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Dr Nina Lübbren: Research Project Hand-Out
How to write a good research essay: Some helpful hints
Form (the following is meant to be suggestive and helpful, not restrictive; other
forms are possible):
Introduction:
* Begin with a paragraph or two of introduction in which you state and define your
theme, perhaps refer to earlier writings about it, and provide some brief
background for what follows. Address the question STRAIGHT AWAY.
• Your next paragraph should follow on logically from your introductory
paragraph. E.g.: If you state in your opening, "I am going to focus on Robert
Wiene's film The Cabinet of Dr Caligari", don't just talk about something else in
your next paragraph. Either go on to talk about Caligari straight away or say
something like, "Before analysing the film, I will discuss x", then explain why x is
relevant.
Body of essay:
The argument.
• In the body of the essay, discuss the works of art and otherwise develop your
argument, keeping always in mind the topic and point of your paper. Every
discussion of every work should somehow advance your argument. This means
that basically you must have an argument, i.e. some line of thought directed at
your subject, rather than just a list of facts about it.
• Try to construct a basic argument by asking a question of your subject. Avoid a
list of information. Avoid simply describing something. Always analyse and
explain.
• Avoid lists of artists' names, biographical data and titles of works; put these in
an appendix, if necessary.
Chapters
• Break up your essay into 3-4 chapters. Give each chapter a heading. Each
chapter should focus on one aspect of your topic.
Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of an essay.
• Every paragraph should follow on logically from the previous one. Avoid
sudden jumps from topic to topic.
• Don't crowd too much information into one paragraph. E.g.: If you have
something to say on a painting's technique, its historical background and where it
was exhibited, devote one paragraph to each of these issues one after the other.
• Group similar arguments or points together. Rule of thumb: one paragraph =
one point; new point = new paragraph.
* Introduce each paragraph with a topic sentence.
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Be relevant!!!!
• Stick to the point of the question or topic in every single paragraph of your
essay. Don't say anything irrelevant to your subject no matter how interesting.
Straying off the topic is one of the most common reasons for losing marks.
Be specific.
• Avoid sweeping statements and generalisations; tie in every single thing you
say to your topic.
• Don't just state an opinion; back it up with evidence, e.g. a film, or a
sequence or a shot. Evidence is a reference or a specific example. You need
proof for everything.
Your own voice.
• You will know some specialized terms, but don't feel that you have to imitate
the language of film critics, historians and theoreticians. You will express yourself
best in those terms which come naturally to you and are familiar.
• On the other hand, don't be afraid to be as theoretical and scholarly as you can
handle. Show what you have learned.
Relevant reading.
• It is excellent scholarly practice to read and engage with the arguments of other
scholars. However, avoid an over-dependence on other authors' interpretations.
• Use your sources critically, i.e. test an author's claims against your own
observations. Use texts, don't just read them, i.e. include quotes, juxtapose
different authors' interpretations, explain how an author is useful (or not) for topic
at hand, agree or disagree and explain why, etc
• Don't include quotations without explaining them. Remember that no quotation
speaks for itself. Each one needs to be explained in your own words and linked
to your own points.
Write clearly.
• Pay attention to grammar, spelling and sentence structure (syntax). Look out
for floating pronouns: is it always clear what a "they" or a "this" refers to? Does
each sentence follow on logically from the previous one?
• Avoid convoluted sentences. If this has been a problem in the past: delete
commas and semi-colons and replace with full stops.
• Do a spellcheck at the end, and then go through and check spelling manually.
Make sure you've spelled all artist's and writer's names correctly.
Word choice.
• Do not use the phrases 'I feel', 'I believe'. Instead write: 'I will argue'.
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• Avoid the noun 'feel'. Substitute 'effect'. E.g. 'This painting has a gloomy
feel to it'. Instead, write: 'The dark colours of this painting produce a gloomy
effect.'
• Do not use the word 'simplistic' (overly simple, stupid) when you really mean
'simple' (basic, straightforward).
• Do not use words such as 'nice, huge, massive, amazing' or any other
evaluative words of praise (they are vague generalisations, cannot be proven
and are irrelevant to the topic).
• Do not write phrases such as 'x is one of the most famous paintings of all
time', 'it has always been the case'. Don't claim that anything is eternal.
• Do not use 'portray' when you mean 'depict', 'show' or 'represent'. Use
'portray' only for portraiture and people.
• Write 'cropped' (for 'cut off'). Write 'bisected' (for 'cut in half').
Syntax.
• Do not use incomplete sentences. A complete sentence has a subject, a
finite verb and a main clause.
Examples of incomplete sentences:
• 'Whereas Casablanca was released in 1942.' (This is a secondary clause.)
Rewrite as: 'Casablanca was released in 1942.'
• 'Casablanca was directed by Curtiz. Starring Bogart and Bergman.'
(This has no subject and no finite verb only a present participle.)
Rewrite as: 'Casablanca was directed by Michael Curtiz and starred Bogart and Bergman.'
• Do not ramble.
If your sentences go on forever, learn to love the fullstop. Reduce commas.
Conclusion:
The discussions in the body of your essay will lead to your conclusion in which
you sum up the understanding you have reached in the course of writing your
long essay, perhaps suggesting solutions to problems raised at the beginning.
• Don't feel, however, that you have to present a watertight answer to any
specific problem you started out with. A good conclusion will point out that some
things can be said with certainty, others only tentatively and that some points you
may wish to make are pure speculation. A conclusion that simply restates what
we knew at the beginning isn't impressive.
• Avoid introducing completely new material in the conclusion.
• Once you've written your conclusion, re-read your introduction and revise both
so that they relate to each other logically.
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Revision:
When you have finished, please re-read to catch typing errors, misspellings etc.
We certainly don't grade on the basis of neatness or good prose style, but a
paper that is sloppy in these respects inevitably makes a less favourable
impression than it otherwise would. It is in your interest, after you have invested
so much time and thought in the essay, to take a little extra time to go over it.
• Rule of thumb: spend one-third of your time on planning and researching the
essay, one-third on writing the first draft, and one-third on revision.
Words commonly misspelled:
accentuated
accessible
argument
conscious
definitely
detached
parallel
palette
prominent (but dominant)
receive, perceive
separate
spatial
until (not untill)
visible
precede vs proceed
recede
lose (verb) vs loose (adjective)
choose (present) vs chose (past)
lead vs led
compliment vs complement
effect vs affect
principal vs principle
picture plane (not plain)
vertical axis, horizontal axis; two axes
simple vs simplistic (they are NOT
the same!)
it's vs its!
it's: Learn to distinguish "its" from "it's" (be one of the few who still do). "It's" can
only be used as a contraction of "it is". So, remember: it's = it is, always. (The
dog wagged it's tail = The dog wagged it is tail.)
Further advice on essay-writing in Tim Corrigan, A Short Guide to Writing About
Art
Illustrations:
• Include photocopies or print-outs of key images after the bibliography (blackand-white is fine). Avoid integrating them into your text. (There are different
schools of thought on this. It is more professional to group images at the end
rather than to try and be your own lay-out designer.)
• Number and caption your images, e.g.:
Fig. 1, Alfred Stieglitz, The Flatiron, 1903, photogravure on vellum, Museum of
Modern Art, New York
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• Refer to the figure number in your text, e.g. 'I will discuss Alfred Stieglitz's The
Flatiron, 1903 (fig.1).'
• Minimum information needed for each image: Artist's name, title of work (in
italics), date, location of work (gallery, museum or private collection)
• Optional additional information: Dimensions, medium
Presentation:
• Leave adequate margins (at least 3 cm) on both sides.
• Font to use: Times New Roman, point 12.
• Use double-spacing.
• Number pages consecutively.
• Attach a completed assignment cover sheet (not a studio cover sheet!).
• Order of items:
- Cover sheet
- Title page
- Table of contents
- Introduction
- Chapter 1
- Chapter 2
- Chapter 3
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
- Appendix 1 (optional)\
- Appendix 2 (optional)
- List of illustrations (needed if you don't caption illustrations)
- Illustrations (labelled Figure 1, Figure 2 and so on; ideally, caption them)
Submission:
• Hand in to the Student Information Centre by 3 pm on the due date.
• Obtain a receipt and keep that in a safe place.
• Always keep a copy of your essay!
Other FAQ
• May I use the word 'I'?
Yes. This is now commonly accepted as good practice. Earlier texts
sometimes use 'we' or passive constructions; 'we' now sounds outdated. Just
make sure you say 'I will argue' or 'I will show'. It's best to avoid writing 'I feel'
or 'I believe' (see above).
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• Can I put in my personal view or must I be objective?
It is a good idea to communicate your personal view in the form of an
argument. Back up your own view with (objective) proof, examples and
references to the views of other authors you have read. The more you read,
the more informed your personal view will be.
• How do I quote someone who is quoted in a book?
Humphrey Bogart said 'I love Casablanca'. (quoted in Smith 2008, p.4).
• How do I reference a website in the text?
In 1943, Churchill and Roosevelt met in Casablanca to discuss the progress
of the war. ('Casablanca', 2007).
- The bibliography should then read: 'Casablanca' (2007), Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca [last accessed 10 Nov. 2009]
• How many references do I need?
This depends. You need a reference for every quotation. You need a
reference for every piece of information that you did not make up. You need a
reference for anything you paraphrase. You may well have 7 to 10 references
on one page.
• What if there is no author?
Use the title. E.g. The Film Book (2009), London: Sage.
Alternatively, write Anonymous. E.g. Anonymous (2009), The Film Book,
London: Sage.
• What if there is no date? Write (n.d.) or (no date).
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Every research essay must have a bibliography and in-text references.
Bibliography
• The bibliography is a list of references used. It is set out in alphabetical
order of author's surname.
Example of a bibliography
Belton, J. (2010), American Films, Boston: McGraw
Bordwell, K. and Thompson, D., eds (2009), Film: A Reader, New York:
Schuster
Kirshner, J. (2002), 'Subverting the Cold War', Film and History, 31:2, pp.4044
Schatz, T. (1993), 'The New Hollywood', in J. Collins and H. Radner (eds),
Film Theory, London: Routledge
Trouble, F. (2009), 'Film is Fabulous', Journal of Film, 5, avail. online at
http://www.filmisfab.html [last accessed 2 Feb. 2010]
'Vietnam War' (2007), Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_war
[last accessed 25 Jan. 2007}
• In your bibliography, only include those texts that you actually cite in your
text as an in-text reference. Don't 'pad' the bibliography even if you have read
more books than you cite.
• The bibliography goes right at the end, after your text.
References
• Your in-text references relate directly to the bibliography. Please use the
Harvard System. In this system, the reference appears in parentheses after a
quotation and at the end of a sentence.
• You need: author's surname, date, page number/s. Nothing else.
• Author unknown? See FAQ above.
• Date unknown? See FAQ above.
• Websites don't need page numbers.
• The following examples relate directly to the bibliography given above.
Cinema is everywhere (Belton 2010, p.34).
It could be argued that cinema is not everywhere (Bordwell and Thompson
2009, p.3).
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Kirshner argues that horror movies reflect the Cold War (2002, pp.41-2).
Thomas Schatz coined the term 'New Hollywood'. (1993, p.78).
Dil Se has an 'integrated narrative structure' (Trouble 2009).
'From 110 BC to 938 AD (with the exception of brief periods), much of
present-day Vietnam, especially the northern half, was part of China.'
('Vietnam', 2007).
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How to do research
Research is a chain link. Each link leads you to the next one. Find one
relevant and recent scholarly text, and this will have references and a
bibliography. Choose the relevant ones and keep going!
Trust mainly those texts that have references and/or a bibliography. This rule
goes for printed texts as well as websites.
• Start in the University Library. Look for books.
Online catalogue: http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/
Subject Guide for Art:
http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/guides/files/art_cam_JC.pdf?guides=Art&submit.x=2
0&submit.y=7&submit=Go
This is also available as a hand-out in the Library.
• Check Jane Turner, ed., Dictionary of Art, Macmillan 1998. Write down
relevant books and articles in the bibliographies to each relevant entry.
• Look for articles.
Check the Art Index (avail. in the Library).
Browse the periodicals on the shelves. A list of periodicals is in the
Subject Guide for Art (see above).
• Visit major collections and galleries, e.g. Fitzwilliam Museum, Tate Modern,
Tate Britain, V&A, British Museum. Check these galleries' websites for further
information.
Once you've narrowed down your topic, you can politely ask to see a gallery's
archive. E.g. Tate Britain has many letters and newspapers clipping,
organised by artist. You may need a letter from the University to use such
sources.
• Use the web judiciously.
Wikipedia is fine to get some initial information but take everything you
read there with a grain of salt. Double-check each Wikipedia 'fact'. You'd be
amazed what wrong nonsense ends up there sometimes.
Use image-google to narrow your search for works of art.
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Use "double quotation marks" to search for a phrase, e.g. <"Bill
Viola">, not <Bill Viola>.
Youtube sometimes has interviews and clips, especially useful in the
case of video or performance art.
The best scholarly sources are often part of university websites.
Narrow your search by adding <site:ac.uk> or <site:edu> to your search
terms. This will bring up pages from American universities (edu) and British
universities (ac.uk).
Trust websites that have references and / or a bibliography.
• Interviews
If you are writing about a living artist, you may wish to conduct an interview,
either in person or via email or telephone. Always enquire politely and keep a
written or taped record. Ask permission to use what they say in your essay.
In your bibliography, give the date of the interview.
How many texts do I need to use?
Your bibliography should have at least fifteen items in it. This should include
at least ten books or articles (i.e. not websites).
There is no maximum. Go for it.
How much do I need to read?
There is no maximum here, either. Most people read more than they end up
actually using in their essay. This is good. If you read loads, you broaden
your knowledge and horizons, and you get to pick and choose intelligently for
your essay.
How much do I need to read before I start writing?
It's best to start writing early, before you feel quite ready. You can revise
later. Don't leave it till December! Write and read alongside each other.
Estimate at least one week's solid writing per chapter (and then another week
for revisions).
Questions?
Email me at n.lubbren@anglia.ac.uk or post them to
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/angliaresearch
I will collate them and post a list of FAQ with answers. If it's a very specific
question, I'll email you back.
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How to choose a topic
* Read around. Browse the shelves. Go to exhibitions.
• Choose an artist, a work of art, a film, an issue, a theoretical debate, a
concept or a movement.
• Cast your net wide but then narrow it down. The best research essays are
the ones with the most closely-focused topics. If you choose an artist, focus
on one work of art (maximum three). If you choose a movement, focus on
three examples of art. If you choose an issue, focus on one or two critical
texts.
• Keep you focus small. Then you can go into as much depth as you want,
and look at the topic from a number of different angles. Research widely but
focus narrowly.
• Choose something that interests you. It doesn't necessarily have to be a
topic you love (often this can hinder research and make writing difficult!) but it
mustn't bore you. If you hate it but feel strongly and are intrigued by the topic,
that could work out well.
• Be prepared to shed pre-existing opinions and ideas about your topic.
Apporach it with an open mind.
• Don't praise or judge or evaluate or condemn. This is not your job in a
research essay. Your job is to analyse and explain. (This is why you don't
need to love your subject.)
• Choose something that has some relation to your own work in the studio.
Really explore this topic from all angles. Pick it apart.
• Alternatively, choose something that is quite different and that seems weird
or alien to you. You might find out interesting things that will then have an
unexpected bearing on your own studio work (or not!).
• Believe it or not: writing the long research essay is great fun. You finally
get to do just what you want to do: nobody prescribing a topic, nobody
breathing down your neck, nobody making you read boring texts. True, it's
hard work -- but nearly everyone I've supervised over the years has come out
the other end, feeling excited by their work and proud of their achievement.
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Web Support for the Research Project
I am providing web support for this module at a specially-created yahoo
group, called 'Research Project'. The address is:
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/angliaresearch
I will upload this hand-out Module Guide and other relevant hand-outs onto
the 'Files' section of the group. I will also update the group from time to time
throughout the semester and invite online discussion. I will also collate your
questions into an FAQ page with answers.
You must be a member to access the group.
How to join:
• If you have a yahoo email address, go to the above page and follow the
sign-in instructions.
• If you don't have a yahoo email address, get one for the purposes of this
module. Go to the above page and follow the sign-up instructions. This does
not need to be the email address you use to read your group messages; it's
just a yahoo ID.
• Use an email address that you actually access (not the university one, if you
never look at that one).
• If you have any questions about the web page, how to sign up and so forth,
email me at n.lubbren@anglia.ac.uk
Best wishes
Nina
Note: The module leader for this module is Paul Marris.