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ChE 333, 414, 424 Writing Guide ...................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 2
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Common Mistakes in Report Writing ..................................................................... 3
1.2 Labelling Figures and Tables .................................................................................. 4
1.3 MS Word FAQ ........................................................................................................ 5
2.0 Full Formal Reports: ..................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Abstract ................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Table of Contents .................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Nomenclature .......................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
2.5 Theory ..................................................................................................................... 9
2.6 Apparatus .............................................................................................................. 10
2.7 Procedure .............................................................................................................. 11
2.8 Results and Discussion ......................................................................................... 11
2.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 12
2.10 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 13
2.11 References ........................................................................................................... 13
2.12 Appendices .......................................................................................................... 14
3.0 Brief Report ................................................................................................................ 16
3.1 Summary ............................................................................................................... 16
4.0 Technical Memorandum ............................................................................................. 17
4.1 Suggested Format of a Tech Memo ...................................................................... 17
4.2 Notes on Tech Memos .......................................................................................... 18
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The purpose of this writing guide is to inform students in the chemical engineering laboratory courses (ChE 333, 414, 424) of the requirements and expectations for full formal reports, brief reports, and technical memos. It is intended that this writing guide be used in conjunction with the textbook Writing Style and Standards in
Undergraduate Reports (2004) by Jeter and Donnell. It is hoped that using this guide will not only improve the students' writing, and thus their grade, but also accelerate the writing process.
The following list is a compilation of common mistakes made when preparing reports and memos. The following things should be avoided:

Writing in the first person, i.e. I observed that, We then turned on the pump, This lab was performed by Jennifer and Tom.

Putting new information, not discussed in the results and discussion section, in the conclusion.

Referring to figures without explaining its meaning, its trends, and its implications. Note that it is the duty of the report author, not the reader, to interpret data.

Failing to discuss the experimental apparatus and measurement devices in technical memos.
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The following is an example of how figures and tables should be labelled. Note that both have descriptive titles that outline the important experimental conditions. The caption for a figure goes below the figure; while the caption for a table goes above the table.
Figure 3: Bubbling frequency plotted with 95% confidence interval for 2% moisture pharmaceutical granule in a conical fluidized bed dryer. The lower plane corresponds to a bed depth of 0.11 m; the upper plane corresponds to a bed depth of
0.15 m.
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Table 1: Key design operating conditions for industrial Fluid Catalytic Cracking unit strippers.
Stripping Steam Severity (kg steam/ 1000 kg catalyst) 2 – 4
Superficial Steam Velocity (m/s)
Steam Quality
Superficial Catalyst Flux (kg/m
2 s)
Maximum Restricted Catalyst Flux (kg/m
2 s)
Mean Catalyst Residence Time (s)
Stripper Temperature (ºC)
0.15 – 0.30
~55ºC Superheat
30 – 75
250
60 – 120
495 - 565
Q. Where do I find the equation editor icon to write equations in my report?
A. Equation editor can be found by selecting:
"Tools" → "Customize" → Select the "Command" tab → Under categories (the left column) select "Insert" → Under commands (the right column) drag "Equation Editor" onto an open space in the tool bar
Note: The equation editor icon is a ‘square root alpha’ (

)
Q. How do I find the drawing toolbar to make process flow diagrams?
A. The drawing toolbar can be found by selecting:
"Tools" → "Customize" → Select the "Toolbars" tab → Under "Toolbars" click the box next to "Drawing"
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The drawing toolbar is located along the bottom of your screen. Select shapes by clicking
"AutoShapes" or one of the other icons contained in the toolbar.
Q. How do I automatically create a table of contents?
A. First, ensure the standard formatting toolbar is available.
"Tools" → "Customize" → Select the "Toolbars" tab → Under "Toolbars" check the box next to "Standard"
The first step is to tell MS Word what is a heading and what is not. This can be done by highlighting the text you want to select as a heading in your table of contents. Next, locate the formatting list on the toolbar. The formatting list normally will read "Normal" or "Normal + Line spacing: Double" (see figure below). With the text highlighted, expand the formatting list (by clicking the arrow) and select one of "Heading 1",
"Heading 2", or "Heading 3". Go through your entire document and format all desired headings in the same manner. To create the table of contents, follow this procedure:
"Insert" → "Reference" → "Index and Tables" → Select the "Table of Contents" tab →
Configure to your preferences → Press "OK"
Note 1: The table of contents will appear wherever your cursor is on the page
Note 2: To update your table of contents (if you changed page numbers and/ or added headings in your report) right click on the table of contents and select "Update Field" and then select "Update entire table"
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Formatting List
Q. What are macros and how do I use them?
A. Macros allow you to use repetitive symbols or text by pressing a key combination on your keyboard. They are particularly useful when inserting Greek letters or equations into your text. In the following example, I would like make the symbol αλ a macro.
"Tools" → Macro → Select "Record New Macro" → Press the "Keyboard" button (it has a picture of a keyboard on the button) → enter the key combination of your choice in the space under "Press new shortcut key". Be sure to use a key combo that is not used for anything else (I used Ctrl Q). → Press "Assign" → Press "Close" → The macro is now recording. Any keys that you press or actions you perform until you stop recording the macro will occur when you press the button combination (Ctrl Q). I now insert the symbols αλ into the document as usual. → On the small toolbar that popped up when the macro started recording, press "■" (the stop button) to stop recording the macro. Now press the key combination assigned the macro (Ctrl Q). The intended symbol should appear.
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Note: You can assign many macros for use in your report using the same procedure as above, but with a different key combination.
The formal report is written to be a complete analysis and account of the experimental program. The formal report is composed of 12 sections: abstract, table of contents, nomenclature, introduction, theory, apparatus, procedure, results and discussion, conclusions, recommendations, references, and appendices (There may be several sections to the appendix, i.e. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc).
The abstract should be written after all other sections of the report are completed.
The abstract is a brief summary of the experimental program and results. A typical abstract will be approximately 250 words; written as a single paragraph. The abstract should clearly state the purpose of the experiment, and outline the methodology (what raw data was measured to obtain your final results), and the important results of the experiment. The results outlined should 'answer' your purpose statement. More information, as well as a sample abstract, can be found on pages 13 and 14 of Writing
Style and Standards in Undergraduate Reports (2004).
The table of contents gives the titles of each section of the report and the page number on which the section begins.
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The nomenclature lists all symbols used in equations. These symbols should be listed in alphabetical order. Greek symbols should be kept in a separate list within the nomenclature section.
The introduction provides background information relevant to the experimental objectives and findings. Any technical issues that can be addressed with the study should also be addressed (i.e. why are the results practical/ important, for what purpose would someone take these measurements). The introduction should be written such that information progresses from general statements at the beginning to project specific statements at the end of the introduction section. The final paragraph of this section should clearly state the objectives of the experiment and briefly state the methodology for attaining the purpose. The design problem should also be stated (The design problem can be found in the laboratory manual, and is usually a scale up problem or a series of theoretical questions pertaining to experimental results). Refer to page 67 of Writing
Style and Standards in Undergraduate Reports (2004) for an overview of what should be included in the introduction section.
The theory section outlines the theoretical background necessary for calculating and analyzing the experimental data. Important equations must not only be presented, but
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also explained in physical terms (rather than describing what each variable in the equation represents). Also, any simplifying assumptions used in the analysis of data must be described and justified. For example, Bernoulli's equation predicts the steady-state pressure drop in circular tubing:

P
  g
 h
 

 

U
2
2



2 fL
D

K
2

 (1)
Pressure drop arises from the system gain in potential energy (
 g
 h ), loss in kinetic energy (


2
), and frictional losses ( U
2



2 fL
D

K
2

 ). Frictional losses are a combined effect of the fluid viscosity, pipe wall frictional effects, and frictional losses over pipe fittings. The fanning friction factor is determined from the Moody diagram; it is a function of the Reynolds Number and the pipe roughness. …etc
The apparatus section should include a process flow diagram (computer drawn on
MS Word or another computer program) and a description of the experimental apparatus.
The type of instrument used for measurements must be included in the description (i.e. mercury manometer for pressure measurements). Engineering symbols for process units should be included wherever possible (see Ulrich & Vesudevan: Chemical Engineering
Process Design and Economics, 2 nd
Edition, pg 563 - 571).
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The procedure section can be coupled with the apparatus section above. The procedure section simply outlines the experimental procedure used to obtain the experimental data. Procedures for any necessary equipment calibrations should also be included (if applicable). The range of input variables (variables you controlled, i.e. flow rate, temperatures) and important physical constants (fluid used in experiments, temperature, pressure) should be clearly stated.
The results and discussion is the most important section of the report, and as such has the heaviest weighting of marks. The results and discussion section should contain both the results from the experiment and a discussion of the design problem (The design problem is given in the laboratory manual). A good results and discussion section requires the author to first objectively describe the data, then evaluate the data in terms of chemical engineering theory and conventions. Refer to pages 5 and 6 of Writing Style and Standards in Undergraduate Reports (2004), "Conventions for presenting technical substance" for a systematic method for presenting and interpreting data.
Experimental results should be both explained in text and presented in graphical form. Trends in the data must be justified with physical arguments whenever possible.
Justifying the experimental trends ensures the reader that data was properly scrutinized, rather than just assumed to be correct. Consider the hypothetical experiment of pumping fluids of different viscosities through equivalent piping and at equivalent fluid velocities.
The data from this experiment indicates that there is an increased pressure drop across the
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length of piping as the fluid viscosity increases. A physical argument that justifies this trend in the data can be made: the higher pressure drop observed with increasing fluid viscosity is expected because higher viscosity fluids have more resistance to flow, and thus loses more energy to frictional losses in the piping. A theoretical argument can also be made to justify the data trend in the hypothetical experiment: the increased fluid viscosity decreases the Reynolds number, NRe, thus increasing the fanning friction factor predicted from the Moody diagram. The energy loss due to friction is predicted by the term: lwf

2 fU
2
L
in Bernoulli’s equation, therefore increasing the fanning friction
D factor predicts an increased pressure drop.
When presenting experimental data, conclusions about the data must be made.
Most often, this will be a comparison of a theoretical model with experimental data.
Differences between the model and experimental data should be quantified by calculating the percent ‘error’ (a percent difference really, since theory is just an estimate). Note where especially large divergence between the model and experiment exist, or if there is a trend in the error (i.e. the difference between the model and experiment increases with increasing flow rate). Differences between the model and experiment should be justified, especially if large discrepancies exist. This could include scrutinizing model assumptions, or commenting on specific measurement devices used in collecting experimental data which may be inappropriate or prone to error.
The conclusion section summarizes the important results of the experimental investigation. The conclusion should not present any new information, but is a summary
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of the important results presented in the results and discussion section of your report.
Basically, the conclusion should 'answer' the purpose of the lab presented in the introduction. A summary of the design question should also be presented. The conclusion section should be written in paragraph form.
The recommendations section is an opportunity to suggest changes to the laboratory procedure or the type of measurement instruments used in order to improve the laboratory in future years. The recommendation section should be written in paragraph form.
In the references section, you should list your references from your report in the same order in which they were used (as opposed to alphabetical order). See the example below for the recommended technique for referencing work within the body of your report, and the technique for listing the references in your reference section. Note that there are many different methods for referencing outside work, and all are acceptable.
…Wiens and Pugsley [1] found the bubbling frequency to increase with the gas superficial velocity. Similar findings were observed by Kunii and Levenspiel [2]…
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[1] J. Wiens, T. Pugsley, Tomographic imaging of a conical fluidized bed of dry pharmaceutical granule, Powder Technology 169 (2006) 49 – 59
[2] D. Kunii, O. Levenspiel, Fluidization engineering 2nd edition, New York, 1991 105 –
106
Volume #
Publisher name
Year of publication
Year of publication
Page range of publication
Page range the info is found
Note that [1] is a journal article and [2] is a textbook.
The formal report includes two or more appendices:
1.
An appendix that contains both raw experimental data and calculated data. The data should be tabulated.
2.
An appendix containing sample calculations. The sample calculations should take one set of raw experimental data through all the necessary calculations to achieve the final calculated quantity. Sample calculations should include a brief but specific outline of what is calculated, units should be carried through the calculation, and the final result should have the proper units and proper significant
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figures. An example of the format used for sample calculations can be seen below.
3.
If the experiment requires the derivation of a model equation for the system, then this should be included in another appendix.
Example of sample calculation
1. Calculation of the volumetric flow rate of air through a fluidized bed dryer
Q

U o
A
Q

3 .
0 m s
Q

1 .
5 m
3 s

0 .
50 m
2

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The brief report is a thorough investigation of the experimental results, however less background information is presented than in a full formal report. The brief report is composed of 6 sections: summary, table of contents (see section 2.2), nomenclature (see section 2.3), results and discussion (see section 2.8), conclusions (see section 2.9), recommendations (see section 2.10), references (see section 2.11), and appendices (see section 2.12). Most notably, the brief report differs from the full report in that the abstract, introduction, theory, apparatus, and procedure sections are absent. These sections are replaced by a new section called the summary.
The summary section of a brief report is much like an extended abstract. The summary is a synopsis of the introduction, experimental apparatus, procedure, and of the important results. A diagram of the experimental apparatus may be included, but figures that explain results should only be used in the results and discussion section. Headings and sub-headings should not be included in the summary (i.e. it is one continuous section of the report).
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The technical memorandum is a very brief and concise summary of the experimental program and results. Technical memorandums contain only the most important information of the following sections: introduction, apparatus, procedure, results and discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. No headings are used to differentiate the different sections of a technical memo.
A simple formula can be used to improve the readability and cohesiveness of technical memorandums. In this formula, the different sections of a report are contained in different paragraphs.
1.
Paragraph #1, Introduction: The purpose of the lab must be clearly stated. Also, the design problem must be stated.
2.
Paragraph #2, Apparatus: A brief description of the apparatus. Most important to note is what type of measurement devices were used to acquire your raw experimental data
3.
Paragraph #3, Procedure: A brief description of the procedure. Important to note is the range of input variable used in the experiment and operating constants.
4.
Paragraph #4, 5, 6, etc, results and discussion: This is the most substantial section of a technical memorandum. Consult section 2.8 for the requirements of the results and discussion section. The key to summarizing the extensive discussion in a full sized report into a tech memo is to write concisely. Only the most important
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observations and results, those which answer your purpose statement, should be presented. The design problem must also be discussed. Figures can be used to supplement your discussion of the results, but must be included after the memo on a separate page, as an enclosure.
5.
Final paragraph, conclusion and recommendations: A brief conclusion is included, one which directly answers your purpose statement. Remember that any information presented as a conclusion must be discussed in your results and discussion section. Recommendations for how we may improve the lab should also be presented in this section.
To write an effective technical memorandum, be sure to adhere to the following suggestions:

No point form should be used

No equations should be included nor should the calculation procedure be described

The tech memo should be signed after the text by the author

Figures should not be embedded within the text, but rather included on a separate page after the memo body

Proper headings (TO, FROM, DATE, SUBJECT) must be used

Tech memos are a maximum of 2 pages double spaced
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