Basic Sentence Structure
Simple Sentences
At the most basic level, English sentences have one independent clause, the main clause. It
consists of a subject and a verb. It can also contain an object or a complement, depending on the
verb. These are called simple sentences.
Subject
Bad deeds
Anger
Main Clause
Verb
Object
escalate.
begets
anger.
Subject
She
Verb
seems
Complement
young for her age.
Phrases
We can expand a simple sentence in several ways. One way is to add a phrase that clarifies or
modifies the meaning of the main clause. A phrase is not a complete sentence.
Phrase
Without rules for controlling anger,
In many societies,...
Main Clause
it can slip into emotional anarchy.
the first step is to do nothing.
Compound Sentences
Another type of sentence joins two independent clauses together with one of the following
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, for, yet, and nor. This forms a compound sentence.
Punctuation: A comma is placed at the end of the first clause before the coordinating
conjunction.
Independent Clause
They extend sympathy and a
willing ear to the enraged spouse
for a while,
The victim may grouse and mutter
about the loss of sympathy,
Coordinating
Independent Clause
Conjunction
eventually they expect the person
but
to “shape up” and “get on with it.”
but
actually the friends and relatives
are doing what any decent tribe
would do...
Complex Sentences
Complex sentences consist of two clauses connected by a subordinating word. The clause that
begins with the subordinating word cannot stand alone as a simple sentence. This clause is,
therefore, called a dependent or subordinate clause.
Punctuation: When the sentence begins with the dependent clause, the dependent clause is
followed by a comma to set it apart from the main clause.
Independent Clause
Subordinator
Good manners melt resentment
because
Complex sentences express either a time or
a logical relationship between the ideas in
the two clauses.
Adverb Clause
Dependent Clause
they maintain respect between the
two disagreeing parties.
Time Relationship: When AngloAmericans are angry, they tend to proceed
in stages from small steps to larger ones.
Logical Relationship: At the time of the
Samurai knights, these rules [about anger]
had considerable survival value because a
Samurai could legally execute anyone who
he thought was not respectful enough.
Compound-Complex Sentences
Compound-complex sentences combine complex and compound sentences. They consist of at
least three clauses. Two clauses are independent, joined by a coordinating conjunction. One or
more clauses are dependent, joined by a time or logical subordinator.
Punctuation: Because these are usually long sentences, there are two considerations when
punctuating them. 1) A comma is placed at the end of the first clause before the coordinating
conjunction. 2) When the complex part of the sentence begins with a dependent clause, a comma
is placed at the end of this clause and before the independent clause.
Subordinator +
Dependent
Clause
If they try to
change nature,
Independent
Clause
she will swiftly
destroy them,
Coordinating
Conj.
but
Subordinator + Independent
Dependent
Clause
Clause
if they relax and they will be
accept the
taken care of.
bounty of nature,
Independent
Clause
Layoffs win points
for corporate
CEO’s with Wall
Street
Coordinating
Conj.
and
Independent
Clause
boost the value of
executive stock
options,
Subordinator +
Dependent Clause
although recent
experience shows
that cutting staff
typically has fallen
dramatically short
of expectations.
Expressing Logical Relationships Through Coordination,
Subordination, and Transition Words
Writing that flows consists of a combination of both short and long sentences. While short
sentences allow writers to emphasize information, long sentences allow writers to convey
complex logical relationships between ideas. Writers produce long sentences by combining
clauses together using either coordination or subordination. Writers can also show logical
relationships between sentences by placing a transition word or expression between them.
Coordination
When sentences are combined through coordination, two independent clauses are joined
together using a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). This type of
sentence combining creates a compound sentence. When writers choose to combine two
clauses with a coordinating conjunction, they may be signaling one of the following
things: 1) each clause is equally important; or 2) each clause is new information for the
reader.
Independent Clause
Coordinating
Conj.
Productivity and profits
continued to climb over
the past twenty years,
but
the take-home pay of
the average worker has
gone down in real
terms.
Madison Avenue’s goal
is to manipulate rather
than education,
so
the media
merchandisers promote
the crudest impression
of ethnics held by the
public.
and
psychotherapists must
have a thorough
Psychotherapy, of
course, takes place
Independent Clause
within a culture
Today’s workers have
begun to think that it
will be their turn to
retire next.
knowledge of the
culture’s rules about
anger.
Yet
over the past few years
many governments have
had to rethink.
Subordination
When sentences are combined through subordination, an independent clause is joined to a
dependent clause that begins with a subordinating word such as although, after, because,
even though, despite, while. This type of sentence combining creates a complex sentence.
When writers choose to combine two clauses with a subordinating word, it is because
there is some sort of logical relationship between the two and the writer wants to clearly
signal that relationship.
Meaning
Subordinating
Word
Dependent Clause
Independent Clause
concession While
they are not necessarily
avid churchgoers,
most centenarians seem
to have some sort of
religious life.
concession Despite
trying periodically for
an hour,
Norma the elephant was
never able to swing.
time (the
action in
clause 1
occurs at
the same
time as
clause 2)
each buffalo skidded to
a halt,
it let out a loud bellow.
As
Transition Words and Expressions
Transition words and expressions show a logical relationship between ideas within parts
of a sentence or between sentences. When writers choose to combine two clauses or
sentences with a transition word or expression, they want to make sure the reader
understands the logical relationship between the ideas expressed in the two sentences or
clauses.
Logical
Connection
Sentence 1
contrast
At the outset, he
recognizes, as did many
southern moderates, that
“the Yankees are better
equipped than we.
result/effect
Scheming southern women
have long been a popular
focus of fiction (Lillian
Hellman’s The Little
Foxes, for example).
addition (of Marketing executives are
similar
less interested in your
information) personal information than
what you buy.
Transition
Word or
Expression
Independent Clause
However,
once Butler witnesses the
heartbreak of impending
defeat, the former cynic, in
a noble and honorable
gesture, heroically enlists
in the Confederate army.
Thus
Scarlett O’Hara’s famed
conniving and fierce
independence are often
seen as just another
instance of literary fantasy.
Moreover,
there are laws and
regulations designed to
make sure it stays that way.
Meanings and Functions of Conjunctions, Subordinators and Transition
Words
Although conjunctions, subordinators and transition words are each used to combine clauses and
sentences differently, they often share the same or similar meanings.
Signaling Contrasting Relationships
Contrast words indicate that the information in one clause or sentence is in contrast with the
information in another. There are several types of contrast that can be signaled with transition
words, conjunctions and subordinators: 1) a contrast; that is, the information in one clause is
opposite or different from the information in another clause; 2) a concession; that is, the
information in one clause is true, but the information in the second clause must be
acknowledged. When writers use these sentences, they want to convince a reader that the logical
relationships are accurate. They use them to convince a reader that their thinking is accurate.
Contrast
Subordinator
whereas
while
Conjunction
but
Transition Words
in contrast
by comparison
conversely
on the other hand
however
A maximal duty or
The Electronic
Depressingly the WHO
obligation, he says, is one
Communications Privacy
also found that “the speed
whose fulfillment would be Act (ECPA) of 1986
at which information is
“praiseworthy but not
establishes clear guidelines processed [by older
absolutely mandatory,”
for monitoring E-mail
workers’] usually slows
whereas a minimal duty is messages sent over public
down substantially in
one that must be met or the systems such as MCI Mail older individuals.” On the
other hand, “while older
corporation would lose its
or CompuServe. But no
moral right to exist.
such regulations govern the managers take more time
monitoring of internal Eto reach decisions, they ...
mail messages sent on a
appear to be as competent
company-owned system.
as younger managers in
overall decision-making.”
Concession or Counterargument
Subordinator
even though
although
while
despite the fact that
Conjunction
but
yet
Transition Words
however
nevertheless
nonetheless
While having some kind of
E-mail guideline is better
than having none, a poorly
written policy can create
new problems.
Today’s workers have
begun to think that it will
be their turn to retire next.
Yet, over the past few
years many governments
have had to rethink.
Although Selznick
consulted with the NAACP
(National Association for
the Advancement of
Colored People), he
nevertheless concentrated
on his white audience, not
the black protesters, and
the film reflects his
attitude.
“Some companies may be
afraid to address the issue
[of e-mail privacy] for fear
of employee backlash,”
observes Bill Moroney.
But by doing nothing, he
adds, companies open
themselves to employee
dissatisfaction and to
possible litigation.
Signaling the Addition of Information
Conjunctions, subordinators or transition words signal several kinds of added information: 1)
more information, either a new idea or one similar to the previous idea; 2) surprising or
emphasized information; 3) examples or clarifying information.
Adding New or Similar Information
Subordinator
New Information
in addition to the fact that
Similar Information
like
in the same way as
much as
Like most women of her
time, Scarlett found herself
forced by economic
necessity into a male
domain.
Conjunction
and
Transition Words
New Information
in addition
also
moreover
furthermore
or
Similar Information
similarly
likewise
in the same way
We see what the dog
intends. And the dog, too,
gets a clear glimpse into
our minds and knows what
we want.
Productivity and profits
continued to climb over the
past 20 years, but the takehome pay of the average
worker has gone down in
real terms. Some
economists suggest,
moreover, that the
permanent strategies of
layoffs, even in good
times, may actually hurt
the longterm growth of the
U.S. economy.
“Some companies may be
afraid to address the issue
[of e-mail privacy] for fear
of employee backlash,”
observes Bill Moroney.
But by doing nothing, he
adds, companies open
themselves to employee
dissatisfaction and to
possible litigation. In
addition, “until a larger
number of companies do
establish policies, the issue
will remain murky and ripe
for legislation.”
Adding Surprising or Emphasized Information
Subordinator
even though
although
while
despite the fact that
Conjunction
and even
Transition Words
moreover
furthermore
in fact
actually
In fact, many companies
that have engaged in
layoffs have discovered
that their productivity was
worse off afterward, even
though they continued
more rounds of
downsizing.
Combination antibiotics
are still marketed in most
developing countries,
however, and even
command high prices.
All of the negative effects
of downsizing them hurt a
company over the long run
because they undermine
the whole notion of
employee empowerment
and the crucial process of
idea sharing. In fact, many
companies that have
engaged in layoffs have
discovered that their
productivity was worse off
afterward, even though
they continued more
rounds of downsizing.
Adding Examples or Clarifying Information
Subordinator
[none]
Conjunction
[none]
Transition Words
Examples
for example
for instance
in particular
to illustrate
Clarification
namely
specifically
that is
in other words
This in turn means that conscious awareness is
more likely when the activity is novel and
challenging; striking and unexpected events are
more likely to produce conscious awareness. For
example, Janes (1976) observed nesting ravens
make an enterprising use of rocks..
The marketing of pharmaceuticals in the third
world illustrates a dilemma faced by all
transnational corporations; namely, deciding
which standards of ethics to follow.
Signaling Cause-Effect or Reason-Result Relationships
These conjunctions, transition words and subordinators indicate that the cause or reason, effect
or result is stated in a second clause. There are two basic meanings of these words: 1) cause or
reason and 2) effect or result.
Showing Cause or Reason
Subordinator
Conjunction
because
since
as
due to the fact that
for
In the early 1970s, the FDA refused
to approve Depo-Provera because
tests conducted since 1965 showed
that it can cause extended and even
permanent infertility and possible
breast tumors and cervical cancer.
Some economists suggest,
moreover, that the permanent
strategy of layoffs, even in good
times, may actually hurt the longterm growth of the U.S.
economy. For that strategy
accentuates the income gap
between the executive class and
the working class in America,
and some studies indicate that
this strategy cannot stimulate
growth.
A drug for a tropical disease might
never have been submitted for
approval, since there is no market for
it in the country where it is
manufactured.
Transition
Words
[none]
Showing Effect or Result
Subordinator
because
so that
so + adj. or adv. + that
such + noun phrase + that
Conjunction
so
Transition Words
therefore
as a result
thus
for this reason
consequently
The constant pressure of
job cutbacks keeps wage
levels down so that the
historical link between
rising productivity and
rising wages in American
manufacturing has been
broken.
Madison Avenue’s goal is
to manipulate rather than
education, so the media
merchandisers promote the
crudest impression of
ethnics held by the public.
This drug does not treat the
underlying causes of
diarrhea, but merely
relieves the symptoms.
Consequently, the World
Health Organization
(WHO) has declared
Lomotil to be of “no value”
in the treatment of
diarrhea.
In fact, downsizing has
become so pervasive that
more than 85% of the
Fortune 500 companies
have lopped off sizable
numbers of employees in
the past five years.
When a leopard or other
large carnivore approaches,
the monkeys climb into
trees. But leopards are
good climbers, so the
monkeys can escape them
only by climbing out onto
the smallest branches,
which are too weak to
support a leopard. When
the monkeys see a martial
eagle, they move into thick
vegetation close to a tree
trunk or at ground level.
Thus the tactics that help
them escape from a leopard
make them highly
vulnerable to a martial
eagle, and vice versa.
Concessives: Using Coordination, Subordination, and Transition Words
to Persuade Readers
Conjunctions, subordinators and transition words do not only signal logical relationships
between ideas in clauses and sentences. They also are used to persuade readers.
Signaling Contrasting Relationships
Writers not only use contrast words like but, while, and although to indicate the logical
relationships between sentences, they use them to persuade readers. Writers do this by putting
two sentences or two clauses together. One sentence or clause expresses the writer’s opinion or
idea; the second expresses something that the audience thinks, knows, or believes to be true.
While having some kind of E-mail guideline is better than having none, a poorly written
policy can create new problems.
Acknowledging or stating a perspective that is different from the writer’s makes the writer seem
more reasonable and believable. This quality is very persuasive in academic writing. Here are
some typical examples of concessive sentences.
Contrasting
Word
but
Concessive Meaning
Many historians mention bad weather in passing when describing the
events of these centuries, but few acknowledge the possibility that
the deterioration in climate played a key role in the deterioration of
civilization.
Meaning: The writer connects the two sentences with but. The first sentence acknowledges
information or a point of view that differs from the writer’s; the sentence after but gives the
writer’s idea or opinion.
Function: These types of sentences occur frequently in academic writing. A writer uses them in
order not to appear “one-sided” and to acknowledge that other information or points of view
exist about a topic; the writer then indicates that s/he has different information or a different
opinion about the topic.
Contrasting
Word
Concessive Meaning
Although the Norse were the people who seem to have taken fullest
advantage of the opportunities provided by the period of medieval
although
warming known as the little optimum, it would be wrong to leave you
with the impression that the benefits by-passed the rest of Europe
entirely.
Meaning: The writer connects the two clauses with although. The first sentence acknowledges a
piece of background information that readers probably know and the second sentence makes the
writer’s point: that other countries besides Norway benefited historically from the warming
period.
Function: Writers use sentences that begin with although to recognize readers’ background
knowledge. Although clauses allow writers to meet readers where they are and then give them
new information.
Contrasting
Word
however
Concessive Meaning
This act contained a little-publicized provision asking health care
providers to build a national database of patients’ medical records.
Americans have much to gain from such a database. There are no
federal laws, however, ensuring that medical records will be limited
to professional hands like these.
The Kennedy-Kassebaum Act gave Congress until late 1999 to
devise a plan for ensuring medical confidentiality. Present dangers,
however, demand action that is more prompt.
Meaning: The writer connects the two sentences with however. The first sentence presents one
perspective or opinion on a topic. The sentence containing however presents an opposing or
different perspective. And this is what the writer wishes to emphasize.
Function: Writers use however to connect sentences that present advantages and disadvantages
or two opposing perspectives on some topic. The first sentence usually contains the perspective
that the writer does not agree with. The sentence after the however contains the perspective the
writer will emphasize, and the one that the writer probably agrees with.
Steps to Edit Transition Words and Subordination and Coordination
TRANSITION WORDS
STEP 1 - Underline all transition words that
you have used.
STEP 2 - If there is a transition word in
every sentence, perhaps you have used too
many. You might try deleting transition
words when the logical relationship
between sentences is clear WITHOUT it.
STEP 3 - Make sure that the transition word
signals the logical relationship between
sentences that you intended. Think about
the logical connection between the two
sentences and change the transition word if
necessary.
STEP 4 -Look for sentences whose logical
relationship is complex and important for
the reader to understand. Try adding a
transition word here and see if it makes the
relationship between the two ideas clearer.
There is a scene where the American player
is riding a train with his interpreter, and he
is smoking in the train. Despite the fact
that there are many people around him, no
one complains to him to stop smoking.
Indeed, the film’s makers researched
Japanese society well because ‘pretending
not to see and care’ is typical behavior of
the Japanese. (Kawamoto, 1997)
SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION
STEP 1 - Put brackets [ ] around all
sentences or clauses that begin with a
subordinating word such as although,
while, because. Does the subordinating
word signal the appropriate logical
relationship between the two clauses? If
not, find a better subordinator.
[Although there are some movies that
portray Japanese culture], most of them are
not contemporary. (Kawamoto, 1997)
[Although the movie is a comedy],
STEP 2 - Make sure that sentences that
contain a subordinator have BOTH a
dependent clause (one that begins with a
subordinating word) and a main clause
(that does not begin with a subordinating
word or a coordinating word such as but).
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
STEP 3 - Underline all sentences that
contain two independent clauses connected
with a coordinating word like and, but, or
yet. Does the coordinating word signal the
appropriate logical relationship between the
two clauses? Would another word be
better? Would a subordinator convey the
meaning better?
There is a scene in the film where the
American player enters into a Japanesestyle bath before he washes his body, and
he starts washing his body with soap once
he enters the bath, just as it is done in
America. (Kawamoto, 1997)
STEP 4 - Put // between the sentences in one
or two of your paragraphs. If you notice
that many sentences are short, try
the portrayal of the main character in Mr.
Baseball, an American baseball player who
tries to integrate himself into the Japanese
culture, is serious. (Kawamoto, 1997)
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
combining them using subordination or
coordination.