Redefining professional career development in the twenty-first century:
A systemic approach
The High School Journal;
Chapel Hill; Dec 2001/Jan 2002; Karen WetherillGrace
BurtonDiane CalhounCarol Chase Thomas
85
Volume:
2
Issue:
54-66
Start Page:
00181498
ISSN:
Subject Terms: Teacher education
Professional development
Educators
Abstract:
A critical challenge to improve the quality of teaching and student performance
outcomes is to reconsider how educators are initially trained and provided
opportunities for professional renewal and retooling throughout their career.
Professional development as discussed in this paper is considered across the
career span of all educators and as it applies in specific educational organizations,
i.e., preK to 12== grade schools and schools of education.
Full Text:
Copyright University of North Carolina Press Dec 2001/Jan 2002
[Headnote]
A critical challenge to improving the quality of teaching and student performance outcomes is to reconsider
how educators are initially trained and provided opportunities for professional renewal and retooling
throughout their career. Professional development as discussed in this paper is considered across the career
span of all educators and as it applies in specific educational organizations, i.e., preK to 12- grade schools
and schools of education. Beginning with a number of critical assumptions about professional development,
the authors suggest a framework for viewing professional development that acknowledges the complex,
interdependent roles and responsibilities educators assume in the classroom, the institution, and the
profession. The goals and specific outcomes are informed by Goodlad's moral dimensions and suggest an
alternative approach to professional development that include important considerations for teacher
preparation institutions.
Introduction
A critical challenge to improving the quality of teaching and student performance
outcomes is to reconsider how educators are initially trained and provided
opportunities for professional renewal and retooling throughout their career. Schools
of education are vitally linked at several junctures to educator preparation and have a
unique opportunity to serve as a liaison between faculties in higher education and
preK-12 education, as they respond to the emerging needs and conditions in a variety
of educational contexts. This paper began during a forum that brought these authors
and others together to consider these connections, the development of educators as we
know it and the implications for teacher education. Because of the University of North
Carolina at Wilmington's commitment to school/university partnerships, professional
development across the career span of all educators is of particular interest. Therefore,
in this paper, professional development is being examined as it relates to preservice
and veteran teachers and spanning from preK to 12th grade teachers to universitylevel teacher educators. We believe that all who teach share a common obligation to
continuously strive to become more knowledgeable and skillful educators. To that
end, this paper describes a number of assumptions about professional development,
and suggests a framework for connecting the redefined role of teachers to strategies
for designing responsive professional development programs. The final section
discusses implications for professional development within a university-school
partnership structure and suggests future decisions that must be made by schools of
education and public school partners.
Assumptions
An important first step is to identify a number of critical assumptions related to
professional development. These assumptions are derived from the authors' collective
knowledge, informed by their experiences in public schools and teacher education.
These assumptions are well supported in more formal ways in the literature, the
research and references emerging from the field of education, organizational behavior,
and psychology. The assumptions related to professional career development are
categorized into three primary areas that we believe hold true for all groups (preservice teachers, in-service teachers and university teacher educators). In summary
form, these indicate that all involved should...
Uphold High Expectations for Continuous Professional Development
* Every educator, regardless of career stage, must engage in experiences that lead to
professional growth.
* Schools, including colleges, must support professional experiences that satisfy
individual as well as organizational needs.
Continuously Evaluate One's Professional Competence
* Taking stock of one's accomplishments is both informative and affirming. Making
explicit what we have done professionally allows for an appraisal of what should
come next. Without such an exercise it is difficult to determine a direction for further
action.
* Professional development begins with several basic and personal questions, such as:
What do I need to do to become more effective in my work? What additional
knowledge or skills would make me a better educator? What experiences will enhance
my effectiveness with my learners and my colleagues?
* Crafting and recrafting a platform of beliefs about teaching is a vital part of
reflective practice.
Deliberate and Collaborate with Peers
* Since effective educational organizations must be "communities of learning"
(Lieberman, 1996), those existing in these communities need opportunities to think
together about their practice.
* There is a need to talk with others about one's beliefs, experiences, questions, and
insights.
* Curriculum deliberation creates opportunities for growth provoked by individual
and group interaction.
These assumptions then became the foundation for our reexamination of current
practices, for the formulation new insights related to professional development, and
for a suggested redefinition of the roles and responsibilities of educators in a variety
of organizational contexts.
First Steps in Redefining Professional Development
Based upon these assumptions, the authors propose a reconsideration of the definition
of professional development that makes explicit the need for career-long attention to
the personal and professional growth of an educator. Differentiating professional
development from staff development encourages educators to move from an event or
activity frame of reference to one that is more focused on personal self-reflection and
growth over the span of a career. As with any educator attempting to provide an
environment that supports and challenges learning (as classroom teachers do), a more
promising course of action is to align professional career development with specific
purposes that will result in the intended learning. For educators this must be related to
the improvement of teaching and learning in the classroom and to the improvement of
education as a profession. If educational improvement is focused on these outcomes, a
critical component in the design of professional development initiatives must be to
develop specific responses to a logical, but often unasked and challenging question what exactly are we trying to develop?
Professional Development for What Purpose? There is much in the literature that
provides guidance for the design of effective professional development programs and
approaches. Although these writings are helpful as we consider the professional
development needed in the twenty-first century, there are questions left unanswered.
For instance, if we believe that schools are communities for learning and that all
educators should be continuous learners, it is important to establish a framework that
helps us recognize and confront often overlooked issues and that moves our thinking
beyond the traditional approaches.
The important question, "professional development for what purpose?" can help
inform the design of approaches that lead to the accomplishment of a specific
outcome or goal. It is logical to realize that a particular desired outcome may best be
met by a number of professional development strategies, however, these may be ones
that are entirely ineffective for other intended goals. For instance, providing formal
and informal opportunities for educators at all levels to examine research and current
literature related to an educational issue may be an important strategy designed to
encourage a professional work culture in an organization. A program to accomplish
this goal may differ significantly from one that is designed to train teachers to
effectively utilize technology in their classroom instruction. As with teaching, it is
critical to identify the intended learning outcomes prior to designing the instructional
approach to be used.
The establishment of goals for professional career development (when and if this is
done), is often focused on the improvement of teaching practices or curriculum
development. Although these are valuable outcomes, the expectation for professional
growth also must consider organizational needs. Fullan (1993) notes that reforming
pedagogy and reforming the norms of the profession are intimately interrelated, but
one must conceptualize these in this way if reform is to happen. He warns that the
failure to do so produces much "restructuring" but little "reculturing" in teaching and
learning or in the development of professional collegiality. The challenge then is for
all educators to consider professional development more systemically.
Professional Development and Educational Reform: Critical Linkages
It has become apparent that the improvement of education is a shared responsibility of
all stakeholders. The concept of "a school as the center of change" (Goodlad, 1984)
cannot be interpreted to mean that the school can singularly accomplish all that is
necessary. Partnerships involving schools and universities, as adopted by this School
of Education, are becoming a nationally advocated approach to educational reform.
Goodlad (1997) asserts that school reform should be addressed as a set of changes that
must be continuously and collaboratively worked on - engaging schools, colleges and
schools of education, and communities together. Schools ought to be understood as
institutions composed of interlocking parts and attention should be given to the
intersection of the parts as well as to the nature of each separate part. If reform efforts
are to be successful, then consideration must be provided to the systemic nature of the
organization. This necessitates approaches that will be mutually reinforcing for
various aspects of education and will not result in changes that are at crosspurposes.
Failing to educate a large number of our young people not only represents a waste of
the talent and energies of these individuals but also foretells a crisis for our nation.
Institutionalized features of America's educational system, which function as barriers
to knowledge especially for poor and minority students, contribute to this crisis. A
number of the leaders in education have addressed these issues, but none as clearly or
consistently as John Goodlad. This educational leader recognizes some of the
conditions that create inequities in educational outcomes and joins others in
describing them in the book, Moral Dimensions of Teaching (Goodlad, Soder &
Sirotnik, 1990). These authors state that to accomplish authentic school reform,
people must develop a deeper understanding of and commitment to the idea that what
is truly good in the long run for each individual citizen must be reconciled with the
common good. This comes about when people choose the overarching public good as
their first priority in making decisions about schools and other social issues, rather
than considering what will most benefit their own interest group. Goodlad (1990) says
that teaching is a calling and a moral activity. For improvements in education to be
successful it is necessary to consider how the goals relate to the broader commitments
to the development of moral dimensions in educators. He cites four moral dimensions
for consideration: stewardship, equal access to knowledge for all students, pedagogy
to ensure academic and emotional growth, and enculturation into a democratic
society. These dimensions can be used to create a framework that helps assess what
currently exists in professional development and critically informs the direction
professional development must take for all educators.
This framework is used in this paper to assist in the analysis of the existing state of
professional development for preservice education majors, for preK-12 educators, and
for those working in higher education, specifically in schools of education. This
analysis begins with important interpretive descriptions of each dimension as it relates
to professional development and results in the generation of a set of guiding
questions.
Dimension L Stewardship
It is easy, some would say natural, for teachers to concern themselves only with what
happens within the confines of their own classroom walls. However, we agree with
Goodlad that the truly engaged professional looks beyond those walls to the wider
world of education, in the school, the community, the state and beyond. For instance,
the professional is concerned about the well-being and achievement of all students,
and is willing to cross grade levels and disciplines to assure that all who leave the
school are both competent and confident in the subjects taught and possess attitudes
which will serve them and society well.
It is important that educators at all levels understand that education is much bigger
than their own classrooms; the responsibilities are much broader. If "stewardship" is
what we want to develop in professional educators, what are the essential questions to
ask ourselves whether we are considering preservice educators, preK12 educators, or
faculty in higher education?
* How do we assess for stewardship in an individual? How do we know it when we
see it?
* What are the existing learning experiences designed to develop stewardship?
* How do we foster reflection and application of stewardship?
* What are the inhibitors to developing stewardship?
* How is the development of stewardship rewarded and reinforced?
Dimension II: Equal Access to Knowledge for All Students
There is no dearth of literature to prove that students who vary in the dimensions of
race, gender, ethnicity, intellectual potential, physical fitness, socioeconomic status
and ability to speak the language of the school also vary in predictable ways in their
achievement of knowledge, concepts, and skills in a variety of school subjects.
Furthermore, it is well known that these differences tend to increase as the students
pass through school. This is probably documented most fully in the areas of
mathematics and science. In these subjects, teacher behaviors clearly have a
modifying or exacerbating effect on achievement and motivation (Manning, 1998).
We believe that teachers at every level should commit to assuring that their
instructional practices and curriculum are inviting to the populations they serve and
that the learning experiences offered students will provide them with the greatest
possible number of career choices.
Therefore, a second major area of focus for professional development is to assist
educators in ensuring that all students have equal access to knowledge. It is important
to determine if opportunities exist for preservice students, for practicing preK- 12
educators, or for university faculty to develop both the awareness and the application
of this standard. Driving questions are similar to those asked in the previous
dimension:
* How do we assess for an educator's commitment to equal access to knowledge for
all students? How do we know it when we see it?
* What are the existing learning experiences that are designed to develop awareness
of and application of this dimension -- providing students equal access to knowledge?
* What inhibits the development of an understanding of and commitment to equal
access to knowledge for students?
* How is this dimension reinforced and rewarded?
Dimension III: Pedagogy to Ensure Student Academic and Emotional Growth
Concern for all students' academic and emotional growth is integral to the teacher's
role. Teachers who seek to ensure that students develop their potential to the fullest
will do well to ponder the words of Richard Skemp who said that teaching and
learning of mathematics should be "an interaction between intelligences, each
respecting the other" (1987, p. 85). Although he was speaking of the teaching of a
single subject, the words apply to all grades and all subjects. We believe that teachers
who respect their students will seek and implement strategies that nourish their
optimal development in all human dimensions. They will choose instructional
practices that cultivate and sustain those behaviors and attitudes that will enrich
students' lives in and out of school.
It is essential to help teachers consider the following question - "How can I improve
my teaching to improve students' learning?" (Darling-Hammond, 1997). Pedagogical
practices are frequently addressed in many professional development programs, but
this dimension challenges for a higher level of consideration - one that unequivocally
links pedagogical practices to what students have learned and are able to do. Many
professional development activities, whether for practicing educators or for those
learning to be educators, focus on how to improve particular teaching approaches,
however, too few emphasize the explicit link to student learning or continuous
reflection on ongoing improvement. In order to assess the existence of this dimension,
six driving questions emerge:
* How do we assess for pedagogical practices that are resulting in increased student
learning?
* How can educators at each level (schools and universities) engage in explicit
learning and application of effective pedagogical practices? * What learning
experiences are being provided to develop not only effective pedagogy, but to
challenge educators to explicitly link these to student learning outcomes?
* What inhibits the development of pedagogical practices focused to student learning?
* How is the development of this dimension rewarded and reinforced?
Dimension IV Enculturation into a Democratic Society
Since students in the United States of America live in a democratic society, educators
should recognize that it is the moral obligation of each teacher they meet throughout
their school years to foster their capability to take their rightful place as citizens. This
includes becoming a responsible voter and a contributor to the community. In order to
do these things well, students must be able to consider "multiple perspectives or
viewpoints and weigh the longterm social and moral consequences of decisions"
(Colton & Sparks-Langer, 1993, p.46). Experiences that develop proficiency in these
areas can start early. Problem-solving in mathematics and science, developing skills
in literacy, gathering meaning from texts, and coming to appreciate the benefits of
peaceful cooperation can begin in kindergarten and are not out of place in college.
Therefore, the final dimension to consider for responsible and responsive professional
development is "enculturation into a democratic society." In other words, how can the
profession ensure that adequate attention is being paid to developing students who are
thoughtful, responsible, and responsive to issues and actions that are necessary for
their roles in a democratic society? How are we as educators providing the learning
experiences that will encourage such citizenship? Key questions related to this
dimension are similar to the others, again encouraging self assessment and goal
setting for preservice education majors, for practicing preK-12 teachers, and for
school of education faculty.
* How do we assess the attention to and acquisition of this dimension? How do we
know it when we see it?
* What are the existing professional development opportunities that assist educators
in designing educational programs, courses, and lessons to guide students' preparation
for democratic society?
* How is the development of this dimension in educators rewarded and reinforced?
* What are the inhibitors that occur related to this dimension?
Analysis of Current Professional Career Development Approaches
In order to respond to the questions asked in each of these dimensions, approaches
currently being used in the field should be considered. Formal educator preparation
programs with defined courses, sequences and applications in authentic settings are
carefully designed, assessed, and validated by institutions of higher education and
their accrediting bodies. For the purpose of this paper, in this section we will examine
other aspects of approaches that address professional preparation and continuous
renewal of educators. While there are many ways that staff or career development can
be delivered, we limit our discussion to five, as outlined by Sparks and LoucksHorsley (1989). Slightly renamed for our purposes, they are 1) individually-guided
projects, 2) observation and assessment, 3) committee work, 4) attendance at
workshops and conferences, and 5) action research. Each of these models for career
development has its virtues and its drawbacks. For instance:
Individually-guided projects are apt to involve a level of motivation that will sustain
sincere efforts to resolve the identified goal. Individual inquiry may also involve
effort on a project that has little support from decision-makers and can be a very
lonely endeavor.
Observation by a peer or by someone appointed to this task can provide an
opportunity to discuss issues of immediate concern to a teacher with an experienced
educator. Observation, as most of us can attest, however, can also be a threatening
experience that disrupts if not the class, then at least the teacher's ability to
concentrate fully on the task of teaching.
Committee work can be a satisfying collegial endeavor that brings together many
minds intent on solving a vexing problem. All too often, though, assignment to a
committee is seen as, if not punishment, then at least busy-work. Disenchantment
with this opportunity for career development is especially rampant in arenas where
groups have worked diligently to produce a product or a set of recommendations that
are then ignored or changed beyond recognition.
Attendance at workshops or conferences can be an enlivening, invigorating
experience. It can also lead to hours spent in ways deemed boring or so far removed
from local conditions as to be irrelevant. Time away from the classroom can also be
viewed as a social event that has little to do with the real problems faced by educators.
Finally, action research can provide an opportunity for educators to investigate
potential means to achieve a desired change and lead to the adoption of more
appropriate practices. However, such inquiry can also be based on trivial questions or
on questions so wide-reaching that no answers can be found within the individual
classroom.
Each of these approaches typically occurs in varying degrees for preservice teachers,
in-service teachers and university professors. For the purpose of providing examples,
the authors attempted to summarize in Table I what we find to be the norm for
utilization of these five approaches.
As can be seen in Table I, there are some similarities and differences in the level of
frequency among the three groups. For instance, individually-guided investigations as
defined in the table are frequently used by the university faculty and very infrequently
by preservice teachers to develop new understandings about educational related
issues. Preservice teachers are often observed and assessed, especially during the later
portions of their programs. However, they are rarely on committees, infrequently
attend conferences, and only occasionally have an opportunity to engage in action
research. On the other hand, while in-service teachers are less frequently observed and
assessed or engage in action research, they are often on committees, and attend
workshops (although many of these may not be of their own choosing). In many
universities, professors are seldom, if ever, observed. They are likely, however, to
engage in action research, attend conferences and engage in committee work.
As previously discussed, the redefinition of professional development can only be
accomplished by connecting the goals (in this instance, the four moral dimensions)
with available or redesigned approaches (such as the five described in Table I). The
long-term impact of an ongoing examination the goals and approaches can greatly
inform reform efforts in schools and colleges of education.
Applying the Professional Development Framework
When considering each of the questions raised in the discussion of Goodlad's four
dimensions, it is important to examine their relationship to the three subject groups
(preservice teachers, practicing preK-12 teachers, and university teacher educators). It
is not surprising that there are different levels of emphasis on the dimensions
depending on the context. The following sections outline a number of the authors'
collective responses to each of questions posed within each of the dimensions of the
framework?; How do we infuse the development of each dimension into the teacher
educator program so it is not incremental?; and Are students, at this point,
developmentally ready to consider each specific dimension (such as stewardship) or
do they need to concentrate on classroom practice as a focused entity before they can
move in the broader educational arena?
Development of the Moral Dimensions for PreK12 Educators
Our knowledge and experiences related to the development of the moral dimensions
in preK12 organizations are derived from public school teaching experience and from
our close work with public school partners. In considering each of the dimensions, we
agree that the educational context for these educators typically results in greater
development in some areas than in others. For instance, we agree teachers'
development of stewardship is enhanced by their increased involvement in school
improvement planning and their engagement in developing school visions and
missions. We also understand that such opportunities may not involve all teachers
equally and that the results of such involvement may vary widely, individual to
individual or school to school. Teachers however often perceive they lack the
capability to influence the profession as a whole or even to influence school /or
system-level change.
In some schools, issues related to student performance are forcing educators to
examine "the opportunities to learn" specific students are and are not receiving. In
North Carolina, the accountability movement focuses educators' attention to equal
access to knowledge for all students. Although this attention does not necessarily lead
to improved professional development initiatives, it is a consistently recognized need
in schools and thus has established a readiness level for change to occur.
When considering the development of the third dimension in PreK-12 educators, the
explicit attention to the development of pedagogy to ensure student academic and
emotional growth to a level of conscious action is also an issue. Although many
professional development initiatives do attend to pedagogical approaches and specific
curriculum improvements, there is typically no assistance that helps teachers
implement learned strategies in the classroom. Even more importantly, teachers are
not challenged to assess how what they have implemented is affecting student
learning outcomes. Emerging initiatives in school-based research enables teachers and
university faculty to become engaged in research studies designed to answer these
important questions and to share responses with others.
The final dimension, enculturation into a democratic society, as it applies to teachers
in preK-12 schools, is not typically attended to in professional development
initiatives. Teachers are often engaged in activities that are closely tied to classroom
practice, to specific schoolbased issues, but to very few larger societal issues. Their
development as democratic citizens is left to personal and professional motivation or
to individual contexts. The development of this dimension is not in the purview of the
educational community to provide guidance or support.
Development of the Moral Dimensions for Higher Education Faculty
In higher education, major events such as the National Forum that brought our writing
team together, or externally initiated endeavors, such as program revisions
necessitated by changes in state policies or legislation, create opportunities for faculty
to engage in discussions regarding broad program issues and innovations. However,
as with preK-12 educators, these opportunities are rare. Individual faculty members
often have in-depth, broad perspectives within their own specialty areas that are
informed by state and national policy and initiatives. But the focus on discipline
specificity often inhibits the development of stewardship among university faculty for
the School or profession as a whole. Several examples come to mind. In the best
organizations, faculty have limited opportunities to consider as a group the
connections between their specific course and others in the student's program. Even
rarer, is the chance for faculty to explore the impact or influence variations in
professors' educational philosophies may have on their student's development of a
decision framework that will ultimately guide their own practice.
The dimension of equal access to knowledge in higher education is also problematic.
Faculty should not only design and deliver courses that ensure students have both an
equal access to knowledge, but should develop students' understanding about the
ramifications of inequality and the possible solutions that are within their control or
influence as classroom teachers.
The application of this dimension in schools of education must be focused on what
exists and what program modifications can be made. An example of one faculty's
attention to this dimension is occurring in our own program. Specific programs are
designed by faculty with specialty in the various areas (such as, Birth to Kindergarten
education, elementary education, special education, middle grades education). In
these programs, faculty have specifically designed a sequence of courses to ensure
that students are provided the knowledge they must have to be successful educators in
a given area of specialization. The faculty as a group recognized the importance of
early, developmentally appropriate, and learning focused field experiences for all
education majors. An analysis that examined all programs, looking for congruence
between what we say we believe and what actually occurs revealed that, due to
program design and resulting constraints, the field-based opportunities for secondary
education majors are considerably fewer than for other education majors. Although
opportunities to engage in faculty-wide or group discussions about this issue are
infrequent, the resulting conversations related to this issue are leading to other equally
important discussions. The final dimension, enculturation into a democratic society,
can be viewed in two contexts - development of this dimension for an individual
faculty and their development of this dimension in future educators. As with the
previous dimension, the engagement of faculty members in activities/initiatives that
look at the broader societal issues is accomplished on an individual basis. Efforts to
ensure students have an understanding of their role in developing citizens can be
addressed by individual faculty, but programmatic long-term development does not
exist. It is not unusual for a faculty to provide time and structures to encourage
students to wrestle with this issue, but not be sure of where else in the program this
occurs. Although the program is designed to be very logically and developmentally
appropriate for students, and the sequence and goals and objectives are intended to
cover all major areas of study, it is difficult to know without focused discussions
among involved faculty whether students are actually learning what is intended.
A summary of this analysis, using the professional development framework, by
subject groups may best be depicted in Table 2. We believe that the analysis of
existing conditions across the span of these three contexts is an important first step to
improving the development of educators across the career span. Of course, the task
then becomes even more challenging for our faculty. What do we, at the College of
Education, do now?
Redefining Professional Career Development As we consider each of these moral
dimensions and how the elements within each are addressed in schools and colleges
of education, the guiding questions posed for each dimension serves to help us assess
current professional development programs. As one colleague questioned, now what
do you do with this knowledge? The following questions are used to focus the
discussion about our next steps:
* What are the identified professional development and school restructuring needs
related to the development of stewardship?
* What are the identified needs related to the development of an understanding about,
commitment to, and application of equal access to knowledge for all students?
* What are the identified needs related to the development of pedagogical practices
that are explicitly linked to improving student outcomes?
What are the identified needs related to the development of future or practicing
educators who are thoughtful, responsible, and responsive to issues and actions
necessary for their roles in a democratic society?
From the previous examination it became obvious that there is a wide variation in the
current development opportunities across dimensions and across contexts. It is critical
that organizations adopt professional development approaches that are designed to
match the conditions within the educational context. This flexibility is necessary for
any change effort and, as discussed in an earlier section, does not currently exist in
most instances. Based on our conclusions, professional career development whether
for preservice teachers, preK-12 educators, and university faculty should be designed
to:
* Provide responses to questions versus being a list of activities
* Reward and reinforce professional growth
* Provide ways for individuals within the organization to know the whole picture
* Provide opportunities for educators to frame and reframe issues that should be
confronted in meetings that involve all faculty in a reexamination of the norms of
practice * Develop ways to ensure authentic growth in teacher development at all
levels
* Provide time to maintain current knowledge and skills in one's own field
* Develop ways for educators to engage in discussions, learning through professional
discourse
* Develop understandings and connections between disciplines and across all
stakeholders
Implications for Schools and Colleges of Education
Given the position that ongoing professional development for all educators in preK-12
settings and teacher preparation programs is deemed imperative, it is vital to consider
the implications for schools and colleges of education. How can the professional
development of teacher educators parallel the ideas described earlier in this paper,
such as the development of moral dimensions, maintenance of faculty/student
mentoring relationships, and involvement in program components that stimulate
authentic inquiry and professional growth? How can professional development in
schools and colleges of education be designed in ways that differ from the current
types of staff development programs, e.g., inservice workshops and individual
projects, and address the factors listed above? A final question is how can teacher
education be transformed and transformative in ways that impact entire organizations,
instead of becoming a restructuring effort that develops a new or "model" program
that involves only a subset of faculty at the school and university levels?