Table of Contents from
Eric K. Yamamoto, Margaret Chon, Carol L. Izumi, Jerry Kang,
& Frank H. Wu, Race, Rights and Reparation: Law and the Japanese
American Internment (2d. ed. 2013).
Contents
CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition ....................................................................................... xxv
P A R T I : C O N T E X T
.......................................................................... 1
C h a p t e r 1 .
.......................................................................................................... 3
Prologue: Willed Concealing, Forgetting, Remembering and
Repairing
A.
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 3
B.
Overview ................................................................................................................... 7
C.
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 18
Note: Terminology ................................................................................................ 19
C h a p t e r 2 .
........................................................................................................ 23
History
A.
Asians in North America: An Overview ......................................................... 23
B.
Unopen Door .......................................................................................................... 24
1.
Immigration ....................................................................................................... 24
Note: A Brief History of Asian Immigration to the U.S. ...................... 24
Note: Chinese Exclusion ................................................................................ 27
Chae Chan Ping v. United States ................................................................ 28
Fong Yue Ting v. United States ................................................................... 35
2.
Citizenship .......................................................................................................... 44   a.
Naturalization .............................................................................................. 44
Note: Race as a Social Construction........................................................... 44
Ozawa v. United States ............................................................................... 49
United States v. Thind ................................................................................ 52   b.
Citizenship via Birth ................................................................................... 58
United States v. Wong Kim Ark ................................................................ 59
C.
Second Class Status .............................................................................................. 69
1.
Work .................................................................................................................... 69
Yick Wo v. Hopkins ........................................................................................ 70   xvii

xviii Contents
2.
Property .............................................................................................................. 74
Terrace v. Thompson ....................................................................................... 75
P A R T I I : I N T E R N M E N T
.................................................... 83
C h a p t e r 3 .
........................................................................................................ 85
The Internment Cases
A.
From Pearl Harbor to the Incarceration Camps: An Overview ............... 85
1.
Before Pearl Harbor .......................................................................................... 85
2.
December 7, 1941 .............................................................................................. 86
3.
Military, Executive and Congressional Action ............................................. 88
4.
The Legal Challenges ....................................................................................... 90
B.
Opening the Door: The Curfew Cases............................................................. 91
1.
Hirabayashi v. United States .......................................................................... 91   a.
Background................................................................................................... 91
Note: Equal Protection and the Level of Judicial
Scrutiny ......................................................................................................... 95   b.
The Case ........................................................................................................ 96
Hirabayashi v. United States .................................................................... 98
2.
Yasui v. United States ..................................................................................... 114   a.
Background................................................................................................. 114   b.
The Case ...................................................................................................... 116
Yasui v. United States .............................................................................. 118
C.
National Security Restrictions of Civil Liberties: The Exclusion
Case ........................................................................................................................ 120
Note: The Role of Courts in Reviewing National Security Claims ....... 120
3.
Korematsu v. United States ........................................................................... 124   a.
Background................................................................................................. 124   b.
The Case ...................................................................................................... 125
Korematsu v. United States ..................................................................... 126
D.
Politics and Legal Process: The Detention Case ......................................... 150
1.
Background ...................................................................................................... 150
2.
The Case ........................................................................................................... 152
Ex parte Endo ................................................................................................ 152
E.
Recasting Internment History ......................................................................... 160
Note: A Recent Debate about the Basis for Internment ........................... 160

Contents xix
C h a p t e r 4 .
...................................................................................................... 167
Incarceration: Effects and Consequences
A.
From the Assembly Centers to Resettlement: An Overview ................... 167
1.
Movement Into and Out of the Camps ........................................................ 168
2.
The Assembly Centers .................................................................................... 172
3.
Camp Life ......................................................................................................... 173   a.
Housing and Facilities .............................................................................. 173   b.
Employment and Education .................................................................... 174   c.
Tensions Within the Camps ..................................................................... 175
4.
Japanese Outside the Mainland United States ........................................... 176   a.
U.S. Territories: Alaska and Hawai‘i ..................................................... 176   b.
Canada ......................................................................................................... 176   c.
Latin America ............................................................................................. 177   d.
Japan ............................................................................................................ 177
B.
Aliens or Citizens? .............................................................................................. 178
1.
Economic Factors and Leave ........................................................................ 178
2.
Leave for Military Service ............................................................................. 179
3.
Loyalty Review Program ............................................................................... 181
4.
Resistance in the Camps ................................................................................ 185   a.
The Heart Mountain Draft Resisters ...................................................... 187   b.
The Tule Lake Segregants ........................................................................ 188   c.
The Renunciants ........................................................................................ 189
5.
Governmental Regret? Citizenship Status and Constitutional
Rights ................................................................................................................ 192   a.
The End of Detention and the Beginning of Resettlement ................. 192   b.
Consequences and Early Reparation Efforts ........................................ 197
C.
Postscript: Demographic and Cultural Shifts in Asian America after World War II ............................................................................................. 200
1.
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 200
2.
Post-World War II Immigration Reform ..................................................... 201
3.
Japanese America After the War .................................................................. 203   a.
The Emergence of the Nisei Middle Class and the Post-War
Sansei Generation ...................................................................................... 203   b.
Changing Stereotypes and Emerging Identities .................................... 205   i.
The Model Minority: Reality or Myth? .............................................. 205   ii.
The Asian American Movement and Pan-Asian
Ethnicity ............................................................................................... 207

xx Contents
I M A G E S O F I N T E R N M E N T A N D R E D R E S S .................. 211
P A R T I I I : R E D R E S S
.................................................................. 219
C h a p t e r 5 .
...................................................................................................... 221
The Coram Nobis Litigation
A.
Redress and the Judicial Declaration of Injustice: An Overview .......... 221
B.
The Coram Nobis Litigation: Newly Discovered Evidence ..................... 223
1.
The Suppressed Version of DeWitt’s Final Report .................................... 223
2.
Exculpatory Intelligence Reports ................................................................. 230
3.
The Revised Footnote in the Korematsu Brief ........................................... 235
C.
Political Lawyering ............................................................................................ 247
1.
The Lawyers .................................................................................................... 247
2.
Preparing for the Litigation ........................................................................... 248
3.
Key Communications ..................................................................................... 250   a.
Courts as Instruments of Justice: Conflicting Views ............................ 251   b.
Public Education and the Linkage to Political Movements ................ 252   c.
Practical Lawyering Skills ........................................................................ 253   d.
Internal Legal Team Dynamics ............................................................... 255
D.
Korematsu’s Coram Nobis Petition and the Government’s
Response ................................................................................................................ 257
1.
The Petition ...................................................................................................... 257
2.
Government’s Response to Korematsu’s Petition ...................................... 262
E.
The U.S. District Court Proceedings ............................................................. 265
1.
Korematsu ........................................................................................................ 265
Korematsu v. United States ........................................................................ 267
2.
Yasui .................................................................................................................. 279
3.
Hirabayashi ...................................................................................................... 280
F.
The Ninth Circuit Opinion .............................................................................. 286
Hirabayashi v. United States .......................................................................... 286
Note: Impact of the Coram Nobis Litigation ............................................... 295
G.
Ethics and Justice—The Lawyers: War Department Officials and
Justice Department Attorneys ......................................................................... 301
1.
War Department Influence Over the Justice Department ........................ 301
2.
The Solicitor General’s Misrepresentations ................................................ 303   a.
Chief Justice Stone and “No Person in Any Responsible Position
Has Ever Taken a Contrary Position”.................................................... 303

Contents xxi b.
Justice Jackson and the Absence of Evidence of Military
Necessity ...................................................................................................... 304   c.
Acting Solicitor General Katyal’s 2011 Acknowledgment of the
1944 Ethical Breach .................................................................................. 304
Note: Recent Judicial Treatment of Korematsu and Hirabayashi ......... 307
C h a p t e r 6 .
...................................................................................................... 311
Executive and Congressional Action
A.
Three Branches of Redress: An Overview ................................................... 311
B.
Executive Action ................................................................................................. 313
1.
Repeal of Executive Order 9066 by President Gerald R. Ford ................ 313
2.
President George H.W. Bush’s Apology to Japanese Americans ............ 315
C.
Congressional Action ......................................................................................... 315
1.
The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of
Civilians ............................................................................................................ 315
2.
Civil Liberties Act of 1988 ............................................................................. 318   a.
Impact of Coram Nobis Litigation .......................................................... 318   b.
President Ronald Reagan Signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 ........ 319
D.
Reactions ............................................................................................................... 323
1.
The Personal: “Freed My Soul” ..................................................................... 323
2.
The Intra-Group: Exacerbating and Then Beginning to Heal Old
Wounds ............................................................................................................. 324
3.
The Public Educational: Fresh Research and Analysis ............................ 324
4.
The Political: Why Them and Not Me? ...................................................... 325
P A R T I V : L E G A C Y
....................................................................... 329
C h a p t e r 7 .
...................................................................................................... 331
Global Implications of Internment Redress
A.
Redress and Social Justice for Other Groups: An Overview ................... 331
B.
Emerging Redress Practice and Theory........................................................ 332
1.
Suggested Frameworks .................................................................................. 332
Note: Generations of Redress Theory ...................................................... 334
2.
Today’s Reparation Theories: Back to Repair and Toward
Reconciliation .................................................................................................. 337   a.
The Fourth Generation and Beyond ...................................................... 337

xxii Contents b.
Recasting Redress Through a Framework of Social Healing
Through Justice .......................................................................................... 339   c.
Toward a Legacy of Japanese American Redress ................................ 340
3.
Human Rights and Democratic Legitimacy ............................................... 342
C.
Japanese Latin American Redress .................................................................. 343
1.
Background ...................................................................................................... 343
Note: World War II Abduction and Internment of Japanese
Latin Americans ............................................................................................ 344
2.
The Limitations of the 1988 Civil Liberties Act and the Mochizuki
Settlement ......................................................................................................... 345   a.
The Exclusion from the Civil Liberties Act ........................................... 345   b.
The Mochizuki Settlement ....................................................................... 346   i.
JLA Responses ...................................................................................... 346   ii.
The Shortcomings of the Mochizuki Settlement ................................ 346
3.
The Redress Struggle Continues ................................................................... 346
D.
African American Reparations ........................................................................ 350
1.
Redressing the Wounds of Slavery and Jim Crow Segregation ............... 350
Note: A Brief History of Slavery and Jim Crow Segregation ................. 352
2.
The Proposed Conyers Study Commission and Japanese American
Internment Redress ......................................................................................... 354
3.
Modern African American Reparations Initiatives ................................... 356   a.
Lawsuits ...................................................................................................... 356   b.
State and Local Legislative Movements ................................................ 357   c.
Opposition to the Redress Effort ............................................................. 358   d.
Next Steps ................................................................................................... 360
E.
Native Hawaiian Reconciliation .................................................................... 363
1.
U.S.-Native Hawaiian Reconciliation: Progress and Backsliding........... 363
Note: “An Act of War” ....................................................................................... 364   a.
Political and Cultural Renaissance ......................................................... 366   b.
Commitment to Reconciliation ................................................................ 366
2.
United Church of Christ and Asian American Churches
Reconciliation Initiatives ............................................................................... 367
3.
Redress Linkages ............................................................................................. 369
F.
“Sex Slaves” Reparations .................................................................................. 371
1.
The Context of World War II Sex Slaves ..................................................... 371
Note: Military Coercion of Women and Girls into Sexual Slavery ........ 372
2.
Reparations Efforts in Japan ......................................................................... 372   a.
Breaking the Silence: Former Sex Slaves Sue in Japan’s Courts ....... 372   b.
Japan’s Actions: Steps Toward Acknowledgment? ............................. 373

Contents xxiii
3.
Justice in Other Fora? ..................................................................................... 374   a.
U.S. Courts .................................................................................................. 374   b.
U.S. Congress .............................................................................................. 374   c.
International Pressure ............................................................................... 375
C h a p t e r 8 .
...................................................................................................... 379
Epilogue: Watchful Care over the Loaded Weapon
A. Civil Liberties and National Security in Times of Conflict and
War: An Overview.............................................................................................. 379
B.
Pre-9/11 Racial Profiling of Asian Americans ............................................. 381
1.
The Wen Ho Lee Prosecution ........................................................................ 381
Note: Overview of the Wen Ho Lee Prosecution .................................. 381
2.
Case Closed—Or Is It? Korematsu Revisited ............................................. 385
C.
Post-9/11 Racial Profiling and the “War on Terror” ................................. 389
1.
An Internment Framework for Post-9/11 Profiling ................................... 389
Note: The Post-9/11 Expansion of Executive Power ........................... 390
2.
Profiling: Ethnicity and Predicting Terroristic Behavior .......................... 393
3.
Presumption of Disloyalty: A Contemplated Post-9/11 Internment ........ 396
D.
Post-9/11 Balance Between National Security and Civil Liberties ....... 401
1.
Recalibrating the Balance After 9/11 ........................................................... 401
Note: Enemy Combatants ........................................................................... 401
2.
One Judicial Challenge to Enemy Combatant Detention: Rasul v.
Bush ................................................................................................................... 403   a.
Fred Korematsu’s Rasul Amicus Brief ................................................... 404   b.
The Significance of Rasul v. Bush ........................................................... 405
E.
Into the Future: The Lessons of Japanese American Internment .......... 407
1.
Insights into Post-9/11 National Security and Civil Liberties? ................ 408   a.
Perceived Religious and Racial Difference ............................................ 408   b.
Executive Branch Deceptions .................................................................. 409   c.
Judicial Deference ...................................................................................... 410   d.
Damage to Democratic Principles and Processes ................................. 410
2.
Role of the Judiciary: A Proposed Heightened Standard of Review ....... 411
Endnotes ............................................................................................................................... 421
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................... 473
Index ..................................................................................................................................... 483