range from just below the ground’s surface to
brought up through the well, & a mechanical system—piping, a
dioxide (CO2) & methane. These gases capture heat & keep the surface of the Earth
Wind energy has been used around the world for hundreds of years in farming, with
The world’s most abundant energy source, solar energy has been used as a
The most widely used form of renewable energy in the world, hydropower
hot water & hot rock found a few miles beneath
heat exchanger, & controls—delivers the heat directly for its
warm enough for people to live. Before the Industrial Revolution (c. 1760-1840), the
windmills grinding grain or pumping water for irrigation. Today, the windmill's modern
power source for more than 150 years. Its use in the U.S., however, increased at
has been in use since ancient times for irrigation & later for the operation of
the Earth's surface.
intended use, to heat buildings, warm plants in greenhouses,
amount of CO2 & other greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere were roughly in
equivalent—a wind turbine—can use the wind's energy to generate electricity.
a record pace in 2008. Current projections are for solar power’s contributions to
watermills, sawmills, textile mills, dock cranes, & power houses.
In 2010, the 77 power plants in the U.S. led
Modern use of hydroelectric power, the
the world in the production of geothermal
Following the Industrial Revolution, cities, factories, & machines began to emit large
HOW IT WORKS
electricity generated by hydropower, currently
electricity. The largest group of geothermal
amounts of greenhouse gases. These gases, which can stay in the atmosphere for
At 100 feet or more aboveground, turbines can take advantage of faster & less turbulent
The sun's light (& all light) contains energy.
accounts for 16% of global electricity
power plants in the world is located at
50 years or more, are now building up beyond the Earth’s capacity to absorb them,
wind. Turbines
Usually, when light hits an object, the energy
generation, & is expected to increase
The Geysers geothermal field in California.
creating an extra-thick heat blanket around the planet. As a result, during the past
catch the wind's
turns into heat, much like the warmth we feel
about 3% each year for the next 25 years.
energy with their
while sitting in the sun. But when light hits
propeller-like
certain materials, the energy turns into an
blades. Usually,
electrical current instead, which can then be
• With concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere surpassing 400 parts per million (ppm)
two or three
harnessed for power.
for the first time on May 9th, 2013, leading scientists expect global warming to accelerate
blades are
(from the 9/23/10 entry “The ‘Hockey Stick’ Lives” on The New York Times blog “Green”).
mounted on
current. AC power travels from the inverter to a building’s electrical cabinet, or
breaker box, & is then available to service all electrical needs.
lift & drag on the
A utility meter continually measures electrical supply; when a solar system
rotor blades causes the rotor to spin like a propeller. The turning shaft spins a generator
produces more power than needed, the meter spins backwards, accumulating
to make electricity.
• Even if future temperature changes turn out to be at the low end of predictions, scientists
say we can expect to experience stronger storms; more frequent & longer forest fires;
pronounced droughts; longer, more intense allergy seasons; more frequent & harmful floods;
decreased water quality; more stress on wildlife; higher sea levels; & more erosion in coastal areas.
Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be connected to
a utility power grid. Some are even combined with a photovoltaic (solar-cell) system.
For utility-scale sources of wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are usually
Hydroelectricity supplies Norway, Democratic
There are three types of geothermal-energy technologies: geothermal electricity
temperature is warmer than the air above it in winter &
Republic of the Congo, Paraguay, & Brazil with
production, which generates electricity from the Earth’s heat; geothermal direct use,
cooler than the air in summer. Geothermal heat pumps
over 85% of their electricity. The U.S. currently has over 2,000 hydroelectric
which produces heat directly from hot water within the Earth; & geothermal heat
take advantage of this resource to heat & cool buildings.
power plants that supply 49% of the country’s renewable electricity.
pumps, which use the shallow ground to heat & cool buildings.
Geothermal heat-pump systems consist of three parts: the ground heat
built close together to form a wind plant. Several electricity providers today use wind
• If the high-end predictions come to pass, the world could face abrupt, catastrophic, &
plants to supply power to their customers. Small wind systems also have potential
irreversible consequences.
as distributed-energy resources, meaning they can be combined with other powergenerating technologies to improve the overall electricity delivery system.
BRIEF HISTORY OF WIND ENERGY
exchanger, the heat-pump unit, & the air-delivery system (ductwork).
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water
Geothermal power plants use steam produced from reservoirs of hot water found a
The heat exchanger is a system of pipes called a loop, which is buried
driving a water turbine & generator. The power extracted from the water
couple of miles or more below the Earth's surface. There are three types of geothermal
in the shallow ground near the building. A fluid (usually water or a mixture of
1892—World’s first geothermal district-heating system built in Boise, ID;
depends on its volume & on the difference in height between the source & the
power plants: dry steam, flash steam, & binary cycle. Dry steam power plants draw
water & antifreeze) circulates through the pipes to absorb or relinquish
within a few years, the system serves 200 homes & 40 businesses in Boise.
water's outflow. A large pipe, called a penstock, delivers water to a turbine, which
from underground resources of steam. The steam is piped directly from underground
heat within the ground.
turns a metal shaft in an electric generator, the motor that produces electricity.
wells to the power plant, where it is directed into a turbine/generator unit.
1903—First geothermal electric power plant built in Italy.

or business remains connected to the utility grid to supply electricity when more
In ancient times—Civilizations, including the Greeks & Romans, divert water
water with temperatures greater than 360°F. This very hot water flows up through
power is needed than the system has produced, such as at night.
to push wheels that turn mills to grind grain for bread.
wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases
Before the Industrial Revolution—Water is the main power source for milling
1878—World's first hydroelectric power scheme is developed by William George
injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable resource.
Armstrong at Cragside in
drive machinery.
1948—First solar-heated house
Northumberland, England,
occupied in Dover, MA.
& used to power a single-arc
lamp in his art gallery.
1881—Schoelkopf Power
developed at Bell Laboratories.
1941—First wind turbine used to generate electricity.
1975—Federal involvement in wind-energy development advances wind
energy technology.
1981—Construction begins
on world’s largest wind farm in
California’s Altamont Pass.
during her 2011 week-long program at Polar Bears
Canada, the “Polar Bear Capitol of the World.”
ince the 1970s, the summer sea-ice cover in the Arctic has both shrunk
& thinned by 45%, losing 70% of its former volume, according to Polar
Renewable Energy Sources
the summer ice will disappear completely in less than 30 years. For the polar
than 30% of their electricity from renewable energy sources like wind, solar,
bear, this will spell disaster since the bears depend on sea ice for hunting, breeding,
hydroelectric, geothermal, & biofuels. By comparison, in 2011, the U.S. got only 12.3%
Continental Shelf, establishing
&, in some cases, creating dens.
of its electricity from renewable sources.
Biologists estimate the current world population of polar bears between 20,000-25,000,
This disparity can be attributed to many technical, social, economic, & political
with about 60% of this population in Canada & the rest in the U.S. (Alaska), Russia,
actors, but experts agree that, as renewable energy sources become cheaper & our
Greenland, & on Norway's Svalbard archipelago. At the 2009 meeting of the Polar
buildings, cars, & machines become more energy-efficient, the U.S. will move more
Bear Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN),
quickly towards renewable energy sources.
Bear Specialist Group, the greatest challenge to the conservation of polar bears
is ecological change in the Arctic as a result of climatic warming.
& has the empty space to create wind & solar plants.
According to IHS Emerging Energy Research, a renewable-energy consulting
firm, “An industrial economy needs a reliable power source, so we think fossil fuel
will be an important foundation of our energy mix for the next few decades.” The
.
first framework for wind energy
a process for granting leases,
easements, & rights-of-way for
offshore renewable-energy
development.
Today—Wind energy is now
heat exchanger. The heat removed
from the indoor air in summer can
also be used to heat water, thus
providing a free source of hot water.
360°F. These plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually
constant shallow-ground temperatures,
an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a
which are suitable for geothermal
heat exchanger & used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the
heat pumps.
largest producing geothermal field.
1970—The Geothermal Steam Act is passed, allowing the leasing of
federal land for geothermal-energy development.
Today—Small-scale geothermal power plants (under 5 megawatts)
have the potential for widespread application in rural areas, possibly
even as distributed-energy resources, which are a variety of small,
modular power-generating technologies that can be combined to
improve the operation of the electricity-delivery system.
.
Freeman is a partner at Davis Graham & Stubbs, LLC in Denver, CO, where he works on environmental issues with both
the traditional energy sector and numerous NGO’s, including the American Sustainable Business Council. © American Forum

electricity. Within 20 years,
almost 40% of U.S. electricity
is produced hydroelectrically.
This exhibit is presented in conjunction with
1905-1930s—Several large
dams, including the Hoover &
the 150th anniversary of Westport’s

Gault Energy & Stone.
Energy Laboratory in 1991, the facility is considered today the nation’s primary
it was built in 1935, the Hoover Dam was the world’s largest hydroelectric power plant.
Biomass Energy, or Bioenergy
BRIEF HISTORY OF BIOENERGY
1940s—Three-quarters of the electricity for the western states is derived from
Humans have used biomass energy, or bioenergy—the energy from organic matter—
1812—A gas company in London, England, demonstrates the first
hydroelectric power.
for thousands of years, burning wood to cook food or to keep warm.
commercial use of pyrolysis, heating biomass in an oxygen-free
laboratory for renewable energy & energy efficiency R&D.
1978—The Solar Photovoltaic Energy Research, Development & Demonstration
Act authorizes an aggressive program to make these systems economically
competitive with electricity from conventional sources.
1981—Solar One, the nation’s first solar-cell power plant, begins operation in
1960s—Hydroelectric-dam operators recognize the problem of blocking fish

migration, & many then implement fish ladders & spillways to resolve this problem.
environment to produce a liquid oil.
Wood is still the Earth’s largest biomass-energy
1840—First commercially used biomass gasifier built in France.
green-energy programs, visit gaultenergy.com
Today—Projects are underway to derive energy from ocean waves & marine currents,
biomass, including plants, residues from agriculture or
1860s—Wood becomes the primary fuel for heating & cooking in homes
& also the Westport Historical Society’s exhibit
& build less-intrusive turbines in rivers for the continued use of this renewable
forestry, & the organic component of municipal &
& businesses, & is used for steam in industry, trains, & boats.
resource to generate electricity.
industrial wastes. Even fumes from landfills can be
used as a source of biomass energy.
1876—The Otto Cycle, invented by German scientist Nicolaus August
HOW IT WORKS
Otto, is the first combustion engine to use ethanol-blended gasoline.
There are three major applications for biomass-energy technology: biofuel, which
2010—The U.S. produced more than half of all solar thermal power in the world.
1880s—Henry Ford uses ethanol to fuel one of his first automobiles,
is biomass converted into liquid fuel; biopower, which is biomass burned directly or
the quadricycle. Ethanol is used to fuel cars in the U.S. into the 1920s.
2011—A nationwide survey by independent polling firm Kelton Research reveals
converted into a gaseous fuel or oil; & bioproducts, which are products typically
that nine of ten Americans support the use & development of solar technology, with
made from petroleum that are instead produced from renewable resources.
2001—Residential solar power systems are first sold in home improvement stores.
eight of ten respondents indicating that "the federal government should support
solar manufacturing in the U.S. & give federal subsidies for solar energy."
Today—In 2012, the U.S. adds more solar-power capacity than in the three previous


electricity-generating capacity,
providing some 42% of all new
Rudolf Diesel demonstrates that a diesel engine can run on peanut oil.
Biofuel
1940s—After World War II, the ethanol fuel industry closes down in the
Biomass is the only renewable energy source that can be converted directly into
U.S., with the arrival of low-priced, abundant petroleum fuels.
liquid fuels, or biofuels, for our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses, airplanes,
generating capacity.

Governments begin to fund research into converting biomass into useful
Biopower
energy & fuels.
There are six major types of biopower systems:
1980s—Biomass power plants are built in North America, with a large
Direct-fired—Used by biopower plants that burn bioenergy feedstocks to
biomass-power industry quickly developing in California.
to electricity by a generator.
Co-firing—Used by coal-fired power plants to
significantly reduce sulfur dioxide emissions.
Pyrolysis—When biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen, it becomes pyrolysis oil,
an oxygen-starved environment to convert biomass
into a gas (a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
& methane). The gas fuels a gas turbine, which turns
an electric generator.
Anaerobic digestion—Uses methane, the gas
produced in biomass decay, as an energy source.
1990—In the U.S., the Clean Air Act mandates the sale of oxygenated
which is burned, like petroleum, to generate electricity.
fuels (such as ethanol-blended gasolines) in areas of the country with
Small Modular—Biopower technologies can be used in smaller, modular systems to
generate electricity for small towns or individual consumers. Farmers, for example,
can use the waste from their livestock to provide their farms with electricity.
easier short-term strategy to reduce carbon emissions.
This exhibit runs until December 2.
1970s—Interest is renewed in ethanol & other biomass energy sources.
& trains). The two most common biofuels are ethanol & biodiesel.
produce steam. The steam is captured by a turbine & converted
which runs through September 2.
1900—Vegetable oil is used as a diesel fuel when German inventor
come online in the next few years.
the No. 1 source of new U.S.
Five Generations of Yankee Ingenuity: The Gault Family,
1870s—Gasifiers are used with engines to generate power.
night & when the sun is not shining.
years combined, & several supersized solar-energy projects are scheduled to
To learn more about Gault Energy’s
resource, but there are also many other sources of
Gasification systems—Use high temperatures &
biomass energy, or bioenergy. Here is a look at each of these types of energy.
Temperature in the Earth’s core (in Celsius)
Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225°-
IEA says that improving the energy efficiency of homes, vehicles, & industry is an
The renewable sources of energy include wind, solar, hydroelectric, geothermal, &
built at The Geysers in northern California, which is still the world’s
Roosevelt dams, are added to meet public demand for electricity in homes. When
efficiently over a broad range of operating conditions & stored for dispatch at
2009—President Obama announces
is reversed, & the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the
dedicated to harnessing power from the sun. Renamed the National Renewable
2.5 million U.S. homes.
development on the U.S. Outer
2020. Mapping studies have concluded that the U.S. is rich in renewable resources
CO, the first federal facility
1996—Solar Two plant demonstrates that solar energy could be collected
decades ago ran on a fossil fuel mix much like that used in the U.S., now get more
seven populations insufficient to determine their fate). According to the IUCN Polar
Research Institute in Golden,
enough electricity to power
the summer ice loss was larger than the whole area of the U.S., & scientists predict
of natural gas continuing to rise, the two energy sources could reach parity by
launches the Solar Energy
Daggett, CA, providing electricity from 1982-86.
the polar bear’s habitat through conservation, research, & education. In 2012,
declining, three are stable, & one is increasing (with the data on the other
used in the U.S. to generate
2007—Wind power produces
According to the 28-nation International Energy Agency (IEA), 13 countries that two
With the price of wind power expected to continue to drop, for example, & the price
lower in price, becoming more
1977—U.S. Dept. of Energy
Joe Jacobs, used to generate electricity on remote farms.
International’s Leadership Camp in Manitoba,
reaction turbines are first
1888—First windmill to generate electricity developed in Cleveland, OH.
1960—First commercial-scale geothermal electric plants in the U.S.
1880s—Dams using hydraulic-
1970s—Solar cells begin to
cost-effective for use on land.
1927—First commercial wind turbines, developed by brothers Marcellus &
Arctic Ambassador Sarah Cooperman of Westport
uses solar cells for power in orbit.
& railroad builders.
pumps it into the indoor air-delivery system. In summer, the process
All areas of the U.S. have nearly
ground to be reheated.
1921—World’s first geothermal power plant built in California.
begins producing electricity.
Photo: Daniel J. Cox/Natural Exposures
Photo: Vetta Collection
1850s—Windmill becomes a popular water-pumping tool for Western-U.S. homesteaders

& heat; later hot-springs water is piped into homes as a source of heat.
Station near Niagara Falls
1958—First time U.S. satellite
spices & sawing wood.

In winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger &
& some of the hot water boils into steam. This steam is separated from the water
lumber & grain, & powering small machinery.
developed to pump water & grind grain.
1590s—The Dutch built windmills for multiple uses, including grinding grain &

Flash-steam power plants are the most common, & use geothermal reservoirs of
& used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water & condensed steam are
1953—First silicon solar cell
In ancient times—Wind was used to power sailing ships; later windmills were
In ancient times—Hot springs (geothermal energy) are used for cooking
Geothermal Electricity Production
credits with the utility company that will offset the next bill. In most cases, a home
1860—First solar power system developed in France to produce steam to
BRIEF HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
HOW IT WORKS
BRIEF HISTORY OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER
BRIEF HISTORY OF SOLAR POWER
The upper 10 feet of the Earth maintains a nearly constant
Photo: Daniel J. Cox/Natural Exposures
sent to an inverter, where it is converted into AC power, or standard electrical
Geothermal Heat Pumps
temperature between 50°-60°F. Like a cave, this ground
HOW IT WORKS
Solar panels, made up of photovoltaic (PV) cells,
combination of
scientists reported that, among the 19 subpopulations of polar bears, eight are
on the surface.
Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy.
convert sunlight into DC power. This power is
then either injects the cooled water underground or disposes of it
Photo: Andrew Fore
HOW IT WORKS
wind blows, the
The Plight of the
Polar Bear—
& Planet Earth
dry crops, heat water at fish farms, & more. A disposal system
the nation’s power needs to grow to 10% by 2025.
rotor. When the
Bears International (PBI), a nonprofit organization devoted to preserving
reservoir to provide a steady stream of hot water. This water is
Hydroelectric Power
a shaft to form a
S
in the Earth. Sources of geothermal energy
Solar Energy
What Scientists Say About Global Warming’s Effect on the Earth
Mine:
In modern direct-use systems, a well is drilled into a geothermal
Wind Energy
century, the earth’s atmosphere has heated up by about one degree Fahrenheit.
in the Coal
Geothermal energy is heat generated & stored
The world’s atmosphere has a natural supply of greenhouse gases, including carbon
balance with what the Earth could absorb by its forests, grasslands, & oceans.
Canary
Geothermal Direct Use
Photo: fineartamerica.com
Why Is the Climate Changing?
Geothermal Energy
Bioproducts
Many products made from fossil fuels can also be made using biomass. These bioproducts
are not only made from renewable sources but also often require less energy to produce
than petroleum-based products.
Today’s bioproducts include antifreeze, plastics, glues, artificial sweeteners, gel for toothpaste,
photographic films, textiles, synthetic fabrics, wood adhesives, molded plastic, & foam insulation.
”To think man is not in the crosshairs of
extinction is naïve. To think man cannot
get out of it is also naïve.”
—Robert Buchanan, former president,
Polar Bears International
higher levels of carbon monoxide, stimulating growth in the use of ethanol
fuels for transportation.
Today—An International Energy Agency survey of 133 countries shows
that the biomass share of total energy consumption is 10.5%.
.