risk assessment of the
importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 206 p.
<http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/9705> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Morelli, E., M. Bianchi, and A. Sanchez. 2002. The immature stages of Phoracantha
recurva Newman, 1842 and Phoracantha semipunctata Fabricius, 1775 (Coleoptera,
Cerambycidae) and a key to larvae of these species. Braz. J. Biol. 62(4).
<http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1519-69842002000500015&script=sci_arttext>
(Accessed: June 1, 2007).
Paine, T. D., S. H. Dreistadt, R. W. Garrison, and R. J. Gill. 2007. How to manage pests
and managed and garden landscapes: Eucalyptus red gum lerp psyllid. University of
California, Agriculture and Natural Sciences, Integrated Pest Management Online.
PestNote 7460. <http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7460.html>
(Accessed: June 1, 2007).
31
PATHOGENS
32
Botryosphaeria spp.
Botryosphaeria canker
Species
Botryosphaeria appendiculata (Yuan and Old), botryosphaeria canker, Ascomycota:
Botryosphaeriales: Botryosphaeriaceae.
Botryosphaeria dothidea (Moug. Fr.) Ces. & deNot., botryosphaeria canker, [syn.
Caumadothis dothidea; Dothiorella mali; Sphaeria dothidea], Ascomycota:
Botryosphaeriales: Botryosphaeriaceae.
Botryosphaeria eucalypticola Slippers, Crous & M.J. Wingf., botryosphaeria canker,
(anamorph Fusicoccum eucalypticola Slippers, Crous & M.J. Wingf. sp. nov.),
Ascomycota: Botryosphaeriales: Botryosphaeriaceae.
Botryosphaeria eucalyptorum Crous, H. Smith & M.J. Wingf., botryosphaeria canker,
Ascomycota: Botryosphaeriales: Botryosphaeriaceae.
Botryosphaeria rhodina (Cooke) v. Arx, botryosphaeria canker, (anamorph Lasiodiplodia
theobromae (Pat.) Griff & Maubl. (=Botryodiplodia theobrome Pat), Ascomycota:
Botryosphaeriales: Botryosphaeriaceae.
Botryosphaeria ribis (Tode.:Fr.) Grossenb. & Dugger (anamorph = Fusicoccum sp. ?)
Ascomycota: Botryosphaeriales: Botryosphaeriaceae.
Hosts
Botryosphaeria spp. host on a wide range of woody shrubs and trees, in forestry
plantations and native vegetation throughout the world (Old et al. 2003). Host plants
include species from a broad range of families, including Aceraceae, Anacardiaceae,
Betulaceae, Crassulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Myrtaceae,
Pandanaceae, Pinaceae, Proteaceae, Thymelaeaceae, and Urticaceae.
Botryosphaeria appendiculata: Eucalyptus pellita (Yuan 1996).
Botryosphaeria dothidea: Eucalyptus spp., E. grandis, E. nitens, and Acacia mearnsii
(FAO 2007). In Hawaii: Grevillea wilsonii, Leucadendron sp., Leucospermum sp.,
Pinus elliottii var. elliottii, Pinus taeda, Protea ×compacta-magnifica, Protea
×compacta-susannae, Protea compacta, Protea cynaroides, Protea sp., Telopea sp. (Farr
et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria eucalypticola: Eucalyptus spp. (FAO 2007).
Botryosphaeria eucalyptorum: Eucalyptus spp. (FAO 2007).
33
Botryosphaeria rhodina: About 500 host plants (Punithalingam 1976, Philips 2004). In
Hawaii: Banksia dryandroides, Leucospermum sp., Protea cynaroides, Telopea sp. (Farr
et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria ribis: Eucalyptus spp. (Eucalyptus accedens, E. andrewsii, E. blakelyi,
E. botryoides, E. caesia, E. camaldulensis, E. cladocalyx, E. coriacea, E. cypellocarpa,
E. dalrympleana, E. delegatensis, E. diversicolor, E. elata, E. fastigata, E. gigantea, E.
globoidea, E. globulus, E. grandis, E. hemiphloia, E. leucoxylon, E. macarthurii, E.
maidenii, E. marginata, E. megacarpa, E. muelleriana, E. nitens, E. obliqua, E. oreades,
E. pilularis, E. quadrangulata, E. radiata, E. regnans, E. resinifera, E. saligna, E.
urophylla, E. viminalis, E. wandoo), Corymbia calophylla, and a variety of woody trees,
both of forestry and agricultural significance, such as those in the genus Acer, Betula,
Carya, and Citrus (Kliejunas et al. 2003). In Hawaii: Acalypha sp., Acalypha
wilkesiana, Aleurites moluccana, Araucaria excelsa, Eucalyptus sp., Grevillea sp.,
Hibiscus palustris, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Kalanchoe pinnata,
Leucadendron ×laureolum-salignum, Leucadendron sp., Leucaena glauca,
Leucospermum sp., Mangifera indica, Pandanus odoratissimus, Pipturus albidus, Protea
cynaroides, Psidium guajava, Ricinus communis, Schinus molle, Schinus terebinthifolius,
Telopea sp., and Wikstroemia phillyreifolia (Farr et al. 2006). Additional host plants
listed by Farr et al. (2006) for Botryosphaeria ribis f. chromogena and B. ribis var.
chromogena include: Aleurites moluccana, Eriobotrya japonica, Leucaena
leucocephala, Leucaena sp., and Eucalyptus sp.
Pathways
It is believed that Botryosphaeria eucalypti and B. eucalyptorum were introduced to
South Africa with planting stock or seed from Australia (Slippers et al. 2004).
Impact
Botryosphaeria spp. are found worldwide in temperate, tropical, and subtropical regions
(Old et al. 2003). They occur on a wide range of host plants and cause damping off, wilt,
diebacks, cankers, witches' brooms, root rot, collar rot, fruit rots, and leaf blights, or they
can be endophytes. Botryosphaeria spp. are commonly described as opportunistic
pathogens that attack host plants during stress periods, but evidence is now showing that
certain strains are primary pathogens (Philips 2004). Botryosphaeria spp. can also exist
in asymptomatic tissue as a latent pathogen (Smith et al. 1994). A common occurrence is
death of tree tops, which leads to infection of the pith and results in a core of discolored
wood surrounded by a sheath of healthy wood and extends throughout the length of the
tree (Ciesla et al. 1996). Another common occurrence is stem cankers which causes
swelling, bark cracking, and exuding of black kino (fatty acids) (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Treatment
No eradicative treatment is available (Ciesla et al. 1996). Cultural practices include
planting resistant strains.
34
Distribution
Botryosphaeria spp. are widely distributed in temperate, tropical and subtropical regions
of the world (Old et al. 2003).
Botryosphaeria appendiculata
Known from Australia and Vietnam (FAO 2007).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria dothidea
Known from Australia, South Africa, and the United States (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Hawaii: Known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria eucalypticola
Known from Australia, South Africa (Smith et al. 2001, FAO 2007).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria eucalyptorum
Known from Australia and South Africa (Smith et al. 2001, FAO 2007).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria rhodina
Although distributed worldwide it is mainly confined to an area 40° north and 40° south
of the equator (Philips 2004).
Hawaii: Known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Botryosphaeria ribis
Reported on eucalypts in Australian Capital Territory, Tasmania, Western Australia, and
in Florida; on numerous other hosts in most states of Australia and the United States (Farr
et al. 1989, Kliejunas et al. 2003). Also known from Argentina, Brazil, New Zealand,
Solomon Islands, and Zimbabwe (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Hawaii: Known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
35
Botryosphaeria spp.
Additional Botryosphaeria spp. known from Hawaii and not already mentioned above
include: Botryosphaeria berengeriana, hosting on Psidium guajava; Botryosphaeria
mamane, hosting on Sophora chrysophylla; Botryosphaeria parva, hosting on Eucalyptus
sp.; Botryosphaeria pipturi, hosting on Pipturus albidus; Botryosphaeria proteae, hosting
on Protea spp.; Botryosphaeria protearum, hosting on Protea cynaroides; and
Botryosphaeria sp., hosting on Malus sylvestris (Farr et al. 2006).
References
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2007. Overview of
Forest Pests, South Africa. Forest Health and Biosecurity Working Paper FBS/30E.
FAO, Rome, Italy.
<http://www.fao.org/forestry/webview/media?mediaId=12306&langId=1> (Accessed:
June 13, 2007).
Farr, D.F., G.F. Bills, G.P. Chamuris, and A.Y. Rossman. 1989. Fungi on plants and
plant products in the United States. American Phytopathological Society Press, St. Paul,
MN. 1,252 p.
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
J.A. Micales, B.M. Tkacz, and M.R. Powell. 2003. Pest risk assessment of the
importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 206 p.
<http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/9705> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
Philips, A.J.L. 2004. Botryosphaeria rhodini. The Botryosphaeria Site, Faculty of
Sciences and Technology, New University of Lisbon.
36
<http://www.crem.fct.unl.pt/botryosphaeria_site/botryosphaeria_rhodina_2.htm>
(Accessed: June 15, 2007).
Punithalingam, E. 1976. Botryodiplodia theobromae. CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic
Fungi and Bacteria No. 519.
Slippers, B., G. Fourie, P.W. Crous, T.A. Coutinho, B.D. Wingfield, A.J. Carnegie, and
M.J. Wingfield. 2004. Speciation and distribution of Botryosphaeria spp. on native and
introduced Eucalyptus trees in Australia and South Africa. Studies in Mycology 50: 343–
358.
Smith, H., G.H.J. Kemp, and M.J. Wingfield. 1994. Canker and die-back of Eucalyptus
in South Africa caused by Botryosphaeria dothidea. Plant Pathol 43: 1031-1034.
Yuan, Z.Q. 1996. Fungi and associated tree diseases in Melville Island, Northern
Territory, Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 9(3): 337-360.
<http://www.publish.csiro.au/nid/39/paper/AP97032.htm> (Accessed: June 13, 2007).
37
Coniothyrium spp.
Coniothyrium canker
Species
Coniothyrium ahmadii Sutton, Coniothyrium canker, Ascomycota: Dothideales:
Leptosphaeriaceae, [syn. Coniothyrium eucalypti S. Ahmad].
Coniothyrium eucalypticola Sutton, Coniothyrium canker, Ascomycota: Dothideales:
Leptosphaeriaceae.
Coniothyrium ovatum Swart, Coniothyrium leaf spot, Ascomycota: Dothideales:
Leptosphaeriaceae, [syn. Coniothyrium parvum Swart].
Coniothyrium zuluense Wingfield, Crous, and Coutinho, Coniothyrium canker,
Ascomycota: Dothideales: Leptosphaeriaceae.
Hosts
Coniothyrium spp. host on species in the Myrtaceae family, including Eucalyptus spp.
Coniothyrium ahmadii: In Pakistan: Eucalyptus sp. (Farr et al. 2006).
Coniothyrium eucalypticola: In Australia: Eucalyptus leptophylla (Farr et al. 2006).
Coniothyrium ovatum: In Australia: Eucalyptus dives, E. leucoxylon, E. macrorhyncha,
E. meliodora, E. obliqua, and E. regnans (Kliejunas et al. 2003). In South Africa:
Eucalyptus cladocalyx (Crous et al. 1988).
Coniothyrium zuluense: Eucalyptus grandis, E. camaldulensis, E. urophylla, E.
tereticornis and E. nitens (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Pathways
Small spores can infect stems directly through the epidermis of young tissue (Ciesla et al.
1996). Coniothyrium spp. seem to be the most severe in areas with high rainfall (Ciesla
et al. 1996). There is some evidence that C. zuluense in South and Central America was
introduced from South Africa, possibly with seed (Old et al. 2003). Once established,
large numbers of darkened asexual spores (conidia) in flask shaped pycnidia are produced
on the surface lesions. Spores exude from the pycnidia during wet weather and are
dispersed by rain splash (Old et al. 2003). Infections can occur directly through the green
bark without the presence of wounds (Old et al. 2003).
Impact
38
Coniothyrium ovatum: In South Africa, C. ovatum affects the upper and lower surfaces
of Eucalyptus leaves, occurring mainly on the lower branches of mature trees, and on
young undergrowth, causing discoloration on upper surfaces of young leaves (Crous et al.
1988). Leaf spots appear irregular and randomly dispersed across the leaf. Spots appear
dark purple to black in the center and purplish-brown near the edges. Upper leaf surfaces
appear light to dark brown and black in areas from extruded conidia (Crous et al. 1988).
Coniothyrium zuluense: Considered to be one of the most potentially serious threats to
Eucalyptus (Ciesla et al. 1996). Initial infections occur on young green stem tissue and
causes small dark spots on the bark and measle-like necrotic spots on branches and stems
(Roux et al. 2001). On highly susceptible clones, lesions merge to form large patches of
dead, black bark, which is usually cracked and exuding with kino (sticky black
substance) (Ciesla et al. 1996). Spindle shaped swellings and cankers occur along the
stems and in serious cases, the tops of the trees may die, resulting in lateral growth and
cessation of height growth (Ciesla et al. 1996). New infections occur each year on new
growth (Old et al. 2003). Seedling stands that are infected are suppressed by more
vigorous trees and large numbers of seedlings can die (Old et al. 2003).
Treatment
No eradicative treatment available (Ciesla et al. 1996). Breeding and selection of disease
tolerant clones has been a useful strategy to reduce the impact of the disease in South
Africa (Roux et al. 2001). However, there is evidence that clones can lose resistance over
time, possibly due to changes in the pathogen, so avoidance through selection is likely to
be an ongoing and costly process (Old et al. 2003).
Distribution
Coniothyrium ahmadii
Known from Pakistan (Farr et al. 2006).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Coniothyrium eucalypticola
Known from Australia (Farr et al. 2006).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Coniothyrium ovatum
Native: Australia (Crous et al. 1988).
Introduced: South Africa (Crous et al. 1988).
39
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Coniothyrium zuluense
Native: First observed in Zululand, South Africa, in 1991 (Ciesla et al. 1996). Known
from Ethiopia, Uganda, and South Africa (Liberato and Pegg 2006).
Introduced: Argentina, Mexico, Hawaii, Thailand, and Vietnam (Liberato and Pegg
2006).
Hawaii: Known to be present in Hawaii (Cortinas et al. 2004, Liberato and Pegg 2006).
Coniothyrium spp.
According to Farr et al. (2006) and Gardner (2006), additional Coniothyrium spp. from
Hawaii include: Coniothyrium casiicola, hosting on Zantedeschia aethiopica;
Coniothyrium concentricum, hosting on Yucca sp.; Coniothyrium dracaenae, hosting on
Dracaena aurea, Dracaena draco, Dracaena sp., and Pleomele aurea; Coniothyrium
nitidae, hosting on Protea compacta and Protea sp.; Coniothyrium pandanicola, hosting
on Pandanus sp.; Coniothyrium sp., hosting on Metrosideros collina, Metrosideros
collina subsp. polymorpha, and Rosa odorata; Coniothyrium zingiberi, hosting on
Zingiber officinale.
References
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Cortinas, M.N., N. Koch, J. Thain, B.D. Wingfield and M.J. Wingfield. 2004. First
record of the Eucalyptus stem canker pathogen, Coniothyrium zuluense from Hawaii.
Australasian Plant Pathology 33(2): 309-312.
<http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/AP04015.htm> (Accessed: June 18, 2007).
Crous, P.W., P.S. Knox-Da Vies I, and M.J. Wingfield. 1988. Phaeoseptorla eucalypti
and Coniothyrium ovatum on Eucalyptus Spp. in South Africa. Entophylactica 20: 337340. <http://fabinet.up.ac.za/personnel/docs/1988%20Crous,%20KnoxDavies,%20Wingfield%20Phytophylactica.pdf> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
40
Gardner, D. 2006. Pathogens of Plants in Hawaii. Meloidogyne javanica. Don Gardner
Legacy Database, Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk website.
<http://www.hear.org/pph/pathogens/2627.htm> (Accessed: June 13, 2006).
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
J.A. Micales, B.M. Tkacz, and M.R. Powell. 2003. Pest risk assessment of the
importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 206 p.
<http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/9705> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Liberto, J.R. and G.S. Pegg. 2006. Coniothyrium stem canker of Eucalyptus
(Coniothyrium zuluense). Pest and Diseases Image Library.
<http://www.padil.gov.au/viewPest.aspx?id=580> (Accessed: June 18, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
Roux, J., M.J. Wingfield, and D. Cibrian. 2001. First report of Coniothyrium canker of
Eucalyptus in Mexico. New Disease Reports, The British Society for Plant Pathology.
<http://www.bspp.org.uk/ndr/jan2002/2001-38.asp> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
41
Corticium salmonicolor
Pink disease
Species
Corticium salmonicolor Berk. & Br., pink disease, Basidiomycota: Aphyllophorales:
Corticiaceae, [syn. Thanatephorus, Phanerochaete and Pellicularia spp., Erythricium
salmonicolor (Berk. & Br.) Burds.
Hosts
Numerous hosts from a broad range of families, including Annonaceae, Apocynaceae,
Aquifoliaceae, Bombacaceae, Buxaceae, Casuarinaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae,
Magnoliaceae, Malvaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Pittosporaceae, Rosaceae,
Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Sterculiaceae, Theaceae, and Verbenaceae. Known from the
following species listed by Ciesla et al. (1996), Kliejunas et al. (2001), Old et al. (2003),
Farr et al. (2006), and CABI (2007): Acacia confusa, Aleurites fordii, Aleurites sp.,
Annona reticulata, Bombax ceiba, Buxus microphylla, Cajanus cajan, Calodendrum
capense, Camelia sinensis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Casuarina montana, Casuarina
torulosa, Cercis canadensis, Citrus ×paradisi, Citrus aurantium, Citrus grandis, Citrus
limon, Citrus maxima, Citrus microcarpa, Citrus natsudaidai, Citrus nobilis, Citrus
poonensis, Citrus reticulata var. poonensis, Citrus reticulata var. tankan, Citrus
reticulata var. unshiu, Citrus sabon, Citrus sinensis, Citrus sinensis var. brasiliensis,
Citrus sp., Citrus tankan, Citrus unshiu, Coffea arabica, Cupressus macrocarpa,
Duranta repens, Eriobotrya japonica, Eucalyptus alba, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus
kitsoniana, Eucalyptus spp., Eucalyptus tereticornis, Euonymus japonica, Ficus carica,
Ficus sp., Gardenia jasminoides, Gardenia sp., Gliricidia sepium, Gossampinus
malabaricus, Hevea brasiliensis, Hibiscus schizopetalus, Ilex vomitoria, Jasminum sp.,
Jasminum volubile, Ligustrum lucidum, Malus pumila, Malus pumila var. domestica,
Malus sp., Malus sylvestris, Mangifera indica, Michelia figo, Michelia fuscata, Morus
alba, Morus australis, Nerium indicum, Pithecellobium dulce, Pittosporum tobira,
Psidium guajava, Pyrus communis, Pyrus malus, Schima wallichii, Severinia buxifolia,
Tabernaemontana coronaria, Tectona grandis, and Theobroma cacao.
Pathways
The disease could be transported over long distances in infected materials, such as logs or
chips (Kliejunas et al. 2001). The disease is more common in high rainfall and high
humidity areas (Old et al. 2003). Spores and mycelium are dispersed on the wind (Ciesla
et al. 1996) and by rain splash (IRRDB 1994). The disease can infect intact healthy trees
(Old et al. 2003).
Impact
Corticium salmonicolor causes serious damage to numerous tropical crops, such as
cacao, citrus, eucalyptus, and rubber (Ciesla et al. 1996, Old et al. 2003). Old et al.
42
(2003) describe four distinct types of growths on stems and branches are associated with
C. salmonicolor: cobweb, pustule, necator, and pink incrustation.
The cobweb stage, the first sign of infection, has white, sparse mycelium which rapidly
grow across the surface of stems. As the fungus invades the bark and cambium, a diffuse
canker develops and can be seen by stripping off the bark. Pink aggregates or pustules of
sterile mycelium form on the bark surface.
The necator stage may then follow, which is conidial, orange-red in color and forms
mainly on the upper side of branches. The necator stage is less frequently seen than the
pustule phase and is formed late in the disease cycle.
The salmon pink encrusting hymenia of the Erythricium [Corticium] teleomorph stage is
the characteristic symptom of this disease and occurs mostly on the underside of dead and
dying branches. Trees experience crown dieback, stem breakage, and tree death (Old et
al. 2003).
The disease causes economic loss in tree plantations and orchards. Kliejunas et al. (2001)
report the following potential impacts for Hawaii: "If this fungus were introduced into
Hawaii, there could be social and political repercussions if there were impacts to
agricultural and ornamental plantings, as well as damage to native plants of limited
distribution or those listed as endangered, threatened, or candidate species. Although of
limited consequence to the United States as a whole, the social and political effects in
Hawaii could be substantial."
Treatment
Old et al. (2003) suggest that early recognition and prompt application of fungicides,
such as Bordeaux mixture, can provide adequate control in fruit orchards, but may not be
economical or practical in large tree plantations. In large tree plantations, especially in
high rainfall areas, planting of disease resistant strains is advised instead.
Distribution
Widely distributed and listed in the following areas by CABI (2007):
Africa: Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Nigeria, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Zaire, and Zimbabwe; ASIA:
Andaman Islands, Brunei, Burma, China, India (Central and Southern), (N. Bengal),
Indonesia (Borneo, Java, and Sumatra), Japan, Kampuchea, Malaysia (Sarawak and
Sabah), Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Australasia and Oceania: Australia (Queensland), Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Papua
New Guinea, New Hebrides, New Zealand, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and Tonga.
Europe, U.S.S.R.: Caucasus.
43
North America: Mexico (Vera Cruz), U.S.A. (Florida and Louisiana).
Central America and West Indies: Belize, Costa Rica, Dominica, Dominican Republic,
Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Honduras, Lesser, Antilles, Martinique, Nicaragua,
Panama, Puerto Rico, Salvador, and Trinidad.
South America: Brazil (Bahia, Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, Para, Sao Paulo),
Colombia, French, Guiana, Guyana, Peru, and Surinam.
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
References
CABI (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International). 1993. Forestry Pest
Management Newsletter for Eastern and Southern Africa 1: 3-5.
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
IRRDB (The International Rubber Research and Development Board). 1994. Pink
diseases. <http://www.irrdb.com/irrdb/NaturalRubber/Diseases/PinkDiseases.htm>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., B.M. Tkacz, H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen,
and W.E. Wallner. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation into the United States
of unprocessed Eucalyptus logs and chips from South America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPLGTR-124. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory. 134 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/ea/downloads/eucalpf.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
44
Cryphonectria cubensis
Cryphonectria canker
Species
Cryphonectria cubensis (Bruner) Hodges, Ascomycota: Diaporthales: Diaporthaceae,
[syn. Diaporthe cubensis Bruner, Endothia eugeniae (Nutman & Roberts) Reid &
Booth].
Hosts
Cryphonectria cubensis has a wide host range in the Myrtaceae family (Ciesla et al.
1996) and is also known to host on Tibouchina species in the Melastomataceae family.
Several species of Eucalyptus are affected, including E. angulosa, E. botryoides, E.
camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. globulus, E. grandis, E., longifolia, E. maculata, E.
marginata, E. microcorys, E. paniculata, E. pilularis, E. propinqua, E. robusta, E.
saligna, E. tereticornis, E. trabutii, E. urophylla, and E. uro-grandis (Ciesla et al. 1996,
Kliejunas et al. 2001). Apparently, E. urophylla and a natural hybrid of E. urophylla x E.
grandis, called E. 'alba', show some resistance to infection and it is now a widely
accepted practice to propagate plants from cuttings of resistant stock (Ciesla et al. 1996,
Wingfield 2003). Other hosts include other members of the Myrtaceae family, such as
Psidium cattleianum (Hodges 1988) in Hawaii, Syzygium aromaticum in South America
(Kleijunas 2001) and South East Asia, and S. cordatum in South Africa (Wingfield 2003).
In Central and South America, C. cubensis has been found on plants in the
Melastomataceae family, including Tibouchina spp. (Wingfield 2003).
Pathways
C. cubensis is widely distributed in tree plantations of South America. The pathogen
would be able to survive on cut logs that are harvested for export and it would be difficult
to detect incipient infections (Kliejunas 2001). In order to establish in a new area, host
plants need to be present. Once established, C. cubensis infections may be passed
through wounds, such as natural growth cracks at the base of young trees, and favor a
warm climate with high rainfall and humidity (Ciesla et al. 1996). The disease disperses
through ascospores and conidia in South America, and through asexual conidia in South
Africa (Ciesla et al. 1996). Conidia are dispersed through rain splash and ascospores are
dispersed by wind (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Impact
The disease mainly affects the commercial value of timber (Ciesla et al. 1996). Basal
cankers can cause death in young trees (the most common expression of the disease in
South Africa), or result in trees that have cankers along large portions of their trunks
(Ciesla et al. 1996). Cankers can occur at the base of trees and along the main trunk.
Cankers can sometimes form at the site of branch stubs on the lower bole. C. cubensis
attacks the cambium and sapwood, causing a depression in the bark. The sapwood
45
becomes stained brown and longitudinal cracks appear in the bark as the infection
spreads. Gummosis, due to injury of the cambium, is generally observed (Kliejunas et al.
2001). Girdled trees wilt and can suddenly die, especially during hot dry periods (Ciesla
et al. 1996). Trees that don't succumb and die early tend to have swollen bases
surrounded by cracked and fissured bark. On this bark the sexual perithecia (common in
parts of South America) or asexual fruiting structures (pycnidia) of the fungus grows
(Ciesla et al. 1996). As competition among the plantation grove increases, these trees
usually die (Ciesla et al. 1996). Infection and mortality rates increase in areas with
higher temperatures and humidity. For instance, in Brazil, mortality rates of 30% were
observed in some Eucalyptus spp. plantations where C. cubensis was present (Alfenas et
al. 1983). However, in other areas of Brazil that tend to have higher rainfall and
temperatures, infection rates can reach as high as 80%. In cooler or drier areas of the
country, infection rates are much lower, as is the extent of canker development (Hodges
et al. 1979).
Treatment
Though no treatment is known for diseased plants, an effective strategy is to select and
propagate resistant plant stock, such as the natural Eucalyptus hybrid, E. 'alba' (E.
urophylla x E. grandis) (Wingfield 2003). Biological control using a hypovirus of
Cryphonectria parasitca is a potential method is being investigated (Van Heerden et al.
2001).
Distribution
Native: Origins of this disease are not certain.
Introduced: C. cubensis (as Diaporthe cubensis at the time) was first described in Cuba
in 1916 (Bruner 1917). It was found in Brazil and Surinam in the 1970's, then in South
Africa in the 1980's (Wingfield 2003). In South America, it is known from Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela (Kliejunas et al. 2001). C. cubensis is now widely
distributed through the world and is known from all major Eucalyptus growing areas
between 30 degrees north and south of the equator (Ciesla et al. 1996). It is also known
from Florida and Hawaii (Kliejunas et al. 2001). On Syzygium aromaticum, C. cubensis
is known from Africa, Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Zanzibar (Hodges et al.
1986).
Hawaii: Known to be present in Hawaii (Hodges 1988, Farr et al. 2006).
References
Alfenas, A.C., R.S. Jeng, and M. Hubbes. 1983. Virulence of Cryphonectria cubensis
on Eucalyptus species differing in resistance. European Journal of Forest Pathology 13:
197–205.
46
Bruner, S.C. 1917. Una enfermedad gangerosa de los Eucalypticos. Estacion
Experimental Agronomica, Santiago de las Vegas, Cuba, Bulletin 37: 1-38.
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
Hodges, C.S.; T.F. Geary, and C.E Cordell. 1979. The occurrence of Diaporthe cubensis
on Eucalyptus in Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Plant Disease Reporter. 63: 216-220.
Hodges, C.S., A.C. Alfenas, and C.E. Cordell. 1986. The conspecificity of Cyphonectria
cubensis and Endothia eugeniae. Mycology 78: 334-350.
<http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00275514(198605%2F06)78%3A3%3C343%3ATCOCCA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
Hodges, C.S. 1988. Preliminary exploration for potential biological control agents for
Psidium cattleianum. Tech. Rep. 66. Hawaii: Cooperative National Park Resources
Unit. <http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/duffy/techrep.htm> (Accessed: June 1,
2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., B.M. Tkacz, H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen,
and W.E. Wallner. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation into the United States
of unprocessed Eucalyptus logs and chips from South America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPLGTR-124. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory. 134 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/ea/downloads/eucalpf.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Van Heerden, S.W., L.M. Geletka, O. Preisig, D.L. Nuss, B.D. Wingfield, and M.J.
Wingfield. 2001. Characterization of South African Cryphonectria cubensis Isolates
Infected with a C. parasitica Hypovirus. Phytopathology 91(7): 628-632.
<http://www.apsnet.org/phyto/pdfs/2001/0507-02R.pdf> (Accessed: May 31, 2007).
Wingfield, M.J. 2003. Increasing threat of diseases to exotic plantation forests in the
Southern Hemisphere: lessons from Cryphonectria canker. Australian Plant Pathology
32: 133-139. <http://www.publish.csiro.au/nid/41/issue/735.htm> (Accessed: May 31,
2007).
47
Meloidogyne spp.
Root knot nematodes
Species
Meloidogyne spp., root knot nematodes, Nematoda: Tylenchida: Heteroderidae.
Hosts
Known to host on a broad range of families, including Acanthaceae, Annonaceae,
Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, Balsaminaceae, Bromeliaceae, Caricaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Heliconiaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Malphigiaceae, Malvaceae,
Melastomataceae, Musaceae, Myrtaceae, Passifloraceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae,
Portulacaceae, Proteaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and
Solanaceae.
One species new to the continental United States, Meloidogyne mayaguensis, was
recently (2002) detected and identified in regulatory samples in Florida collected from
several ornamental plants (Hibiscus sp., Thunbergia spp., Tibouchina spp., Tithonia spp.,
Torenia spp., and Trachelospermum spp.); tropical fruit trees (Annona sp., Pouteria
sapota, Euphorbia longana, Chrysophyllum cainito, and Psidium guajava); and crop field
weeds (Ocimum sp.) (Brito et al. 2007).
Gonsalves and Ferreira (1994), Nelson et al. (2001), Gardner (2006), and (E. Killgore
pers. comm.) list the following host plants for Meloidogyne spp. that occur in Hawaii.
Meloidogyne spp.: Eucalyptus spp., Psidium guajava, Melaleuca quinquenervia, and
Leptospermum spp.
Meloidogyne arenaria: Apium graveolens var. dulce, Cyphomandra betacea, Daucus
carota var. sativa, Heliconia psittacorum, Lycopersicon esculentum, and Solanum
tuberosum.
Meloidogyne halpa: Carica papaya, Fragaria chiloensis, Impatiens balsamina, and
Lactuca sativa var. capitata.
Meloidogyne incognita: Acacia koa var. koa, Allium fistulosum, Ananas comosus, Apium
graveolens var. dulce, Calopogonium caeruleum, Cynodon dactylon x C. tranvaalensis,
Ficus ramantacea, Ficus tikoua, Gardenia jasminoides, Heliconia psittacorum,
Hemigraphis sp., Impatiens balsamina, Leucospermum cordifolium, Leucospermum
reflexum, Leucosperum totum, Lycopersicon esculentum, Malpighia glabra, Medicago
sativa, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Passiflora edulis f.sp. flavicarpa, Piper
methysticum, Portulaca grandiflora, and Portulacaria afra.
Meloidogyne javanica: Ananas comosus, Apium graveolens var. dulce, Cordyline
terminalis, Dahlia pinnata, and Lycopersicon esculentum.
48
Pathways
Nematodes are transported through root material, soil debris, and by infected bare root
propagative plant material.
Impact
Nematodes reduce annual U.S. agricultural production by more than $5 billion and the
group Meloidogyne spp. are some of the most damaging (Nematode Net 2007).
Meloidogyne spp. cause galls on the roots of host plants (Kluepfel et al. 2006). Roots of
affected plants appear distorted, swollen, and knotty (Nelson et al. 2001). Damage to roots
can then attract fungi and bacteria, which causes further discoloring and rotting of the
roots (Nelson et al. 2001).
In Hawaii and the Pacific, introduced Meloidogyne spp. are known to attack several
plants, ranging from important ornamental species, crop plants, cultural plants, and native
plants. M. incognita attacks Piper methysticum (awa), a culturally important plant for
medicinal and edible purposes, reducing production by 50% or more and negatively
affecting the taste and pharmaceutical quality (Nelson et al. 2001). It also hosts on the
endemic tree, Acacia koa and many other plant species.
Treatment
No known chemical treatment for root knot nematodes. The following cultural practices
were listed by Kluepfel et al. (2006): relocate plants to nematode free area, add soil
amendments, use resistant varieties, and remove plants after harvest. In areas where root
knot nematodes are not yet present, the following prevention practices are advised: move
garden location each year, examine roots before planting, discard suspicious looking
plants, purchase disease free plants, soil solarization, and fallow periods with tilling.
Distribution
Native: Meloidogyne mayaguensis is known from Brazil, Cuba, Malawi, Martinique,
Puerto Rico, Senegal, South Africa, Tobago, Trinidad, Venezuela and West Africa (Ivory
Coast and Burkina Faso) (Brito et al. 2007).
Introduced: Meloidogyne mayaguensis is now known in Florida (Brito et al. 2007).
Hawaii: Meloidogyne mayaguensis is not yet known from Hawaii. Species of
Meloidogyne that are currently known from Hawaii include: M. arenaria, M. hapla, M.
incognita, and M. javanica (Raabe et al. 1981, Gardner 2006). More recently, a new
species, M. konaensis, close to M. incognita and M. arenaria, was described as a problem
on coffee on the island of Hawaii (UNL 2007).
49
References
Brito, J, R. Inserra, P. Lehman, and W. Dixon. 2007. Pest Alert: The root-knot
nematode, Meloidogyne mayaguensis Rammah and Hirschmann, 1988 (Nematoda:
Tylenchida). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of
Plant Industry. <http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/nema/m-ayaguensis.html>
(Accessed: June 13, 2007).
Gardner, D. 2006. Pathogens of Plants in Hawaii. Meloidogyne javanica. Don Gardner
Legacy Database, Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk website.
<http://www.hear.org/pph/pathogens/2627.htm> (Accessed: June 13, 2006).
Gonsalves, A.K. and S.A. Ferreira. 1994. Meloidogyne primer. Crop Knowledge
Master, Pacific Islands Distance Diagnostics and Recommendation System.
<http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/Kbase/crop/Type/meloidog.htm> (Accessed: June 13,
2007).
Kluepfel, M., J. McLeod Scott, J.H. Blake, and C.S. Gorsuch. 2006. Galls and
outgrowths. Home and Garden Information Center, Publication 2352, The Clemson
University Cooperative Extension Service.
<http://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheets/hgic2352.htm> (Accessed: June 12, 2007).
Nelson, S.C. B.S. Sipes, M. Serracin, and D.P. Schmitt. 2001. Awa Root-Knot Disease.
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Plant Disease 20: 1-4. <http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/PD-20.pdf>
(Accessed: June 13, 2007).
Nematode Net. 2007. Meloidogyne incognita. Nematode.Net. Genome Sequencing
Center. Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine.
<http://www.nematode.net/Species.Summaries/Meloidogyne.incognita/index.php>
(Accessed: June 12, 2007).
Raabe, R.D., I.L. Conners, and A.P. Martinez. 1981. Checklist of Plant Diseases in
Hawaii. Hawaii Institute of Agriculture and Human Resources, College of Tropical
Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR), University of Hawaii, Information Text
Series 022. <http://pdcs.ctahr.hawaii.edu:591/pubs/FMPro?-db=cpubs.fp3&format=record%5fdetail.htm&-recid=38197&-find=> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
UNL (University of Nebraska, Lincoln Nematology). 2007. Meloidogyne konaensis.
<http://nematode.unl.edu/MKONA.HTM> (Accessed: June 13, 2007).
50
Mycosphaerella spp.
Crinkle leaf disease
Species
Mycosphaerella cryptica (Cooke) Hansf., crinkle leaf disease, Ascomycota:
Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae, [syn. Mycosphaerlla nubilosa (Cooke) Hansf.,
Sphaerella cryptica Cooke, Colletogloeum nubilosum Ganap. & Corbin, Colletogloeopsis
nubilosum (Ganap. & Corbin) Crous & M.J. Wingf.] Preferred anamorph name:
Colletogloeopsis nubilosum (Ganap. & Corbin) Crous & M.J. Wingf.
Mycosphaerella molleriana (Thum.) Lindau, crinkle leaf disease, Ascomycota:
Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae, [syn. Sphaerella molleriana Thum.,
Colletogloeopsis molleriana Crous & M.J. Wingf.] Preferred anamorph name:
Colletogloeopsis molleriana Crous & M.J. Wingf.
Hosts
Mycosphaerella cryptica: M. cryptica is known to host on plants in the Myrtaceae
family, specifically Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp. Kliejunas et al. (2003) list the
following species as host plants: Corymbia citriodora, C. maculata, Eucalyptus baxteri,
E. blakelyi, E. bosistoana, E. botryoides, E. bridgesiana, E. brookeriana, E.
camaldulensis, E. cladocalyx, E. cypellocarpa, E. dalrympleana, E. delegatensis, E.
dendromorpha, E. diversicolor, E. dives, E. elata, E. fastigata, E. fraxinoides, E.
globoidea, E. globulus, E. globulus subsp. bicostata, E. globulus subsp. globulus, E.
globulus subsp. maidenii, E. globulus subsp. pseudoglobulus, E. goniocalyx, E. grandis,
E. gunnii, E. macarthurii, E. macrorhyncha, E. marginata, E. nitens, E. nitida, E.
novaanglica, E. obliqua, E. ovata, E. patens, E. polyanthemos, E. quadrangulata, E.
radiata, E. regnans, E. saligna, E. sieberi, E. smithii, E. stuartiana, E. tereticornis, and E.
viminalis,. In New Zealand, M. cryptica is known from Eucalyptus gigantea (Landcare
Research 2007).
Mycosphaerella molleriana: M. molleriana is known to host on plants in the Myrtaceae
family, such as Eucalyptus and Myrcia. Kliejunas et al. (2003) list the following
Eucalyptus species as host plants: Eucalyptus bridgesiana, E. cypellocarpa, E. globulus,
E. gunnii, and E. viminalis. In Brazil, M. molleriana is known from Myrcia brasiliae
(Farr et al. 2006).
Pathways
Ciesla et al. (1996) report that while seed infection has not been documented, seeds may
be a means of long distance dispersal. The disease could be transported in infested
materials, such as leaves or logs that have attached leaves, and to a lesser extent in chips
(Kliejunas et al. 2003). In addition, propagules may survive and be transported in soils
(Kliejunas et al. 2003). The disease is most common in summer rainfall areas and can
disperse on water or on the wind (Ciesla et al. 1996, Kliejunas et al. 2003). Colonization
51
is determined by the presence of host plants and a favorable climate (Kliejunas et al.
2003).
Impact
Mycosphaerella spp. are common in natural areas of Australia and are a pest of nurseries
and forestry plantations. In Eucalyptus plantations, M. cryptica and M. molleriana are
said to be the most common and most damaging species of Mycosphaerella (Kliejunas et
al. 2003). These two species have caused severe epidemics in temperate areas, such as
New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa (Old et al. 2003). Damage from the disease
includes leaf spots, foliage loss, and reduced growth. Spots occur on both sides of the
leaf and can be round or irregular in shape (Landcare Research 2007). Infection causes
necrotic spots or patches, and crinkled, dried out, distorted foliage, which results in
premature leaf drop and stunted plants (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Mycosphaerella cryptica: Spots start out red-brown in color, often with a purple margin,
then later turn grey-brown (Landcare Research 2007). Infection attacks young,
intermediate, and adult leaves (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Mycosphaerella molleriana: Spots start out yellowish-brown later becoming grey-black
(Landcare Research 2007). Infection attacks young and intermediate foliage only (Ciesla
et al. 1996).
Treatment
No eradicative treatment is known (Ciesla et al. 1996). Selection of non-susceptible
varieties is suggested as a cultural practice.
Distribution
Mycosphaerella spp. are widely distributed around the world in areas where Eucalyptus
spp. are grown (Old et al. 2003).
Mycosphaerella cryptica
Native: Australia: New South Wales, Queensland, Southern Australia, Tasmania, and
Victoria (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Introduced: New Zealand: a few locations on the northern island (Landcare Research
2007). Also known to occur in Chile and India (Farr et al. 2006).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Mycosphaerella molleriana
52
Native: Australia: Queensland, Southern Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria (Kliejunas et
al. 2003).
Introduced: Africa: Kenya, Malawi, Southern Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe; United
States: California; South America: Brazil; Portugal; and Papua New Guinea (Farr et al.
2006).
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
References
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
J.A. Micales, B.M. Tkacz, and M.R. Powell. 2003. Pest risk assessment of the
importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 206 p.
<http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/9705> (Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Landcare Research. 2007. New Zealand Fungi and Bacteria, NZFUNGI database.
<http://nzfungi.landcareresearch.co.nz/html/search_index.asp> (Accessed: June 26,
2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
53
Phaeophleospora spp.
Phaeophleospora leaf diseases
Species
Phaeophleospora epicoccoides (Cooke & Massee) Crous, F.A. Ferreira & B. Sutton,
Phaeophleospora leaf disease, Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae,
[syn. Kirramyces epicoccoides (Cooke & Massee) J. Walker, B. Sutton & I. Pascoe,
Cercospora epicoccoides Cooke & Massee apud Cooke, Hendersonia grandispora
McAlp., Phaeoseptoria eucalypti (Hansf.) J. Walker, Phaeoseptoria luzonensis T.
Kobayashi], Teleomorph: Mycosphaerella suttoniae.
Phaeophleospora eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) J. Walker, B. Sutton & I. Pascoe,
Phaeophleospora leaf disease, Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae,
[syn. Kirramyces eucalypti (Cooke & Massee) J. Walker, B. Sutton & I. Pascoe,
Cercospora eucalypti Cooke & Massee apud Cooke, Pseudocercospora eucalypti (Cooke
& Massee) Guo & Liu, Septoria pulcherrima Gadgil & Dick, Stagonospora pulcherrima
(Gadgil & Dick) Swart].
Phaeophleospora lilianiae (Cooke & Massee) J. Walker, B. Sutton & I. Pascoe (Walker
et al. 1992), Phaeophleospora leaf disease, Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellales:
Mycosphaerellaceae.
Phaeophleospora destructans M.J. Wingf. & Crous (Wingfield et al. 1996),
Phaeophleospora leaf disease, Ascomycota: Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae,
[syn. Kirramyces destructans M.J. Wingf. & Crous].
Hosts
Phaeophleospora epicoccoides: Host plants include those in the Myrtaceae family,
including numerous Eucalyptus and Corymbia spp. (Old et al. 2003). Host plants of the
teleomorph (Mycosphaerella suttoniae) include the following Eucalyptus spp.: E.
amplifolia, E. citriodora, E. cladocalyx, E. crebra, E. dealbata, E. delegatensis, E. dunii,
E. exserta, E. globulus, E. globulus ssp. bicostata, E. globulus ssp. maidenii, E. grandis,
E. longifolia, E. macarthurii, E. maculata, E. major, E. microcorys, E. nitens, E. novaanglica, E. pellita, E. platypus, E. punctata, E. quadrangulata, E. radiata ssp.
robertsonii, E. resinifera, E. robusta, E. rostrata, E. saligna, E. sideroxylon, E.
tereticornis, E. urophylla, E. viminalis, and E. sp. (Sankaran et al. 1995, Crous and
Wingfield 1997). Additional Eucalyptus spp. listed as host plants by Kliejunas et al.
(2001) include E. bicostata and E. camaldulensis.
Phaeophleospora eucalypti: Host plants include those in the family Myrtaceae. Species
included as host plants include Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. globulus (Kliejunas et
al. 2001). Several species in the Eucalyptus subgenus of Symphyomyrtus, Monocalyptus
and Corymbia are also known host plants (Old et al. 2003).
54
Phaeophleospora lilianiae: Hosts on Corymbia exima (Old et al. 2003).
Phaeophleospora destructans: Known host plants include Eucalyptus grandis, E.
camaldulensis, and E. urophylla (Old et al. 2003).
Pathways
Phaeophleospora spp. can disperse by airborne conidia and infections favor warm
weather with heavy dew (Kliejunas et al. 2001). Conidial masses are dispersed by rain
and dew (Ciesla et al. 1996). In addition, conidia may be dispersed on seed (Ciesla et al.
1996). Old et al. (2003) report this group of pathogens has a great ability to spread, as
large amounts of inoculum are produced on leaves. They report further that
Phaeophleospora spp. are common nursery pathogens and can be spread with infected
planting stock and may likely also be seed-borne through surface contamination.
Impact
Phaeophleospora spp. can cause severe premature defoliation, affecting growth and vigor
of seedlings. Infection is typified by purple to brown colored spots on both sides of
leaves and gradually moves up the tree into the crown. Late in the season, young leaves
have spots and older leaves drop off (Kliejunas et al. 2001, Ciesla et al. 1996).
Phaeophleospora epicoccoides: This disease is common in the lower crowns of trees and
causes significant defoliation of leaves (Old et al. 2003).
Phaeophleospora destructans: This disease causes a blight of leaves and shoots and leaf
spots that are light brown in color, and irregular to round in shape (Wingfield et al. 1996,
Liberato et al. 2007). It can cause extensive blights, distortion of young leaves and
premature leaf abscission as a result of necrosis of the leaf and petiole (Barber 2004,
Liberato et al. 2007). P. destructans has been considered to be more damaging than P.
epicoccoides (Old et al. 2003).
Treatment
No eradicative treatment is known for infections of Phaeophleospora spp. (Ciesla et al.
1996). Cultural practices include the selection of resistant germplasm (Old et al. 2003).
Distribution
Phaeophleospora epicoccoides
Widely distributed throughout the world where Eucalyptus spp. occur, including Africa,
South America, Australia, India, South-East Asia, Japan, Indonesia, Philippines, and New
Zealand (Old et al. 2003). Kliejunas et al. (2001) report the following areas: Argentina,
Australia, Bhutan, Brazil, Ethiopia, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Italy, Madagascar,
Malawi, Myanmar, New Zealand, Philippines, South Africa, Taiwan, Tanzania, Zambia,
55
and in the state of Hawaii. The teleomorph (Mycosphaerella suttoniae) is known from
Argentina, Australia, Bhutan, Brazil, Ethiopia, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia,
Madagascar, Malawi, Myanmar, New Zealand, Philippines, South Africa, Taiwan,
Tanzania, United States (Hawaii), and Zambia (Crous and Swart 1995, Sankaran et al.
1995, Crous and Wingfield 1997).
Hawaii: Known to be present in Hawaii (as Mycosphaerella suttoniae) (Farr et al. 2006,
and those mentioned above).
Phaeophleospora eucalypti
Kliejunas et al. (2001) report P. eucalypti from the following areas: Argentina, Australia,
Brazil, India, Italy, New Zealand, Paraguay, Peru, Taiwan, and Zaire. However, Old et
al. (2003) report the following, "records exist mainly from Australia and New Zealand.
There are records from South America, South Africa, India, Taiwan and Italy but these
may be mistaken identifications, possibly with P. epicoccoides or Pseudocercospora spp.
This fungus does not appear to have been recorded in South-East Asia."
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Phaeophleospora lilianiae
Known to be present in Australia (Ciesla et al. 1996, Kliejunas et al. 2001).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
Phaeophleospora destructans
Originally described from Sumatra and known to be present in Indonesia, China, East
Timor, Thailand and Vietnam (Kliejunas et al. 2001, Old et al. 2003, Liberato et al.
2007).
Hawaii: Not known to be present in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
References
Barber, P.A. 2004. Forest Pathology: The threat of disease to plantation forests in
Indonesia. Plant Pathology Journal 3: 97-104.
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
56
Crous, P.W. and W.J. Swart. 1995. Foliicolous fungi of Eucalyptus spp. from eastern
Madagascar: implications for South Africa. S. Afr. For. J. 172: 1-5.
Crous, P.W. and M.J. Wingfield. 1997. New species of Mycosphaerella occurring on
Eucalyptus leaves in Indonesia and Africa. Can. J. Bot 75: 781-790.
<http://fabinet.up.ac.za/personnel/docs/1997b%20Crous,%20Wingfield%20Can%20J%2
0Bot.pdf> (Accessed: June 25, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., B.M. Tkacz, H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen,
and W.E. Wallner. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation into the United States
of unprocessed Eucalyptus logs and chips from South America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPLGTR-124. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory. 134 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/ea/downloads/eucalpf.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Liberato J.R., P. Barber, T.I. Burgess, A.R. McTaggart, and K.M. Old. 2007. Eucalyptus
leaf spot (Phaeophleospora destructans). Pest and Diseases Image Library.
<http://www.padil.gov.au/viewPest.aspx?id=579> (Accessed: June 25, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
Sankaran, K.V., B.C. Sutton, and D.W. Minter. 1995. A checklist of fungi recorded on
Eucalyptus. Mycol. Pap. 170: 1-375.
Wingfield M.J., P.W. Crous, and D. Boden. 1996. Kirramyces destructans sp. nov., a
serious leaf pathogen of Eucalyptus in Indonesia. South African Journal of Botany 62:
325-327.
57
Phellinus noxius
Brown root rot
Species
Phellinus noxius (Corner) Cunningham, brown root rot, Basidiomycota:
Hymenochaetales: Hymenochaetaceae, [syn. Fomes noxius Corner].
Hosts
Phellinus noxius hosts on numerous species from many different families, including
Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae,
Clusiaceae, Combretaceae, Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Lythraceae,
Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Oleaceae, Pinaceae, Piperaceae,
Proteaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Vitaceae. They are pathogens of many
Eucalyptus and Acacia spp., as well as many others (Old et al. 2003). Farr et al. (2006)
list 237 different known host plants, including the following: Acacia, Annona, Artemisia,
Bauhinia, Calophyllum, Camellia, Cassia, Cinnamomum, Cocos, Cordia, Delonix,
Diospyros, Eucalyptus, Ficus, Fraxinus, Gardenia, Grevillea, Hevea, Lagerstroemia,
Leucaena, Mangifera, Melaleuca, Murraya, Nerium, Persea, Pinus, Piper, Prunus,
Roystonia, Swietenia, Terminalia, Urena, and Vitis. Many of these are important
forestry, orchard, and ornamental species.
Pathways
Phellinus noxius can be transported in soil or infected material (Brooks 2006). Once
established, infection spreads through root contact from tree to tree (Brooks 2006).
Sexual spores spread on the wind (Brooks 2006).
Impact
Infections of root rot result in a thick, dark brown to black crust that forms around the
infected roots and lower stems (Brooks 2006). Root rot causes foliage to become paler
green in color and duller in appearance with leaves reduced in size, eventually falling off,
with crown dieback (Old et al. 2003). Patches of dead and dying trees expand from a
central point. Root rot and gaps caused by dead stands further contribute to damage by
other factors, such as wind-throw (Old et al. 2003). In areas where infection occurs,
plantations and orchards can not be replanted for several years due to the longevity of P.
noxius in the soil and its broad range of hosts (Brooks 2006).
Treatment
Brooks (2006) reports the following. Infected stumps and some roots can be controlled
using a push, heap, and burn method. Because some diseased roots remain, this is
followed by planting grasses or herbs that have deep fibrous root systems to help speed
up decomposition of remaining infectious materials. Flooding fields was given as
58
another method. Space trees as far apart as practical when replanting. Rogue out
symptomatic plants, such as those yellowing, wilting, or dropping leaves.
Distribution
Phellinus noxius is pan-tropical in distribution (Old et al. 2003). Farr et al. (2006) list the
following locations: New Zealand, Taiwan, Malaysia, Solomon Islands, Papua New
Guinea, Australia, Ivory Coast, Brazil, and Pacific Islands.
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
References
Brooks, F.E. 2006. Phellinus noxius. Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive
Species Specialist Group (ISSG).
<http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1007&fr=1&sts=> (Accessed:
June 28, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service. <http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/> (Accessed:
June 19, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
59
Puccinia psidii
Ohia rust, guava rust, Eucalyptus rust
Species
Puccinia psidii Winter, ohia rust, guava rust, Eucalyptus rust, Basidiomycota, Uredinales:
Pucciniaceae
Hosts
P. psidii was first described from common guava (Psidium guajava) in Brazil in the
1880s. It has been widely known to cause severe damage to nurseries and young
Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil since the 1970s.
“Potentially all Myrtaceae” are hosts, according to Ciesla et al. (1996). Simpson et al.
(2006) established that P. psidii is now known to occur on species in both subfamilies of
Myrtaceae, including one of two tribes of the subfamily Psiloxyloideae and seven of the
15 tribes of subfamily Myrtoideae, a total of 20 genera and 71 species; the Neotropical
genera of Myrtaceae attacked by P. psidii include Acca, Campomanesia, Eugenia,
Marlierea, Myrcia, Myrcianthes, Myrciaria, Pimenta, and Psidium. Genera native
outside the Neotropics and documented as attacked include Angophora, Callistemon,
Corymbia, Eucalyptus, Eugenia, Heteropyxis, Kunzea, Melaleuca, Metrosideros, Myrtus,
Syncarpia, and Syzygium (Simpson et al. 2006). Susceptibility to P. psidii is low among
species of Myrtaceae from the Americas where P. psidii has long been present but may
be high among “naive” genera and species (3/4 of the 4600 species in the Myrtaceae)
from Asia, Australia, Africa and the Pacific (Simpson et al. 2006). Glen et al. (2007) cite
a 1996 Australian-Brazilian study in which 58 Australian Myrtaceae species were
exposed to P. psidii in Brazil; 52 of those had some degree of susceptibility.
Kliejunas et al. (2001) report the following hosts from Argentina and Brazil: Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. cloeziana, E. grandis, E. maculata, E microcorys, E.
paniculata, E. pellita, E. phaeotricha, E. pyrocarpa, E. punctata, E. saligna, E.
tereticornis, and E. urophylla; additional Myrtaceae hosts include Callistemon speciosus,
Eugenia brasilensis, E. jambolana, E. malaccensis, E. uniflora, E. uvalha, Marlierea
edulis, Melaleuca leucodendron, Myrcia jaboticaba, Myrcia spp., Myrciaria sp., Pimenta
acris, P. dioica, P. officialis, Psidium araca, P. guajava, P. pomiferum, and Syzygium
jambos.
In Hawaii, P. psidii is currently known from the following plants (* = native to Hawaii):
Eucalyptus dunii, E. grandis, E. microcorys, E. smithii, E. torelliana, Eugenia
koolauensis*, E. paniculatum, E. reinwardtiana*, E. uniflora, Melaleuca quinquenervia,
Metrosideros polymorpha*, Myrtus communis, Psidium guajava, Rhodomyrtus
tomentosa, Syzygium cumini, S. jambos, and S. malaccense (Anderson 2006). It is also
known from Chamelaucium uncinatum in Hawaii (Starr pers. obs.).
60
Other known hosts include: Acmena spp., Angophora costata, Campomanesia spp.,
Eucalyptus globulus, E. nitens, E. viminalis, Eugenia pyriformis var. uvalha, Feijoa spp.,
Kunzea baxteri, Melaleuca alternifolia, M. cajuputi, M. decora, Myrcianthes fragrans,
Paivaea spp., Phyllocalyx spp., Pimenta racemosa, Pseudomyrcianthes spp., Psidium
guineense, Stenocalyis spp., Syncarpia glomulifera, and Heteropyxis natalensis
(Anderson 2006).
Host information is complicated by the fact that there is strong evidence of host
specialization in this pathogen, with isolates from one host plant species not necessarily
infecting other known host plant species (Coutinho et al. 1998). A rust population that is
consistent in which host species it successfully attacks is termed a ‘strain’ (= race or
biotype). Glen et al. (2007) summarized some of the findings to date on strains of P.
psidii: “Several races or biotypes of P. psidii are known to exist; although in comparison
with other rusts such as those of cereal crops, very little is known of these specialized
forms.” For example, two strains in Jamaica infected allspice (Pimenta) and rose apple
(Syzygium), respectively, but neither strain infected guava (Psidium). The allspice strain
was able to infect rose apple but did not sporulate. In Florida, the allspice strain
sporulated on rose apple, even though it took twice as long for maturation of
urediniospores in rose apple than in allspice. In later tests, rose apple was considered
immune to rust strains from Melaleuca quinquenervia (paperbark) and allspice
(Rayachhetry et al. 2001).
Because the first discovery of rust in Hawaii was on a plant of ohia, Metrosideros
polymorpha, the name ohia rust was given in the Hawaii Department of Agriculture pest
alert by Killgore and Heu (2007). However, the strain in Hawaii primarily attacks nonnative rose apple, Syzygium jambos; damage to ohia has so far been minor (Loope and La
Rosa 2007). By far the most notable concern for damage by additional rust strains is to
ohia, M. polymorpha, a major component of the native forest on all major islands of the
Hawaiian archipelago. This single species overwhelmingly dominates approximately
80% of Hawaii’s remaining native forest or about 965,000 acres (1500 square miles)
(Loope and La Rosa 2007).
Pathways
Potential pathways for movement of P. psidii from infected to uninfected areas include
(Grgurinovic et al. 2006):
1) high risk material of Myrtaceae species: movement of host plants, germ plasm and
plant products, including seed and pollen, micro propagation material and tissue culture,
cuttings and live plants, flower/foliage trade, and lumber, wood chips and dunnage;
2) unregulated movement of plant material: undeclared seed, nursery stock, etc.;
3) movement of people: as contaminants on clothing and luggage of people traveling
from infested areas; and
4) long distance dispersal by air currents.
Uredineospores of P. psidii can remain viable for at least two months outside hosts under
suitable environmental conditions (Grgurinovic et al. 2006).
61
Impact
The review of threats to Eucalyptus by Ciesla et al. (1996) regarded P. psidii as “the most
significant quarantine risk to the cultivation of Eucalyptus spp. as well as related plants.”
Coutinho et al. (1998) noted that the potential pathogenicity of P. psidii seems to pose a
“situation... equivalent to other introduced epidemic tree diseases, such as Dutch elm
disease…, chestnut blight…, and white pine blister rust.” Since its introduction to
Hawaii, concern over possible establishment of P. psidii is especially high in Australia, a
country with 1300 species of endemic Myrtaceae, many of them dominant. The pathogen
may be particularly virulent on species with no evolutionary history of exposure (naive
hosts). For example, Glen et al. (2007) call attention to “many non-native tree pathogens
that have been devastating after their introduction into new environments.” Multiple
introduction events present a window of evolutionary opportunity for such a pathogen,
with potential for novel, episodic selection in a new environment, leading to rapid
evolution (Slippers et al. 2005).
Loope and La Rosa (2007) have reviewed the apparent threat to Hawaii, with emphasis
on the threat to Metrosideros polymorpha forest. Three native and at least eight nonnative species have been observed to date as hosts of P. psidii in Hawaii, with the
introduced rose apple (Syzygium jambos), being the most severely affected. Damage to
rose apple has occurred at a landscape scale with widespread crown dieback. In spite of
billions of wind-dispersed rust spores produced from rose apple infestations, adjacent
ohia have been little affected to date. The host distribution and preliminary work on the
DNA profile suggest that only one genotype has been established in Hawaii.
Symptoms of the disease begin as small golden yellow powdery eruptions in a circular
pattern on the leaf or stem. These spots expand and become necrotic, spreading over the
entire leaf, stem, or shoot. Leaves and stems become deformed and growing tips can die
back in severe infections. Symptoms are more likely to occur on new shoots. Severity of
infection varies with susceptibility of the host and weather conditions. The disease can
also cause similar symptoms on fruit, though this has not yet been observed in Hawaii
(Killgore and Heu 2007).
Treatment
Neither physical, chemical nor biological control is currently practical for large scale
eradication of P. psidii (Glen et al. 2007). Fungicides may be useful for reducing damage
in nursery situations.
In Hawaii, cultural practices suggested by Killgore and Heu (2007) include good
sanitation practices, such as removing, bagging, or destroying infected leaves or plants as
soon as symptoms occur. Keeping foliage dry when irrigating will help reduce disease
levels. To decrease the risk of spread, they advise not to move infected plants, especially
ohia, between islands. To decrease the risk of introducing new strains of Puccinia psidii
or other pathogens that could harm native Metrosideros and other native Myrtaceae, they
62
recommend not to import ohia and other plants in the Myrtaceae family to the state. Old
et al. (2003) suggest using disease resistant strains.
Distribution
First described from Brazil on Psidium guajava, the precise native range of P. psidii is
not precisely known. It is currently widespread in South America, Central America, and
the Caribbean, and is known to have first arrived in Jamaica in the 1930s and in Florida
in the 1970s (Glen et al. 2007).
The known first occurrence of P. psidii outside the Neotropics and subtropics was in
Hawaii in April 2005 (Killgore and Heu 2007). However, the rust is also now known to
have been present in California since at least 2005 and has recently been intercepted from
there (on foliage of myrtle, Myrtus communis) in shipments to Hawaii (Mellano 2006,
Loope and La Rosa 2007).
In Hawaii, Killgore and Heu (2007) report the following. In April, 2005, a Metrosideros
sp. (ohia) plant that was infected by a rust disease was submitted to the University of
Hawaii (UH), College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR),
Agricultural Diagnostic Service Center’s (ADSC) Plant Disease Diagnostician Desmond
Ogata by a Waimanalo (Oahu) grower who specializes in native plants. Also on Oahu,
later that year in May, Syzygium jambos was also found heavily infected with a similar
rust. In July, the rust was also reported from Eugenia koolauensis (a federally listed
endangered species), E. reinwardtiana, and Psidium guajava. The rust was tentatively
identified as Puccinia psidii and was later confirmed (2006) by Dr. Shaobin Zhong, UH
CTAHR PEPS, using DNA profiles for P. psidii (Killgore and Heu 2007). After surveys
on other islands, P. psidii was found to be widespread on all the main Hawaiian islands
except Niihau and Kahoolawe.
References
Anderson, R. 2006. A database of worldwide hosts of Puccinia rust, including new
records from Hawaii. USGS, BRD, PIERC.
<http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/forestry/data/Pests_Diseases/Worldwide_P_psidii_hosts_J
BF.xls> (Accessed: July 2, 2007).
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Coutinho, T.A., M.J. Wingfield, A.C. Alfenas, and P.W. Liberato. 1998. Eucalyptus
rust: a disease with the potential for serious international implications. Plant Disease 82:
819-825. <http://apsnet.org/pd/PDFS/1998/0423-01S.PDF> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
63
Glen, M., A. C. Alfenas, E. A. V. Zauza, M. J. Wingfield, and C. Mohammed. 2007.
Puccinia psidii: a threat to the Australian environment and economy – a review.
Australasian Plant Pathology 36:1–16. <http://www.publish.csiro.au/?paper=AP06088>
(Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Grgurinovic, C.A., D. Walsh and F. Macbeth. 2006. Eucalyptus rust caused by Puccinia
psidii and the threat is poses to Australia. EPPO Bulletin 36 (3): 486-489.
<http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/eppo/2006/00000036/00000003/art00018>
(Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Killgore, E.M. and R.A. Heu. 2007. Ohia rust: Puccinia psidii. New Pest Advisory,
No. 05-04. Hawaii Department of Agriculture.
<http://www.hawaiiag.org/hdoa/npa/npa05-04-ohiarust.pdf> (Accessed: July 2, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., B.M. Tkacz, H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen,
and W.E. Wallner. 2001. Pest risk assessment of the importation into the United States
of unprocessed Eucalyptus logs and chips from South America. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPLGTR-124. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
Laboratory. 134 p. <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/ea/downloads/eucalpf.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Loope, L.L., and A.M. La Rosa. 2007. Ohia Rust (Eucalyptus Rust) (Puccinia psidii
Winter) Risk Assessment for Hawaii. U.S. Geological Survey and USDA Forest Service.
Prepared for Hawaii Department of Agriculture, Plant Quarantine Branch.
Mellano, V. 2006. Rust on myrtle found in San Diego County. Healthy Garden—
Healthy Home, University of California Cooperative Extension. Retail Nursery
Newsletter, Volume 1, Issue 6, p. 3.
<http://cesandiego.ucdavis.edu/newsletterfiles/Retail_Nursery_Newsletter8523.pdf>
(Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
<http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/eucalypts.pdf> (Accessed:
June 15, 2007).
Rayachhetry, M.B., Van, T.K., Center,T.D., and Elliott, M.L. 2001. Host range of
Puccinia psidii, a potential biological control agent of Melaleuca quinquenervia in
Florida. Biological Control 22:38-45.
Simpson, J.A., K. Thomas and C. A. Grgurinovic. 2006. Uredinales species pathogenic
on species of Myrtaceae. Australasian Plant Pathology 35:546-562.
Slippers, B., J. Stenlid, and M.J. Wingfield. 2005. Emerging pathogens: fungal host
jumps following anthropogenic introduction. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20:420421.
64
Ralstonia solanacearum
Bacterial disease, bacterial wilt
Species
Ralstonia solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi et al., Bacterial disease, bacterial wilt,
Proteobacteria: Burkholderiales: Ralstoniaceae, [syn. Burkholderia solanacearum
(Smith) Yabuuchi et al., Bacillus solanacearum (Smith), Pseudomonas solanacearum
(Smith) Smith].
Hosts
The strains of Ralstonia solanacearum that infect a broad range of host plants, including
Eucalyptus spp., are all Race 1 and either biovar 1 (South America) or biovar 3 (Asia and
Australia) (Gillings and Fahy 1993, Old et al. 2003). Other races and biovars also exist.
Race 1 has a wide range of hosts (hundreds of plants in over 50 families); race 2 hosts on
banana and Musa spp.; race 3 hosts on potato, some other Solanaceae, Geranium and a
few other species; race 4 hosts on ginger; and race 5 hosts on mulberry (Daughtrey 2003).
Many host plants are known, from a broad range of families, including bananas (Musa
spp.), Casuarina spp., ginger (Alpinia, Zingiber), Heliconia spp., olive (Olea spp.),
peanuts (Arachis spp.), teak (Tectona grandis), neem (Azadirachta indica), cassava
(Manihot esculenta), cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Morus sp., and Pelargonium
zonale (Hayward 1993, Ciesla et al. 1996, OEPP/EPPO 2004). Susceptible Eucalyptus
spp. include E. camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. grandis, E. ‘leizhou’, E. pellita, E.
propinqua, E. saligna, E. urophylla, and E. grandis x urophylla (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Several plants in the Solanaceae family are also affected, including: Capsicum anuum,
Lycopersicon esculentum, Nicotiana spp., Solanum melongena, Solanum nigrum, and
Solanum dulcamara, Solanum tuberosum (Ciesla et al. 1996, Banymandhub - Munbodh
1997). In Mauritius, additional hosts include Anthurium spp., Oxalis spp, Amaranthus
spp, Phyllanthus spp., and (Banymandhub - Munbodh 1997).
Pathways
Ralstonia solanacearum occurs in soil and can be transmitted when infected soil is
moved. It can also be spread through movement of infected nursery stock; such as
cuttings, seeds, and tubers; water, equipment, and by insects vectors, which is uncommon
(Ciesla et al. 1996, NIPMC n.d.). For instance, R. solanacearum (race 3, biovar 2) were
imported into the United States from Guatemala in geranium cuttings on several
occasions in 1999 (Williamson et al 2002, Kim 2002). R. solanacearum is more
persistent in drier soils (Banymandhub - Munbodh 1997). In more moist soils, other
organisms that are lethal to R. solanacearum develop (Nesmith and Jenkins 1985). The
bacteria can lay dormant in soil or water until a host plant is present, then it enters
through the roots (Bioinformatique 2004). May be introduced on ornamental or herbal
plants (OEPP/EPPO 2004). A number of weeds are known to serve as symptomless
carriers of R. solanaceraum (Daughtrey 2003).
65
Impact
Ralstonia solanacearum is considered one of the most important and lethal soil born
bacterial pathogens (Banymandhub - Munbodh 1997). It is most severe on young trees
(Ciesla et al. 1996). Affected plants display wilting, leaf drop, stem death and reduced
growth rate (Old et al. 2003). Vascular discoloration is common, roots die, and basal
cankers can be found (Old et al. 2003). Infected trees usually wilt and die (Ciesla et al.
1996). In younger plants symptoms manifest quickly and cause dramatic effects. For
instance, in Brazil, R. solanacearum wilt was observed in 2 month old transplants and
maximum symptom expression occurred within 6 months. All infected young trees died
within 15 months (Ciesla et al. 1996). In China, young plants died within 2 to 3 weeks of
symptom onset (Ciesla et al. 1996). In older trees that are infected, roots may decay, and
death may be caused by wind-throw or other secondary factors, such as termite damage
or other pathogens, due to the weakened state of their roots (Ciesla et al. 1996). In
bananas, it is called "Moko" disease, symptoms include brown dry rot of fruit, young
leaves turn pale green or yellow and collapse, young suckers may be blackened, stunted,
or twisted, and pseudostems have a brown discoloration (OEPP/EPPO 2004).
Treatment
No control practices are known. Culling diseased trees would not be effective as the
pathogen would remain in infected roots and infested soil (Old et al. 2003). Cultural
control methods include purchasing clean cuttings, avoid using subirrigation in
greenhouses, washing hands, foot baths, keeping areas free of weeds, and disinfecting
benches and equipment after outbreaks (NIPMC n.d.).
Distribution
Ralstonia solanacearum is widespread in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate
regions of the world (Smith et al. 1992). It is considered native to Mauritius (Ricaud and
Felix 1971, Banymandhub - Munbodh 1997). It has been found infecting Eucalyptus spp.
in the following regions: Australia, Brazil, China, Europe, Indonesia, South Africa,
South America, Taiwan, Uganda, southern United States, Venezuela, and Vietnam
(Ciesla et al. 1996, Old et al. 2003, Bioinformatique 2004, OEPP/EPPO 2004). Race 1 is
known from Asia, Australia, and the Americas; race 2 is known from Caribbean, Brazil,
and the Philippines; race 3 is known worldwide, except Canada and the United States;
race 4 is known from Asia; and race 5 is known from China (Daughtrey 2003).
Race 3, the ginger strain, is known from Hawaii and was recently used in a trial
biological control program for Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili ginger) conducted at
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, on the island of Hawaii (Anderson and Gardner 1999).
References
66
Anderson, R.C. and D.G. Gardner. 1999. An Evaluation of the Wilt-Causing Bacterium
Ralstonia solanacearum as a Potential Biological Control Agent for the Alien Kahili
Ginger (Hedychium gardnerianum) in Hawaiian Forests. Biological Control 15: 89-96.
<http://academic.bowdoin.edu/courses/s03/es382/dissemination/AndersonGardner99.pdf
> (Accessed: July 5, 2007).
Banymandhub - Munbodh, K. 1997. Studies on bacterial wilt cause by Ralstonia
solanacearum Syn. Burkholderia solanacearum Syn. Pseudomonas solanacearum on
Anthurium andreanum: An Overview. Food and Agricultural Research Council, Reduit,
Mauritius. <http://www.gov.mu/portal/sites/ncb/moa/farc/amas97/pdf/areu30.pdf>
(Accessed: June 20, 2007).
Bioinformatique. 2004. Ralstonia solanacearum. Genopole Toulouse Bioinformatic
platform. <http://bioinfo.genopole-toulouse.prd.fr/annotation/iANT/bacteria/ralsto/>
(Accessed: June 20, 2007).
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
Institute, Rome. <http://www.bioversityinternational.org/publications/Pdf/406.pdf>
(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Daughtrey, M. 2003. Southern bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum.
Presentation: "New and Re-emerging Diseases in 2003" at the Society of American
Florists' 19th Annual Conference on Insect and Disease Management on Ornamentals.
<http://www.greenhouse.cornell.edu/pestsdis/MD.SAFtalk.pdf> (Accessed: June 20,
2007).
Gillings, M. and Fahy, P. 1993. Genomic fingerprinting and PCR analysis: rapid
sensitive and inexpensive means of differentiating strains of Pseudomonas solanacearum.
In: Hayward, A.C. and Hartman, G.L. (eds). Bacterial wilt. ACIAR Proceedings 45, 85–
92. ACIAR, Canberra.
Hayward, A.C. 1993. Phytopathogenic prokaryotes 1962–1992-an Australian
perspective. Australasian Plant Pathology 22: 113-121.
Kim, S. H., R.N. Olson, and N. Schaad. 2002. Ralstonia solanacearum Biovar 2, Race 3
in geraniums imported from Guatemala to Pennsylvania in 1999. Plant Disease 92: 42.
NIPMC (National Integrated Pest Management Center). No date. National Pest Alert:
Ralstonia solanacearum, race 3 biovar 2. USDA–CSRESS Integrated Pest Management
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<http://www.ncpmc.org/alerts/ralstonia.pdf>
OEPP/EPPO (Organisation European et Mediterranean pour la Protection des Plantes,
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization). 2004. Blackwell
67
Publishing, Ltd. Bulletin 34: 173-178. <http://www.blackwellsynergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2338.2004.00715.x> (Accessed: June 20, 2007).
Old, K.M., M.J. Wingfield, and Z.Q. Yuan. 2003. A Manual for Diseases of Eucalypts
in SE Asia. Center for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
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June 15, 2007).
Williamson, L., K. Nakoho, B. Hudelson, and C. Allen. 2002. Ralstonia solanacearum
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987-991.
68
Seiridium eucalypti
Seiridium stem canker
Species
Seiridium eucalypti Nag Raj., Seiridium stem canker, Ascomycota: Amphisphaeriaceae.
Hosts
Seiridium eucalypti hosts on plants in the Myrtaceae family, including Corymbia and
Eucalyptus. In Australia, host plants include Corymbia maculata, Eucalyptus
amygdalina, E. botryoides, E. cypellocarpa, E. delegatensis, E. globulus, E. grandis, E.
nitens, E. obliqua, E. regnans, and E. saligna (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Pathways
Kliejunas et al. (2003) report the following about potential spread of Seiridium eucalypti.
Dispersal occurs either by movement of rain-splashed conidia or on infected material.
Seiridium spp. would likely survive in harvested logs and chips for several months as
long as the wood retains moisture and temperatures do not become too high. Survival in
an introduced area would depend on the presence of host plants and a suitable temperate
climate. The extent of eucalypts in the United States is limited and would limit spread of
these fungi to California, Arizona, Hawaii, and Florida. If other Myrtaceous species are
potential hosts, then spread in Hawaii could become more significant.
Impact
Seiridium stem canker is considered to be one of the most pathogenic canker fungi in
artificial inoculation tests in Australia (Yuan and Old 1995). Infection causes severe
deformation of stems and branches (Ciesla et al. 1996). Lesions and cracks form on
stems causing swelling, girdling, and eventual death of branches above (Ciesla et al.
1996).
Treatment
No eradicative treatment available (Ciesla et al. 1996).
Distribution
Native: Australia: Southern Australia and Tasmania (Kliejunas et al. 2003).
Introduced: Not known to occur elsewhere.
Hawaii: Not known to occur in Hawaii (Farr et al. 2006).
References
69
Ciesla, W.M., M. Diekmann, and C.A.J. Putter. 1996. FAO/IPGRI Technical Guidelines
for the Safe Movement of Germplasm. No. 17. Eucalyptus spp. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome/International Plant Genetic Resources
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(Accessed: June 19, 2007).
Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006. Fungal Databases,
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June 19, 2007).
Kliejunas, J.T., H.H. Jr. Burdsall, G.A. DeNitto, A. Eglitis, D.A. Haugen, M.I. Harverty,
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importation into the United States of unprocessed logs and chips of eighteen Eucalypt
Species from Australia. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-GTR-137. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
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70
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