Psychology 30:
Developmental Psychology
Unit Eight
Adulthood: Changes and Choices
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May be reproduced for educational purposes.
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Unit 8
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Unit 8
Unit Eight:
Adulthood: Changes and
Choices
Concept Map
The following concept map illustrates the major topics presented in this unit.
Introduction
At what age does adulthood begin? How are the stages of adulthood defined? How
do both nature and nature affect the way that we age? Unit 8 in Psychology 30
helps to answer some of these questions by examining developmental and lifestyle
transitions that occur in the period from early adulthood through to old age.
We know that, to some degree, heredity is a factor in the way that we develop in the
physical, cognitive, social, and emotional domains. The factors that most strongly
affect aging are physiological, genetic, and environmental. You will also see that
adulthood is a time of growing responsibilities, and making major decisions.
Biological make-up, lifestyle choices, and environmental factors contribute to our
ability to deal with stressors in adulthood. How is it that some people are resilient
and capable of leading very successful and fulfilling adult lives while others need a
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great deal of help? In the video, Strength of Spirit: Three Years Later, you will meet
three young adults, learn about their resiliency and how they were able to deal with
the many challenges in their lives.
You will learn how various theoretical perspectives show that both nature and
nurture affect adult development. Adults change and mature, Erikson’s theory
suggests, in response to a series of crises. The way that people progress through
these crises impacts on their ability to develop relationships with others, to interact
with their environment, and to make healthy decisions.
Change is ongoing throughout the life span. In adulthood, decisions are made
about work, career, marriage, parenthood, and how life will be lived into old age.
Many of the systems of support, such as culture and family, influence the decisions
that we make in adulthood.
Reflecting on the Topic
Do we enter adulthood when we turn a certain age? Is maturity about age or about
how we take responsibility for our behaviour? How much do our childhood
experiences influence the type of adult we become? Consider these questions as
you read the lesson and work through the activities
.
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Aging and Changing
How do developmental psychologists define aging?
There are many words that we use to describe aging: maturing, growing into a “ripe
old age,” and, perhaps, becoming wise.
Aging is the process of growing old or maturing.
Adulthood refers to the period of being fully grown
(legal age) as well as mature (responsible).
Developmental psychologists, whether they view development as connected to
certain physical ages or specific stages, see life span development as occurring
from beginning to end or from conception to death, from “womb to tomb”. Aging is
affected by biological factors and environmental influences. The graphic on the next
page illustrates how developmental psychologists see aging within commonly
agreed upon stages across the life span.
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Stages Across the Lifespan
Zygote: fertilization
Embryo: 2-7 weeks pregnancy
Late Adulthood: 60-80+ years
old ending in death
Neonate or newborn: first 2
weeks
Infancy: 2 months – 2 years old
Early childhood: 2-7 years old
Middle childhood: 7-11 years
old
Middle adulthood: 40-60 years
old
Adolescence: 11-16 years old
Early Adult: 17-40 years old
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Is maturity a characteristic of the aging process?
When someone says “act your age,” what do they mean? There are many ways to
define age.

Chronological age is a measure of the time a person has lived in years, e.g.,
twenty years old.

Physiological age refers to the degree to which the physical systems of the
body have developed in relation to the number of years a person has lived. For
example, an eighty-year-old woman may be so physically fit that her physical
body is that of a fifty year old.

Intellectual age refers to how intelligent a person is as compared to his/her age
group. We talk about children or adults who are gifted meaning that they have
intellectual skills and abilities above their age expectations. Or, we may describe
an adult with Down’s Syndrome as having an intellectual age similar to that of a
child.

Social age refers to the level of social competency as compared to chronological
age. For example, an adult may behave like a child in social situations because
he/she may lack social skills.
Maturity is connected more to learning from experiences rather than to the number
of years one has lived on the planet. People are seen as being mature when they
express their full potential, no matter what their age. They learn from their
experiences, take responsibility for their behaviours, and show an understanding of
the needs of others. For example, an eight year old is showing maturity when he
paints pictures with his younger brother and also helps his mom look after their baby
sister. A young male radio announcer who has an expressive, deep voice and who
speaks confidently about his music experiences on the air may be described as
having a maturity.
Maturity refers to being fully developed.
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The following characteristics describe people who are described as being mature.
Maturity
values a healthy lifestyle
seeks guidance from others
is thoughtful and reflective
accepts responsibilities
deals with conflict and stress
has a positive and optimistic attitude
participates in own learning
learns from experience
contributes to community
guided by values and integrity
takes ownership for actions
has a positive and optimistic attitude
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What developmental changes occur in the adult years?
In 1900, the average life expectancy in North America was 47
years old; only three percent of the population lived past 65.
Today, the average life expectancy is:



male – 77 years old
female – 82 years old
overall – 80 years old
As the adult population lives to an even older age, the exact
midpoint of life is getting harder to determine. Today, anyone
who lives an average number of years will have spent more than
78% of his/her life as an adult.
Adulthood should not be seen as the end of the process of development.
Developmental changes occur throughout adulthood in each of the domains:
physical, cognitive, social/emotional, and spiritual. The way in which people age is
largely determined by their biological make-up as well as the effects of
environmental factors, such as their lifestyle choices.
What changes take place in the physical domain during adulthood?
Physical changes occur throughout the life span and continue into adulthood. The
adult body, generally, strengthens and grows in young
adulthood; in middle age, the body begins a slow process of
biological decline. Different parts of the body change at
different times in the physical aging process. Some parts of the
body begin to age as soon as early adolescence. For example, the lenses in our eyes
begin to lose their flexibility and, our teeth and gums begin to weaken, by the time we
are only twelve or thirteen years old.
As we grow older the brain becomes slightly smaller, and other
changes occur in the brain structures. Within early adulthood,
at about age twenty, the corpus callosum (the structure that
connects the two hemispheres of the brain) shrinks slightly in
size. In the mid-twenties, the human body is at its peak strength
and health, provided it has been cared for in childhood and
adolescence. Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory acuity,
and heart action are at their best. This period of early
adulthood has been described as the prime of life.
The prime of life refers to the period in early adulthood when the body
is at its peak strength and health.
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During mid-life (thirties, forties and fifties) other physical changes may occur, such
as weight gain, hair loss, loss of cardiac output, loss of flexibility, and reduced
performance of major organ systems. There are huge individual differences in the
rate at which such changes occur, however. Some forty – fifty year olds
appear to match the stereotyped images emphasized by some of the
media: balding, wrinkling, and inactive. Sales of products that promote
youth and beauty are booming. Yet today, many adults who enjoy a very
active and healthy lifestyle often retain much of their youthful
appearance and vigour during this period of life.
In the sixties and seventies physical change continues with some degree
of decline in physical functioning. However, research shows that people
who are healthy and active, and take care of themselves in each of the
domains lead very productive and enriched lives as senior citizens.
Stereotypes of the elderly that suggest that they are frail, in poor health,
and need constant care are largely inaccurate.
The aging process happens in two ways.

Primary aging refers to changes in the body that are caused by the passage of
time and may also be influenced by inherited or biological factors.

Secondary aging refers to changes due to disease and lack of use or abuse of
the body, such as leading a sedentary lifestyle, drinking alcohol, and/or
smoking.
In many ways, we have some control over how we age and change in adulthood.
Although we cannot control our genetic heritage, we can, at the very least, control
the factors that impact the most on our bodies and our health. For example, if we
are aware that heart disease runs in the family, we may take steps early in
adolescence to eat healthy, exercise, and find healthy ways to deal with stress.
What occurs in the cognitive domain during adulthood?
Usually we think of adulthood as a time when intellectual
abilities are declining; however, some cognitive processes
continue to develop well into old age. Small but steady
improvements occur from the twenties to the seventies, such as
gathering knowledge and accumulating vocabulary and word
meanings. Seniors continue to learn, have rich intellectual lives,
and use their reasoning skills and creativity to solve everyday
problems.
Some research findings suggest that reasoning speed may decline as we age, as
well as some aspects of memory. However, there is little evidence to support the
idea that we lose intelligence as we age. Crystallized intelligence actually increases
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across the life span, while fluid intelligence seems to reach a peak in the twenties
and may gradually decline.
Crystallized intelligence refers to the aspects of
intelligence that draw on learning, problem solving, and
experience. Classroom tests, vocabulary tests, and
many social skills rely on crystallized intelligence.
Fluid intelligence includes the ability to form concepts,
to reason, and to make comparisons.
Older people in many cultures are seen as having wisdom and creativity despite the
physical aging of the brain. Researchers in North America designed a study to
examine reasoning skills in young adults and compared them to reasoning skills in
older adults. Each group was presented with the same type of life problem and,
then, asked to verbalize how they would go about solving these problems.
Researchers found that the older adults offered wiser solutions when the problems
involved complex or unusual situations. Cognitive skills in older adults seem to be
more complex and more adaptive than cognitive skills found in younger adults.
Education, occupation, and socioeconomic status also influence a person’s
intellectual abilities, apart from genetic inheritance.
Research shows that some aspects of intelligence actually
increase with age. Experience can be a great teacher. There
does not appear to be a decline in practical intelligence or the
ability to solve everyday problems as one ages. Research has
also found that some cognitive skills in the elderly actually
decline when not used, or through the effects of ill health, or
during very stressful times, and/or because of poor mental
health. Attention to physical and mental health is very
important throughout the adult years and, especially, in the
senior years.
How do adults deal with change in their lives?
We belong to many circles of people and many cycles in our daily living patterns. In
some ways, we are alike. Some of our days are very busy as we work out the many
roles we play. On other days, we are made aware of the mystery inherent in our
lives. Our experiences invite opportunities to learn and to grow in a healthy manner.
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Have you ever tried to track
your thinking processes
when you want to make a
change in yourself?
Researchers have looked at
how and why people change
on their own or with the help
of others. Psychologists,
Prochaska, Norcross, and
DiClemente have found
evidence to suggest that
adults adapt to change in a
circular process that includes
six stages.
•
Precontemplation
An entry point into change happens only when a person becomes aware that
there is a problem and that change is needed. This awareness comes from
experiences, information, and interaction with others.
•
Contemplation
The person considers making a change and looks at what would happen if the
change was made or not made.
•
Determination or Preparation
The person decides to change and deal with the problem. Changes and choices
are explored.
•
Action
A person engages in actions in order to bring about a change.
•
Maintenance
A person continues to act and, perhaps, tries new skills and new ways to adapt.
•
Relapse
A crisis may occur where the person might be tempted to return to old
behaviours. Some people may fall prey to old bad habits; others see their task
as continuing to deal with life’s problems in a changed, more mature way.
Social and emotional skills and abilities learned in early adulthood and mid-life to
some degree, determine how we act and interact with others in late adulthood. Some
theoretical perspectives suggest that changes in personality are influenced by how
one responds to certain crises, experienced at certain ages. Other theorists focus on
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the physiological and genetic influences inherent in the aging process throughout
adulthood.
Theoretical Perspectives
What roles do nature and nurture play in the adult development?
We know that both children and adults do not grow and change at the same pace;
development is varied and often, changes are gradual. Cognitive, social, and
emotional changes during adulthood are more closely related to a person’s
experiences than to his/her chronological age. Career decisions, love relationships,
and lifestyle choices have a great deal of influence on how adults develop and
change in each of the stages of adulthood.
Some people achieve success and satisfaction in
their careers, while others experience a great deal
of stress in their work lives. Some people marry
and have happy family lives, while others do not
adjust to the role of spouse, and some do not
choose to become a parent. There are some
people who choose to live rather solitary lives and
others quite enjoy an active role in their
community. Adults do not progress at the same
rate and there is no single description of adulthood
that fits everyone.
Biological factors may determine physical conditions in aging. Genetics play a role
in the interface of life’s experiences and the choices one makes. For example,
someone who has a genetic pre-disposition to heart disease may make physical
activity a priority in his/her life. Both nature and nurture affect how people age.
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What causes aging and death?
Developmental psychologists have proposed many different views about the
process of aging. Some have theorized that aging is greatly influenced by physical
factors and the interaction between nature and nurture. They have identified three
types of factors that affect aging leading to death.
Factors
Evidence
Wear and tear
suggests that we grow
old because various
organs in our bodies,
or the cells that they
are made of, wear out.
Research shows that people who repeatedly expose their bodies
to harmful conditions and substances, such as alcohol or harsh
physical environments, show signs of premature aging. The
body loses its capacity for internal repair.
Genetic theories of
aging attribute
physical aging
primarily to genetic
programming.
Research shows that certain cells divide a set number of times
before dying. Environmental conditions seem incapable of
altering this number.
Social theories of
aging are based on
external, lifestyle
factors.
Evidence suggests that older adults age as a result of how much
or how little they are engaged in society and also how much
society includes older adults.
Adults who are active from middle childhood through to late
adulthood are more satisfied with their lives.
Older adults who are changing negative societal views of aging
are reconstructing the way society provides support as adults age.
How do adults learn and change as they age?
Some theorists emphasize that change occurs as a result of
physical aging. Other theorists suggest that social and emotional
factors and personality impact a great deal on how we change in
adulthood. In that case, early childhood becomes a somewhat
less significant period as compared to the whole of development.
Adolescence and adulthood are also periods of tremendous
change.
Erikson outlined how we develop according to crises at all ages
and stages in life. Personality develops and changes in response
to experience. His theory says that as people grow and age, they
confront new biological drives and experience a variety of societal demands and
responsibilities. In adulthood, Erikson believed that how we face each of these
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challenges in each of the stages determines how we choose to experience life –
successfully or unsuccessfully. Each stage is as important as the next – stages of
change occur throughout the life span.
During adulthood, Erikson suggested, adults encounter three major stages that
contain crises that become catalysts for change. The outcome of these changes
may be positive or negative. See the chart for a more detailed explanation.
Stage
Young adulthood
Age 19 to 40
Middle adulthood
Age 40 to 65
Late Adulthood
Age 65 to death
Crisis
Positive and Negative Outcomes
Intimacy vs. Isolation
The most important events
are love relationships.
Erikson believed that a
person was not
developmentally complete
until he/she is capable of
being close to another. An
individual who has not
developed a sense of identity
usually will fear a committed
relationship and may retreat
to isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson refers to generativity
as the adult’s ability to look
outside oneself and care for
others, whether it is through
parenting, volunteering, or
seniors care.
Integrity vs. Despair
Old age is a time for
reflecting upon one’s own life
and its role in the big scheme
of things, and seeing it as
fulfilling and joyful.
+ Adult individuals form close
relationships and share with
others if they have achieved a
sense of identity.
– If not, they will fear commitment,
feel isolated and unable to
depend on anybody in the world.
+ People can resolve this crisis by
having nurtured children, or
helping others in some way.
–
If this crisis is not successfully
resolved, the person could
remain self-centred and
experience stagnation later in life.
+ If the adult has achieved a sense
of fulfillment about life and a
sense of unity within himself and
with others, he will accept death
with a sense of integrity. A
healthy adult does not fear death.
– If not, the individual will despair,
perhaps, experience resentment,
and fear death.
Developmental psychologist, Daniel Levinson, believed that these catalysts for
change were linked to one’s response to life’s transitions and events that occur only
in adulthood. His theory suggests that there are four major eras of life, each
separated from the next by a five-year transition period, which makes a total of eight
stages.
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Throughout adult development, Levinson believes that a certain external structure
places expectations on adults at particular stages. How a person responds is
influenced by his/her perspective on life, sense of identity, and desire to change.
His theory is based on the fact that adults grow and change to meet their needs and
society’s expectations. Adults make decisions about work, meaning, culture, family,
economics, and so on. His stage theory is illustrated in the graphic below.
Age 65+ Late Adulthood
Age 60 Late-Adulthood transition
Age 55 Culmination of middle adulthood
Age 50 Transition time
Age 40 – 45 Entering Middle Age
Age 33 – 40 Midlife transition
Age 28 – 33 Settling down i.e. work/family life
Age 22 – 28 Transitioning into thirties
Age 20 Entering into adult world
Age 17 – 20 Early adulthood transition
Childhood and Adolescence
Early adult transition occurs between the ages of seventeen to twenty-two when
young adults work towards financial and emotional independence. This may include
the time of graduation, obtaining a full-time job, and being out on their own.
In the transition at age thirty into mid-life, adults reflect on their choices and either
make new changes or confidently continue on their path.
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Mid-life transition occurs between the ages of forty to forty-five when adults sense
their own mortality. They assess their successes, review their marriage or
relationships, and perhaps, decide to pursue another career.
During late adult transition, between sixty and sixty-five, individuals might learn to
adjust to retirement, take on new roles, such as grandparents, and concentrate on
meaningful leisure time activities.
Levinson’s theory shows us that adult life is based on a particular structure and that
development is seen through periods of turbulence and periods of stability. Factors
such as lifestyle, health, love relationships, work, career, and retirement affect old
age and death. Stage theorists, such as Erikson and Levinson, believe that we
must look at the stages of change each person goes through to understand life span
development.
What are the major events that occur in adulthood?
In contrast to stage models, other researchers in psychology focus on the major
events theory of adult life. They believe that adults change and grow as a result of
their participation in events that occur in adulthood, such as marriage/divorce and
employment/unemployment. One’s core personality may not change in adulthood.
Subjective well-being or dissatisfaction with one’s life is as a result of one’s
perception of experience and not because of the expectations of society or a
specified change at a particular stage.
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Researchers who support the major events theory study adult development and ask
some of the following questions.
How do you view the aging process and the theoretical models related to adult
development? Activity A invites you to reflect on or record in a journal your
experiences and understandings of adulthood and the aging process.
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Activity A
Answer the following questions by reflecting on your experiences, your thoughts,
and your self-knowledge. Write detailed, thoughtful responses in complete
sentences. These questions are intended to give you a better understanding of the
topics explored throughout this unit.
As stated in Unit One, your entries are evaluated according to the following rubric.
The writing in the journal is informal yet thoughtful. Develop your ideas fully and use
language that indicates a working knowledge of the topic. Twenty marks will be
allotted to the journal entries.
Marking Scale
No entries.
Points
0
Inadequate entries. Ideas are not clear;
some questions are missed or responses
are too short.
1-5
Ideas are limited and over generalized.
Understanding of the concepts/topics is
limited.
6 - 10
Ideas are straightforward and clearly
stated. Insight and self-reflection on the
concepts/topics is evident. Responses
are detailed and show some enthusiasm
for the learning.
11 - 15
Ideas are well constructed and explained
clearly giving additional information.
Responses show that learning is evident
and connections are made with other
concepts/ topics. The vocabulary shows
that the definitions of the concepts/terms
are understood. Learning has also been
applied to experience.
16 - 20
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Highlights of Experience: What do you think?
1.
If you were to graph the number of adults in each stage that you interact with on
an average day what would it look like? Illustrate in the pie graph below the
percentages of the various adult populations with whom you interact with in your
community. Indicate the colour that represents each stage.



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Adults in early adulthood (ages 19-40) colour _____________
Adults in middle adulthood (ages 40-65) colour _____________
Adults in late adulthood (ages 65 and older) colour _____________
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2.
In reviewing your own life, give an example how the development of your
personality is most influenced by each of the following factors.



your childhood experiences
genetic make-up
conscious changes that you have made and will continue to make in
adulthood
Explain your answer and give an example to demonstrate your
understanding.
3.
Think of elderly adults sixty-five to eighty or older that live or have lived very
successful and healthy lives. You may personally know someone or have
learned about this person through the media. Explain their longevity and
health in relation to the three theories explained in the lesson.
Wear and tear theory:
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Genetic programming:
Social theory:
4.
a.
Recall the story, Choices of Freedom, read in the section “Reflecting
on the Topic.” What most excites you about being or becoming an
adult? What most concerns you about being or becoming an adult?
Complete the chart below.
I am excited about being an
adult or becoming an adult
because . . .
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I am concerned about being
an adult or becoming an
adult because . . .
•
•
•
•
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b.
5.
Two things that I will do to address the concerns that I have about
becoming an adult or being an adult are:
Describe two benchmarks or signs that you believe show the end of youth
and beginning of adulthood. Give reasons for your choices.
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6.
Does your community support good physical and mental health in seniors?
List two activities that adults in your community engage in that support good
physical and mental health.
7.
Someone once said, “Life shrinks or expands according to one’s courage.”
Give an example of how this statement relates to each of the three stages in
Erikson’s theory of adult development. Refer to the crisis inherent in each
stage.
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8.
Discuss how you expect to live your life when you are sixty-five years or
older. What health concerns might you experience? Will you be living in
your own home or somewhere else? Who will be around you? What
activities will you be engaged in? What type of work have you retired from?
Briefly tell your story.
___
(20)
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Resiliency, Lifestyle, and Health
Are adults prisoners of childhood?
Several of the developmental theorists that we have studied, such as Freud and
Piaget, emphasize the early years of childhood because they believe that what
happens to a person during childhood determines much of what will happen to him
or her in the future.
Some research indicates that we may be able to predict ways of behaving or
lifestyle in adulthood by looking at what was experienced in childhood. For
example, child molesters as adults often have a history of being abused as a child.
Violent offenders as adults grew up in violent homes.
On the other hand, some researchers have made heartening discoveries about
resiliency in some children and adolescents. Despite traumatic experiences in
childhood, many adults are successful and lead fulfilling lives.
Some long-term research studies which have followed people from childhood to
adulthood show that childhood traumas do not always have specific and
inescapable effects.

Recovery from war. After World War II many European children,
made homeless by the war, were adopted by American families.
About twenty percent of the children had problems at first, but over
the years they all made good progress in school; and all established
happy, affectionate relationships with their new partners.

Recovery from abusive or alcoholic parents. Compared to children of healthy
parents, more children of abusive or alcoholic parents become abusive or
alcoholic parents themselves, but many do not, breaking the cycle for future
generations.

Recovery from sexual abuse. Children who have been sexually abused do
have more behavioural and emotional symptoms than children who have not
been abused, especially if the abuse is severe, repeated, and part of other
chronically stressful experiences in a child’s life. Yet, some research findings
show, much to people’s surprise, that by adulthood, some victims are as well
adjusted as people in the general population.
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How is it that some people remain victims in adulthood while others are victorious
and resilient? Because of these research results, some psychologists have looked
more closely at the origins of resiliency.
Resiliency is defined as unusually good adaptation in
the face of severe and/or chronic stress; the ability to
rebound. (Saskatchewan Health, 1998)
The following graphic summarizes research findings by categorizing those factors
involved in developing resiliency. These factors have been found to contribute to
the ability to develop normally even in potentially harmful environments or in spite of
tremendous physical and emotional challenges. Resiliency seems to begin in
childhood and peaks in adolescence.
Many resilient children have easy-going temperaments, stable personality traits, and
high self-efficacy, that affect how they respond to adversity; they manage to withstand
severe hardships. Children who are given love and attention from their siblings,
peers, and caring adults, may develop resiliency. Some youth experience support
outside the family – in schools, places of worship, or other organizations that give
them a sense of competence, moral support, solace, faith, and self-esteem. Often,
these children have realistic goals and have access to community supports to pursue
their goals.
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If resiliency does not develop a sense of helplessness, learned in childhood through
traumatic and challenging circumstances, may prevail. Researchers have also
found that adulthood can be a time of seeing new ways of looking at the world and
enriching self-development can occur. It seems to take persistent, conscious
awareness, dedication to health and re-education in social and emotional skill
development, and acting on behaviour to take them forward rather than cycling into
further complications.
What major lifestyle choices are made in adulthood?
Lifestyle develops and changes at each age as we grow and mature. Lifestyle in
adulthood is influenced by many factors.

biology and physical health

the environment in which we live

cultural values and beliefs

the roles that we play

economic situation

social and emotional competencies
Lifestyle is an expression of one’s identity, values, beliefs,
and the many roles one chooses to play throughout life.
Adulthood is a time when important decisions about how we will live our lives are
made. If the decisions and choices are good ones, the opportunity for a happy,
healthy, and successful life is somewhat assured. However, if one’s lifestyle
choices are unhealthy, or influenced by negative groups, or decisions are reactive
rather than active, then physical and mental health may be negatively affected.
Compare the action of each wheel in the graphics on the following page.
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Which way would you rather live?
Balanced Lifestyle
Seeks help
Participates in community
Lasting friendships
Exercise
Positive leisure activities
Economic sufficiency
Good mental health
Proper nutrition
Deals with stress
Supportive relationships
Family time
Good rest
Holistic health: body, mind, and spirit
Unbalanced Lifestyle
Poor nutrition
Little exercise
Isolates self
Disconnected parts
Poor self-concept
Lack of trust in self and others
Few positive hobbies
ignores stress letting it build
Substance abuse
Takes dangerous risks
Pessimistic
Worrier
Destructive
Reactive
How we live each day largely determines the state of our mental and physical
health. For example, studies have shown that adults who exercise and stay active
in their senior years live longer and are more satisfied with life. How many times
have you heard that as little as thirty minutes a day of physical exercise promotes a
healthy mind and body? It is true.
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Research indicates that regular exercise, adequate nutritional intake, and
participation in recreational leisure activities reduces depression/anxiety and
contributes to a sense of well-being. How we spend our leisure time is as important
as career life in adulthood.
Leisure time is time spent free from an occupation with
responsibilities; time for amusement, stimulation,
enrichment, and relaxation.
What causes some people to become addicted to substances that
promote ill health and mental disorders?
The biological model holds that addiction, whether it is to
a substance, such as alcohol, food, or nicotine, or whether
it is to a way of life or lifestyle, pessimism, worry, or
gambling is due largely to a person’s biochemical make-up,
metabolism, and genetic predisposition. The genetic
make-up of certain traits or temperaments may predispose
a person to becoming an alcoholic. Researchers have
also found that some biochemical processes in the brain
can make some people more susceptible to alcohol
causing them to respond to it differently than others. They
have found that genes that affect the functioning of key
neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are somehow related to addiction and other
disorders. Genes may also affect how much a person has to drink before feeling any
effect.
According to the learning model, addiction is not a disease. Psychologists who
support this view believe that the addiction is a “central activity of the individual’s
way of life” that is influenced by learning and culture. To understand why people
become addicted, the learning model focuses on behaviours surrounding the
addiction. Some research that supports this view are listed below.
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
Addiction patterns vary according to cultural practices and the social
environment.

Addiction seems to depend on the properties of the substance or the need for
the behaviours but also on the reasons for ingesting the substance or performing
the behaviour.

Not all addicts experience physical withdrawal symptoms when they stop the
addictive behaviours.
Are some people more likely than others to become addicted?
Substance abuse and addictive behaviours show the interaction between
psychological factors and physiology or people and culture. Researchers have
found that addiction problems are more likely to occur under the following
conditions:

when a person has a physiological vulnerability to the substance,

e.g., children of alcoholics are more likely to become alcoholics

because they have a physiological predisposition to it. Nicotine

may enhance the availability of certain neurotransmitters in a

person’s brain because of heredity.

when a person believes he/she has no control over it; more and more we are
being made aware of the negative aspects of gambling addictions.

when laws or customs do not encourage or teach people that overindulgence is
unhealthy.

when a person comes to rely on a drug as a way of coping with problems,
suppressing anger or fear, or relieving pain. For example, smokers may believe
that smoking helps him/her to stay alert, more able to handle stress.

when the media or one’s peer group or family are heavily involved in promoting
negative and addictive behaviours, e.g., adolescents are more likely to smoke if
their parents or other role models smoke.
There are many health risks and negative consequences to
addictive behaviours; however, many adults can and do make
changes to live a healthy lifestyle. Often, they may seek help
from others, participate in cognitive or behavioural therapies,
and learn to deal with stress and unhealthy emotions in positive
ways. Stress throughout life is part of living; adulthood must be
a time to make a conscious choice to lead a healthy and active
lifestyle.
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There are many positive ways to deal with stress.
Strategies
Examples
Physical strategies
• relaxation
• massage
• medical knowledge
• meditation
• exercise
Problem-oriented
strategies
• learning to deal with
negative emotions
• solution-focused coping
Cognitive strategies
• reappraise the problem
• learn from others
• learn from the problem
• cultivate a sense of humour
Social strategies
• relying on friends and
families
• helping others
What is holistic health? How do people become resilient? In Activity B you
are given the opportunity to view Strength of Spirit: Three Years Later and
meet three resilient young adults.
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Activity B
Respond to the questions in the space provided.
(3)
1.
The word health comes from an old English word meaning
“wholeness.” More and more people are beginning to take a holistic
approach to health. They view health as being interconnected in many
dimensions. Being healthy is about making good decisions.
Examine the graphic below.
In the chart on the next page, provide an example (different from the
examples provided) of decisions a young adult might make towards
good health in each of the dimensions of holistic health.
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Dimension
Decision
occupational
intellectual
social
emotional
physical
spiritual
(5)
2.
Stressors can be major or minor. Minor stressors may actually
encourage people to perform and prepare in a healthy way to some
event. For example, stress associated with a job interview may
encourage someone to get plenty of sleep the night before. Major
stressors, on the other hand, can be very overwhelming.
a.
List one example of a minor stressor and how it may be helpful.
List one example of a major stressor and how it has the
potential to be unhealthy.
Minor stressor:
Helpful:
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Major stressor:
Unhealthy:
(3)
b.
Identify how a person might seek support in each of the
systems of support if he/she were experiencing the major
stressor that you identified in the previous example.
Microsystem: _______________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Exosystem: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
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Macrosystem: ______________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3.
Watch the video Strength of Spirit: Three Years Later.
Be prepared to respond to the following questions during
and after the viewing.
The video/DVD Strength of Spirit profiles the journeys of three
Aboriginal youth who, despite problems and set-backs in their lives,
are learning about themselves and are becoming contributing
members of their communities. Answer the following questions based
on their stories.
(3)
a.
Outline the problem or setback that each of the following people
had to cope with in their lives.
Krystal:
Megan:
Michael:
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(3)
b.
Each of the three youth that was profiled displayed the
characteristic of resiliency. Resiliency, you may recall, was
defined in the course as “an unusually good adaptation in the
face of severe or chronic stress; the ability to rebound.”
List one personal quality, one family support, and one
community support that contributed to the resiliency of each of
the youth profiled in the vide.
personal
quality
family
support
community
support
Krystal
Megan
Michael
(3)
c.
All three youth profiled in the video had two things in common.
 They set goals for themselves.
 They had specific skills.
Describe the goals and skills that each person had. Explain
how these goals and skills helped each individual to handle
problems or setbacks in their lives.
Name
Goal
Explanation of Support
Krystal
Megan
Michael
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(7)
d.
Apply the same reflection activities to your own life.
i.
What problem or setback have you experienced in your
life?
ii.
What personal characteristics, family supports, and
community supports have helped you to deal with your
problem?
Personal
Qualities
iii.
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Family
Supports
Community
Supports
What goal have you set for yourself?
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iv.
What skill do you have that will help you fulfill your goal?
v.
How does your goal and these skills help you meet life’s
challenges?
___
(27)
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From Work to Retirement
How do people make career choices?
Career development occurs across the stages of adulthood and usually begins in
early adulthood. Education may help youth to select a career. For example, in
Saskatchewan, secondary high school curricula are created to assist young adults
to identify strategies that will help them to understand themselves, identify their
unique skills and abilities, and assist them in making decisions about occupational
choices. Sometimes work-experience programs, through work-based learning, give
students an idea of what to expect in the world of work.
A career is different than a job. Through work, especially in
adulthood, we attain the financial resources needed to take care
of ourselves and our families, and, as well, participate as
contributing members to our communities. A true career, or
calling, involves more than the job itself; it involves commitment,
long-range planning, a particular membership, and specific skills
and abilities. There are many factors to consider in selecting a
career that will be fulfilling, bring success and security, and also
create opportunities for growth and change.
A particular career path may be selected on the basis of careers and
occupations that express the following aspects of one’s self.
Cultural Values and Beliefs (environmentalist, teacher)
Gender Identity (athlete, designer)
Learning Style or Multiple Intelligences (dancer, financial planner)
Interests (coach, artist)
Personality (extroverted, introverted)
Skills and Abilities in each of the domains (physical, cognitive, social, spiritual)
Worldview (public servant, farmer)
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What are the dominant theories about career selection?
Currently, there are three dominant theories, developed by North American
psychologists, that describe how people make their choices about careers.

Eli Ginzberg’s developmental theory says that individuals go through three
career choice stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic. Children are in the
fantasy stage; young teens are in the tentative stage; and, young adults are in
the realistic stage of career choice at which time they explore particular careers,
and then, select an occupation that falls within the career.

Donald Super’s career self-concept theory says that one’s self-concept plays a
central role in career choice. Career interests change during the adolescent and
young adult years when identity is forming. The process of making career
changes is as a result of changes in self-concept occurring at particular ages and
stages. The time line shows how self-concept, age, and career selection are
linked.
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
John Holland’s personality-type theory says that it is important to people that
personality type fits or matches with the career selected. Holland proposes six
basic career-related personality types.
Enterprising
- oriented to people
- seeks to reach goals
- good at organizing
people and projects
Realistic
- likes outdoors
- prefers physical work
- prefers to work alone
- prefers practical work
Social
- oriented to working
with people
- works to help others
- inspires others
Investigative
- interested in ideas
- indifferent to social relationships
- troubled by very emotional times
- enjoys intellectual pursuits
Artistic
- non-conforming
- creatively oriented
- expressive
- values freedom and ambiguity
- enjoys working with ideas and
materials
- may have difficulty in relationships
In many ways, career life is related to lifestyle. For example, some people
enjoy working with others in a team environment. They may also participate on
many boards or committees at their work place. A leisure time activity they might
choose is participation in a team sport, or being in a group that requires particular
membership. Some people find it a natural transition to spend more time on leisure
time activities and projects in retirement. Others might base their entire identity on
the role that they play in the work environment. For these people, retirement is a
stressful time.
What are the challenges and issues in retirement?
Retirement is a process that also includes changes in
social roles. If one’s social network and self-esteem are a
large part of the work that he/she does then retirement is a
lonely and confusing time. According to Erikson, late
adulthood is the stage of ego integrity versus despair. The
basic task is to believe that life is meaningful in the face of
the inevitability of death. Since most of the developmental
tasks in adulthood focus on accumulation of comforts and
relationships, adjustment in later years requires the
wisdom to be able to let go. Adjustment in later years is
also related to financial security and health.
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Developmental psychologist Robert Havighurst listed several tasks for each stage of
development. You will note that the tasks he listed apply only to Americanized culture
and values. People who choose to stay single or choose not to become parents are
completely left out of these tasks. His lists serve a useful reminders of stereotypical
expectations for each stage of development. They inform us of what many people
expect. Retirement becomes a very stressful time if we also have stereotypical
expectations of what we should be doing at that age.
Compare the developmental tasks listed by Havighurst for each of the three levels of
adulthood. How do your own expectations compare?
Young Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood
Selecting and courting a
mate
Facilitating our children’s
transition from home life to
making it in the outside world
Adjusting to physical
changes
Learning to live contentedly
with one’s partner
Developing engrossing leisure
activities
Adjusting to retirement and to
changes in financial status
Starting a family and
becoming a parent
Relating to one’s spouse as a
person
Establishing satisfying living
arrangements
Rearing children
Assuming important social and
civic responsibilities
Learning to live with one’s
spouse in retirement (e.g.,
coping with being home
much of the same time
Assuming responsibilities of
managing a home
Maintaining satisfactory
performance in one’s career
Adjusting to death of one’s
spouse
Beginning a career or job
Adjusting to the physical
changes that attend middle age
Forming new relationships
with aging peers
Assuming some civic
responsibility
Adjusting to aging parents
Adopting flexible social roles
Establishing a social network
The later years were once seen as the stage before dying. Since
entering the year 2000, many older people are seeking new challenges
and are seen to be aging successfully.
Successful aging is defined as the process of leading
more enjoyable, healthier, and more productive lives in
later adulthood.
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Older adults who have learned to cope with all of life’s transitions through
resiliency tend to thrive and share their wisdom with others. Others may
find physical and mental health challenges that occupy most of their time
affect their relationships with others and diminish self-efficacy or confidence
in one’s ability.
How would you select a career? What are your thoughts about mandatory
retirement? In Activity C you are given an opportunity to express your
understanding about work and retirement.
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Activity C
Respond to the questions in the space provided.
1.
(3)
Review each of the theories explained in the lesson related to career
selection. Respond to the questions.
a.
Recall Eli Ginzberg’s developmental theory of career
selection. Imagine that a young adult has decided to pursue a
career related to music and technology. Explain how this career
choice was acted upon in each of three stages.
Childhood – fantasy stage:
Adolescence – tentative stage:
Young Adulthood – realistic:
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(2)
b.
Imagine that you are a young adult in the Specification stage of
Donald Super’s career self-concept theory. How will you
narrow down your career interests?
Identify four factors or values that are important to you about
your work life, such as creativity, amount of education, and so
on. Then, name two possible career choices that suit the
factors.
Factors:
Career Choice 1
Career Choice 2
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(4)
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c.
John Holland’s personality-type theory says that it is important
to people that personality type fits or matches with the career
selected. Holland proposed five basic career-related
personality types.

Artistic/Creative

Enterprising

Realistic

Social

Investigative
i.
Identify the type that most suits your personality.
ii.
Identify a second type that matches your personality.
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Unit 8
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iii.
Consider possible career choices that suit your
personality and your type of career related
characteristics. Identify three choices.
iv.
Explain whether or not you agree that these match your
personality. Identify two ways that these careers match
with your personality. If you feel that you do not have the
personality type for a certain career what can you do to
help to improve and develop in these areas so that you
can become involved in this career.
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Unit 8
(9)
2.
Do some research into the topic of retirement in Saskatchewan and
answer the questions that follow.
a.
Give two reasons that Saskatchewan removed forced
retirement at age 65 years old.
b.
Briefly discuss two benefits to having older workers in the
workplace.
c.
At what age would like to retire? Give four reasons for your
choice.
___
(18)
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How important is creativity in adulthood?
Psychologist J.S. Dacey hypothesized that there are certain critical periods in life
during which creative ability can be cultivated. His work is very important to the
stages of adulthood. Research indicates that the time right after retirement can be a
period of creative growth, as people turn from the demands of a work schedule to
the opportunities offered by an artistic endeavour.
Dacey’s theory suggests that a person’s inherent creativity can
blossom best during a period of crisis and change. He chose
to study creativity within six periods at ages where most people
experience stress due to life changes. He charted the ages
and stages for both males and females.
Additional research from the fields of personality and cognitive
development indicate that during these periods there is more
potential for the development of creativity.
Why is this important to know? Although some adults do not adjust well to old age
and begin to withdraw from society, others are inspired to pursue creative goals that
were previously impossible for them. The term, “young old” describes some older
people, who at sixty to seventy-five years old become even more productive in old
age. Research indicates that a substantial number of older adults actually develop
their creativity after the age of sixty.
Gerontologist Jack Borwinick in his book We Are Aging
shared his research findings that, in fact, many older
people exercise a new type of creativity. This new
creativity comes in mentoring younger people. Dacey’s
and Borwick’s findings promote seniors centre’s
programming that includes creativity and interaction with
younger people and especially adults of all ages.
Research into creativity supports the idea that a number
of psychological shifts help us to adjust in late
adulthood. Robert Peck described some of these shifts.
Do you think that older adults can be taught to adjust
and shift their focus? As you read about these shifts,
consider whether or not these shifts are the same
approximately forty years later.




In the senior years we need to value wisdom more than physical strength and
power.
Friendships and social relationships are valued more than sexual pursuits.
Retaining emotional flexibility is important so that we can adjust to changing family
relationships and the ending of a career in old age.
Retaining mental flexibility is important to developing the ability to form new
relationships and take up new leisure activities.
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

As we age, we need to stay involved, active, and concerned about others and
avoid becoming preoccupied with physical changes or the approach of death.
In retirement, we need to shift our focus from work to that of creativity and the
pursuit of personal enrichment and growth.
How has programming for the elderly changed in the last forty years? Do you see
similarities in Peck’s list of psychological shifts and those that are emphasized
today? Although you are given an opportunity to respond to this question in the
assignment section for this lesson, you may wish to consider this question in your
research endeavour.
Research
Recall the research methods outlined in Unit Six. You were asked to select one type
of research from the following: case study, naturalistic observation, or participant
observation. You are given similar choices in this unit. Recall that in Unit Six and Unit
Eight you were asked to complete one case study project and one observational
research project. Which option did you choose in Unit Six? If you chose the case
study option, then you must choose from one of the observational research projects
here. On other hand, if you chose the observational research project in Unit Six, you
must now conduct the case study research project.
Read each description and decide which one will be appropriate for the basis of your
inquiry.
Option A: Case Study
A case study is an intensive study of one individual or one
group. Typically the case study may involve interviews,
observation, experiments, tests, and records.
For the purposes of researching topics related to this unit, we have designed the
case study project as stated below.

Conduct a case study of an adult in one of the three stages of adulthood: early
adulthood, middle-aged adulthood, and late adulthood. Your final project may
include photographs, anecdotal reports, evidence of this person’s interests,
work, and/or activities, and a variety of other forms of data that are relevant to
the inquiry that you are conducting about this stage of adulthood.
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Option B: Naturalistic Observation
In naturalistic observation the researcher becomes an
observer and does not intervene in the scene being observed.
The researcher is invisible and works hard not to interrupt the
natural dynamics of the situation being investigated.
Conduct naturalistic observation of more than two adults in an interactive setting,
such as at a sporting event or a restaurant. Arrange a time you wish to observe the
adults in a natural setting for a specific period of time. You, as the researcher, are
not involved with the adults; your task is to observe them and record aspects of the
interaction. You might describe the physical attributes of the adults and their
activities during a certain limited time period in a particular setting. Comment on the
setting and interactions; describe the environment, types of communication, and
their activities. Record your observations, your surprises, and insights about the
stage of adulthood as gained through your observation. What were you expecting?
How did their behaviours support various theories and concepts learned in the unit?
What surprised you? Describe and discuss your experience.
Option C: Participant Observation
In participant observation the researcher interacts with and
studies the group being observed as a recognized and accepted
member of the group. The participant(s) are unaware that they
are being observed for research purposes.
As a volunteer who has received permission from the director or another caregiver
of a particular facility, you will interact with two or more elderly adults in a particular
setting, such as at their home, care facility, or activity group. Consider all of the
information learned in the unit and design a particular activity appropriate to the
group, such as a game, shared art activity, shared exercise activity, of some such
interactive project. Note differences and similarities between the adults, the learning
styles, the social interactions, and so on. Directly after the activity, record your
observations, insights, expectations, and surprises. Refer to some of the concepts
and theories learned in the unit.
In the assignment section you will be given the opportunity to select, design,
prepare, and explain your research project. You will conduct your research, compile
your findings, share your research findings, and comment on your research
experience in Unit Nine.
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Looking Back: What do you recall about the concepts presented in
the unit? Review the concept map.
As you work through the assignment that follows, you may need to re-read those
topics that require clarification or review. Combine the information in the unit with
your own experiences as you answer the assignment questions. This will make your
learning more relevant and useful.
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