The English, American, and
French Revolutions
9
The English, American, and French Revolutions
Introduction
In this chapter we take a brief a look at three of the most significant
political revolutions in modern history—the English, American, and
French. Indeed, in this connection we can make two sweeping statements.
1. Historians generally accept that these were the most important
political revolutions the modern world had experienced prior to the
twentieth century. Only the Russian Revolution and the Chinese
Revolution are of the same order of importance—and only the former
was arguably a European political revolution.
2. The French Revolution was perhaps the most important of them all.
Historians generally accept that its outbreak marked the beginning of
later modern (as distinct from early modern) history. The titles and
the layout of any number of history textbooks dealing with Europe or
the west reflect this belief.
Our principal question, then, is simply ‘Why?’.
1. Why is it that historians consider these revolutions so important?
2. Why do they believe that an understanding of these revolutions is a
prerequisite to an appreciation of the modern world?
3. Why have they paid considerably more attention to the French
Revolution than to any other, including the English and American?
While these questions are not identical, they overlap enormously. They all
focus on significance or importance. So will we.
Broadly speaking, when historians talk about revolutions they consider
causes, course, and consequences.
That is, they talk about the origins of the revolution, what occurred while
it was going on, and what happened as a result of it.
Very often, the first of these concerns receives the lion’s share of their
attention. Historians, after all, are more interested in explanation than in
narration.
Here, however, we will be more interested in consequences than in either
causes or course. We want to know why historians looking back on these
events consider them so important.
Accordingly, you will only have to achieve a broad understanding of why
these revolutions occurred and what happened during the course of them.
You will not need to acquire a detailed knowledge of these aspects.
But—and this cannot be stressed enough—you will need to fully
appreciate why these three revolutions are considered watershed events in
the development of the modern world.
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
Defining the terms
1. The English Revolution
The English Revolution of 1688–9 is frequently called ‘the Glorious
Revolution’ or less often ‘the Bloodless Revolution’. Some historians
simply refer to it as the second English Revolution so as to distinguish it
from the English Civil War of 1642–9.
As this implies, what we have called the English Revolution was really
only the culmination of a long struggle which began at least as early as
1603. Consequently, in England the entire seventeenth century is often
called ‘the century of revolution’.
Thus, ‘the English Revolution’ refers mainly to events in England in
1688–9 which saw the abdication of King James II, the enthronement of
William III and Mary II as joint sovereigns, and the passage by the
English parliament of a Bill of Rights.
2. The American Revolution
The American Revolution of 1775–83 is perhaps more often called the
American War of Independence or the American Revolutionary War. It
refers to the revolt of thirteen British colonies on the Atlantic coast of
North America against the British government.
The first shots in the conflict were fired in April 1775 and a treaty of
peace was signed in September 1783. But the war had been brewing since
at least as early as the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War (called, by
Americans, the French and Indian War) in 1763.
As the name implies, the revolution was a success. The thirteen
colonies—with the aid of the French, Spanish, and Dutch—won their war
against the British. As a result they gained their political independence
and went on to form the United States of America.
3. The French Revolution
The French Revolution refers to the first and easily most significant of
several in the history of modern France. There were later revolutions in
1830, 1848, and 1870–1. But when historians refer to the French
Revolution, they mean the one in the late eighteenth century.
It is usually considered to have begun in1789 and ended in 1799. But it,
too, had been brewing for decades and the first act of defiance occurred in
1787. Moreover, it was arguably not over until 1815, when Napoleon was
ousted and Louis XVIII was ‘restored’.
So, when historians talk about the French Revolution, they mean events
which led to the dissolution of what was then—and still is—called the
ancien regime and its replacement by what is still recognisable today in
the modern country of France.
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
Common features in their origins
In terms of their origins, the three revolutions had a lot in common.
1. All were about money in general and taxation in particular. The
English Revolution centred around several kings’ concern to raise
money without the consent of parliament; the American Revolution
centred around the British government’s enforcement of old and its
imposition of new taxes on the American colonists; and the French
Revolution began with the French government’s concern to reform
the tax system in France and thereby save the country from
bankruptcy.
2. Each of the revolutions was directed against a king the revolutionaries
considered despotic. The English Revolution was, among other
things, a struggle between the Stuart kings and parliament for
ultimate authority over the country; the revolutionary American
colonists, curiously enough, directed their accusations not so much
against the British parliament as against George III; and the French
Revolution was inevitably largely directed against the absolute
monarchy of the Bourbon king Louis XVI.
3. Each was not only accompanied by violence but took on the character
of a civil war. The precursor to the English Revolution of 1688–9 was
the English Civil War of 1642–9 between the king’s forces led by
Charles I and the parliamentary forces led by Oliver Cromwell; the
American Revolution involved two peoples who were not only British
subjects but spoke the same language and held to the same culture;
and the French Revolution was accompanied by massacres, provincial
revolts, and a reign of terror.
It is time now to deal with the central question with which this topic is
concerned—the significance of each of these three major political
revolutions.
The English Revolution: 1688–9
1. Parliamentary supremacy
The ‘Glorious Revolution’ determined that parliament, not the king,
would be the supreme authority in the British Isles. It changed the English
political system from a near-absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Under
the Bill of Rights, kings were obliged to summon parliament frequently
and could no longer suspend laws. They were also deprived of the power
to impose taxes without the consent of parliament.
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
2. Rights and freedoms
The revolution, by confirming parliament’s authority as final, established
the rule of law at the expense of the wish of the monarch. In so doing it
greatly advanced individual rights and freedoms. Under the Bill of Rights,
parliamentarians had complete freedom of speech and could not be
impeached or even questioned by any outside court. It insisted that all
subjects had the right to petition the king.
3. Anti-militarism
Throughout the seventeenth century parliament had regarded a large
standing army as a threat to its sovereignty over the country and to the
inherited rights of all Englishmen. Under the Bill of Rights the king was
forbidden to raise or keep a standing army during peacetime without the
consent of parliament. Significantly, Britain has ever since maintained a
large navy but a small army.
4. Popular government
The revolution was a major, albeit early, step in the direction of popular
government. Parliament in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was
not a highly representative body. Only a small proportion of the adult
population had the vote. England was not a democracy but an oligarchy.
Nevertheless, the revolution paved the way for the development of
parliamentary democracy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
5. Protestant ascendancy
The revolution confirmed the ascendancy of the Anglican Church. The
parliament which emerged from it was dominated by Anglicans and
hostile toward other religions, especially Catholicism and even
Puritanism. No monarch could be a Catholic or even be married to one.
Indeed, the Bill of Rights stipulated that all future sovereigns had to be
members of the Church of England and protect it as the state (or
‘established’) church.
6. An Enlightenment achievement
The revolution was a major victory for the Enlightenment. Curiously, it
occurred before the latter was in full swing. In fact, the revolution
inspired—rather than was inspired by—Locke’s denunciation of the
divine right of kings theory and his advocacy of the social contract.
Montesquieu’s regard for the English political system was based on its
checks and balances as well as what he saw as its separation of powers.
7. An inspiration to others
Not least of all, both the revolution and the political system it established
inspired others. The American revolutionaries claimed that they were
fighting for the rights that their forefathers had won in 1688–9. The
British form of government has been an object of admiration and a model
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
for others for more than three hundred years. Both the American and
French forms of government are indebted to it.
While keeping these lines of enquiry in mind, you ought now to read
those few pages in our textbooks dealing with the English Revolution.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Textbook
Perry 1997
pp.256–60
Textbook
Roberts 1995
pp.564–9, 693
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The American Revolution: 1775–83
1. Independence
As mentioned earlier, the American colonies defeated Britain, achieved
their independence, and somewhat hesitantly and almost reluctantly, went
on to form the United States of America. The creation of this new nation,
it hardly needs saying, had enormous effects on the whole later history of
Europe and the world.
2. Nationalism
Some historians have, rather enigmatically, referred to the American War
of Independence as the first revolution in modern history. As suggested
before, the English Revolution probably deserves this mantle. But the
American Revolution was certainly the first war of national liberation—a
very common phenomenon today.
3. Republicanism
Certainly, too, the American revolutionaries became the first people in
modern history to establish a large and enduring republic. By 1787 they
had done more than get rid of a king; they had got rid of kingship itself.
By 1800 the United States numbered about four million people and was a
nation larger than most in Europe.
4. Democracy
America was not only a republic but also a democracy. True, at first only
a small proportion of the adult male population had the vote. Still, by
1790 the United States was the most democratic nation in the world. Over
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
the next fifty or so years property qualifications for voting or office were
completely done away with.
5. Federalism
The colonies became states which united into a federation. There had
been federations before just as there had been republics and democracies.
But none had been as extensive and carefully thought out as that of the
United States. Its example influenced the creation of many other nations,
including Canada, Australia, and India.
6. Constitutionalism
The American constitution as a whole had an enormous influence. It was
the first to be devised and adopted by the elected representatives of a
whole nation. The very idea of a detailed written constitution was
revolutionary. Since 1787, almost every new nation, however formed, has
tried to devise its own constitution.
7. Egalitarianism
The American colonies believed they had struck a blow not only at
monarchy but also at aristocracy. They rejected both the English king and
the English ruling class. The United States was the first large nation to
ban not only hereditary aristocracy but any aristocracy and to do away
with titles of honour.
8. Religious toleration
Initially, in some states, there were religious qualifications tending to
exclude Catholics and even some Protestants. But these were soon done
away with. The United States was the first nation to insist that no
legislature had the right to establish a state religion or prohibit the
exercise of anyone’s religion.
9. Individualism
The revolution was a major advance in the furtherance of individual
rights. In 1791, Congress passed the first ten amendments to the
constitution; taken together they constituted a Bill of Rights. All were
designed to protect individual citizens from the government, whether it be
federal or state.
10. The Enlightenment
It was also another victory for the Enlightenment. The American
revolutionaries had been inspired by the principles of the English Civil
War and the Glorious Revolution. Some of the most memorable phrases
in their famous Declaration of Independence were taken from English
philosopher John Locke’s theory of natural rights.
It’s time now to consider these issues in your reading.
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Textbook
Perry 1997
pp.303–5
Textbook
Roberts 1995
pp.693–701
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The French Revolution: 1789–1815
The French Revolution was easily the most complex and bewildering of
the three revolutions we are considering. It was also a fundamentally
different sort of revolution from the English and American. For these
reasons alone, it is perhaps appropriate to deal with it in a rather different
way.
We can gain an idea of how the French Revolution was different simply
by considering what two very eminent British historians have said about
it. The first quote comes from J.M. Roberts—one of whose principal
works is our second textbook; the second comes from A.J.P. Taylor’s
small book on revolutions and revolutionaries.
‘Politicians and scholars have offered many different interpretations of
what the essence of the Revolution was, have disagreed about how long it
went on and what were its results, and even about when it began. They
agree about very little except that what began in 1789 was very important.
Within a very short time. . .it changed the whole concept of revolution. . .
It was a great boiling-over of the pot of French society’ (p.702).
‘There have been violent political upheavals as long as there have been
political communities : kings have been overthrown, empires have fallen,
new dynasties have arisen. But only from the time of the great French
Revolution have there been revolutions that sought not merely to change
the rulers, but to transform the entire social and political system. . . The
French Revolution originated revolutions in the modern sense’ (p.17).
How could just one revolution—the French Revolution—be considered
so important? It must have had an enormous effect on Europe and indeed
the world. This is quite true—and there are arguably any number of
reasons why it did. Only three will be mentioned here.
1. In 1789 the population of France was 26–27 million, making it the
largest country in western Europe. Although it lagged behind Britain
both agriculturally and industrially, it was still the most advanced
country on the continent. More importantly, it was the acknowledged
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
cultural centre of Europe. Whatever happened in France was bound to
have an impact on Europe as a whole.
2. As both Roberts and Taylor have suggested, what happened between
1789 and 1815 was not merely a political revolution but a tremendous
social upheaval. The French revolutionaries rose up against the whole
of the past. They destroyed the old order—the ancien regime—and
built a new one. They overturned and rebuilt institutions at every
level of life. They radically restructured French society.
3. The French revolutionaries were not content to transform the entire
political, social, and economic system of France. From 1791, inspired
by their success and threatened by conservative rulers throughout
Europe, they attacked and invaded neighbouring countries. Under
Napoleon, they conquered most of Europe and sowed the seeds of
revolution wherever they went.
We must conclude our discussion of the French Revolution by merely
listing a number of specific ways in which it destroyed the ancien regime.
You should not accept these uncritically—they are endlessly debatable
and the list, anyway, is not exhaustive.
1. It ended divine-right monarchy and established constitutional
government in France.
2. It formally abolished feudalism and ended peasants’ feudal
obligations.
3. It put an end to titular nobility and established the equality of all men
before the law.
4. It laid the basis for French liberalism by inter alia propounding
freedom of speech and the press.
5. It took away the privileged and exclusive position of the church and
subordinated it to the state.
6. By nationalising the church’s property and selling it off, it effected a
major redistribution of land.
7. It completely modernised and centralised France’s administration,
particularly its taxation system.
8. Under Napoleon it imposed a comprehensive legal code on France—
possibly its most substantial legacy.
9. It created modern nationalism by replacing allegiance to the monarch
with loyalty to the nation.
10. It created the idea of ‘the nation in arms’ and thereby provided the
model for conscription.
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
To sum up:
1. In very general terms, it destroyed an old order which had been based
on despotism, privilege, and inequality, and was rife with corruption,
confusion, inefficiency, and injustice.
2. Even more broadly it prompted popular sovereignty, parliamentary
democracy, liberalism, egalitarianism, individualism, secularism,
modernisation, and—perhaps above all—nationalism.
The historiography on the French Revolution is huge. Perry provides a
lengthy and very meaningful introduction and Roberts, as always, is very
thoughtful.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Textbook
Perry 1997
pp.312–43, 374–81
Textbook
Roberts 1995
pp.702–18
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Chronology
The chronology, once again, is highly select.
1688
The English Revolution—sometimes called the Glorious (or
Bloodless) Revolution
1689
The English Bill of Rights
1775
Beginning of the American Revolution
1776
The American Declaration of Independence
1783
The Treaty of Paris brings the American Revolution to a close
1789
The storming of the Bastille marks the beginning of the French
Revolution
1799
Napoleon becomes first consul of France
1815
Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo
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The English, American, and French Revolutions
Questions
Both the essay question and the exam question of this topic will be drawn
from the following.
1. What, in terms of their origins, did the English, American, and French
Revolutions have in common?
2. In what ways did the ideals of the Enlightenment inspire—and
were put into practice during—the English, American, and French
Revolutions?
3. Why was the French Revolution a turning-point in the shaping of
the modern world?
4. Which modern revolution—the English, the American, or the
French—was the most successful? Discuss the other two in your
answer.
5. Which revolution—the English, the American, or the French—was
the greatest political and social upheaval? Discuss the other two in
your answer.
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