CLASSROOM LAW PROJECT
Selecting the Next President
Handout 2
Techniques of Persuasion
VISUAL TECHNIQES AND STAGING (film, pictures, tv, etc.)
Appeals. Every ad, political or otherwise, has at its center an appeal. This is the main message
of the ad and it is designed to speak to a viewer's emotions: insurance ads appeal to fears of
disasters; cosmetics ads appeal to personal ego; many high-ticket products appeal to greed.
Political ads are no different. Ads for candidates can appeal to positive feelings such as patriotism
or pride but they can also elicit fears, especially if they are attack ads. These fears include things
like war, crime, job loss or poor education. They may even imply that their opponent is
untrustworthy or that he will take health benefits away from your parents or even that he will lead
the country into war. Consultants are always looking for "hot button" issues -- issues that will be
effective with a large percentage of voters. Once found, they will include these issues in the major
appeal of the ad and sometimes in several minor appeals as well.
Background locations.
Where the candidate is when he is shown, or where the opponent is
shown to be in an attack ad, is critically important to what is being communicated. Kennedy was
shown walking along the beach. Perot was almost always in a paneled den or office. Clinton was
most frequently surrounded by people. Each of the backgrounds is used to communicate a variety
of things about the candidate.
Camera Shots. A camera shot is a continuous view taken by a camera, from the time it starts
recording to the time it stops. To convey positive feelings, a political ad might use shots that show
the candidate shaking hands with supporters, or shots that show the American flag.
Clothing. What a candidate is wearing is carefully chosen to show the viewer something
"important" about him. An expensive suit shows power, taste, authority. Shirt sleeves show hard
work and empathy with ordinary people. Jacket over the shoulder shows ease, warmth, confidence.
A loosened tie usually indicates the same characteristics.
Depicted Actions. What the candidate is doing in a support ad and what the opponent is doing in
an attack ad are important. Getting off a plane shows characteristics like international expertise and
concern, familiarity and caring about the whole country, or just plain old power. Interacting with the
family shows caring. Holding hands with a spouse does the same. Signing papers shows ability to
get important things done. Greeting ordinary people shows popularity and caring. Speaking from a
podium emphasizes power and good ideas. In the opponent, the activity is sometimes representing
as "silly" or weak. A good example is the 1988 ad that featured Dukakis's helmeted head popping
out of the top of an army tank. The opponent is sometimes shown with an incriminating "other."
Candidates are usually doing things in color. Opponents are usually doing things in black and
white.
Emotion-communicating faces. While any scene, any piece of music, any statement can
induce emotion, the most common emotional device is the human face: the fear and anger in the
face of teen druggie, the admiration and enthusiasm in crowd faces, babies' faces crying, fierce,
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Selecting the Next President
uncaring expressions on the faces of opponents. All of these faces and their expressions are
carefully planted in ads. A most common approach is to take the face of an opponent at its most
unattractive and show that face as background for words written on the screen to indicate what
awful things he has done. Faces are probably a candidate's most direct conduit to creating feelings
in viewers.
Film editing and camera use. Slow-motion is commonly used to increase the salience of an
image. Extreme close-ups increase our perceptions of importance. They're also used to emphasize
emotion, evil, and truthfulness. Often the camera comes in closer to the candidate as he begins his
pledge to us voters--whatever that pledge may be. Jump-cuts occur when scenes are edited
together and the central figure moves suddenly from one location to another. Shooting from above
the candidate when he's greeting a crowd provides an impression of warmth and bonding. Black
and white pictures usually mean the topic is serious and, most likely, negative.
Framing. The positioning of objects and people within a television frame to convey certain
meanings or to achieve effects. For example, a candidate might be framed close up and from a low
angle to make him or her seem more important.
Lighting.
Different styles of lighting may be used in political ads to achieve particular effects. For
example, strobing lights and the use of black and white can help make a candidate's opponent
seem threatening or unpleasant.
Music.
Music is used to help create a mood for a political ad. For example, a positive ad might
feature patriotic music, while a negative ad might use music that creates an ominous or unpleasant
mood.
Almost all political ads use music. It's usually orchestral, stately, designed to sound inspiring to a
broad spectrum of listeners. Volume of music is very important. A common approach is have a
crescendo of sound at the end of an ad. Background music is borrowed from horror movies when
the ad attacks an opponent. Music is often fiercely patriotic-sounding.
Props. Props are objects shown in the scenes. The most common prop is the American flag.
Desks are important props. Headlines in newspapers are props used to verify statistical and factual
claims ("If the newspaper said it, it must be true.") A podium is a prop and sometimes other people
can serve as props. Once, a U.S. Senate candidate in Wisconsin even used a cardboard stand-up
of Elvis as a prop.
Slogan. A memorable phrase used in a political campaign, or a series of political ads. Viewers
remember the slogan and associate its message with the candidate.
Sound Effects. The sound effects employed in political ads can also help to create a mood. For
example, sound effects, such as a loud "boom" or a repeated pounding, might be featured in a
negative ad to help create a threatening mood.
Background noises are important and seldom
consciously noticed by viewers. Sirens, traffic noise, drumbeats are commonly employed. A good
way to pick up use of music and background sounds, of course, is to look away from the screen
during the ad. You'll find a lot going on there that you'd otherwise be unlikely to notice.
Supers and Code Words. Supers are words printed in large letters on the screen. They appear
over a background that is supposed to exemplify whatever is being said by the super. A super says,
"Pay attention to this factoid or claim." It is often a phrase that communicates outrage at something
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Selecting the Next President
the opponent has said or done such as, "RAISED TAXES THREE TIMES IN THREE YEARS." A
super can also emphasize the larger appeal being made in the ad such as: "WRONG FOR
YESTERDAY. WRONG FOR TOMORROW." Supers can use code words, which are words that
sound simple but carry significant unconscious meaning for viewers. For example, when the word
"values" is used in ads, it makes the candidate sound upright and moral, but often the exact values
represented by the candidate are not made clear. The implication of the ad is that the candidate
featured has values, but his or her opponent does not. Many argue that "crime" and "welfare" are
code words that encourage viewers to look at these issues through a racial lens. Even a seemingly
innocuous word like "yesterday" can be a code word if the meaning is implied to be that someone
or something is too old and no longer relevant, rather than meaning it just occurred in the past.
CONTENT and the MESSAGE
Bandwagon encourages the listener to do something because it’s the popular thing to do.
(“More and more of us want new blood in Washington, and we’re voting for Jones.”)
Card Stacking presents the evidence in a partial or slanted way. (“The average income of
Americans has risen every year since the election of President Jones,” omitting the statistic that the
income of all citizens except the top 20% has actually fallen.)
Glittering Generalities says little specifically, but conveys emotion. (“John Jones has made this
nation a better place.”)
Name Calling uses negative labels to stigmatize opponents. (“Michael Dukakis is a card-carrying
liberal.”)
Plain Folks emphasizes similarities with the average citizen. (“I was born in a two bedroom house
and walked to school with my brother.”)
Product Comparison
is a persuasive technique used in advertising. The political ad features a
comparison between the featured candidate and his or her opponent. It depicts the opponent as
inferior. The intended effect is to make viewers question the values or motives of the opponent.
Security
is a persuasive technique used in advertising. The ad draws on voters' fears by telling
them that their jobs, families, or their lives will be in jeopardy—unless they vote for the featured
candidate.
Straw Man sets up an opponent’s weak argument so that it can be knocked down. (“They believe
that a 12-year-old child should be able to sue her parents, and they are wrong.”)
Testimonial shows an endorsement by a famous and respected person. (“I’m voting for George
Bush,” declared Ronald Reagan.)
Transfer uses symbolic images to enhance a candidate’s profile. (Visits to war memorials, scenes
with heads of state from other countries, etc.)
Logical Fallacies include
Appeal to Emotion summons fear, anger, or pity to secure agreement with an argument or
position. (“If we don’t fight crime my way, your child won’t feel safe walking the streets.”)
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Selecting the Next President
False Cause insists on a causal relationship because one event preceded the other.
(“As soon as Jones was elected, congressional corruption was revealed.”)
False Dilemma presents only two choices when there are a variety of possibilities.
(“Choose Smith and you’ll get inflation; choose Jones and the budget will be balanced.”)
Hasty Generalization bases a conclusion on insufficient evidence, usually a fractional sampling.
(“Somalians don’t want our help — look what they did to an American soldier.”)
Loaded Questions constructs biased questions with predetermined answers. (“When did you
abandon your party’s platform on that issue, Senator?”)
Slippery Slope claims that one event will lead to an uncontrollable chain reaction.
(“First they outlaw machine guns, and then they will take your hunting rifles.”)
TYPES OF ADS
Negative - One candidate portrays the other in an unfavorable light.
Warm and Fuzzy - Candidates make the viewer feel good about the country or his/her campaign.
Humorous - Candidates elicit a laugh or smile from the viewer.
Scary - Candidates evoke images of fear (usually combined with a Negative ad).
ALSO IMPORTANT
Target Audience
is the group of people advertisers and politicians aim their pitch at. The
members of a target audience often share certain characteristics, such as age, gender, ethnicity,
values, or lifestyle.
Compiled and adapted from many sources among them:
www.pbs.org/election2004/savvyvoterPrint.html
www.classzone.com/books/lnetwork_gr10/page_build.cfm?content=analyz_media&ch=29
and other websites that are now unavailable
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