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Towards a holistic conceptualisation of hedonic experiential consumption:
The case of nightclubbing
Introduction
Drawing together a series of accepted experiential and consumption concepts this paper
presents unified model explaining hedonic consumption. Where the previous literature
supports a three stage consumption experience model (Arnould, Price, & Zinkhan, 2005;
Caru & Cova, 2003) and decision-making research (Quintal, Lee, & Soutar, 2010), we
explain the component constructs of each stage, and construct relationships across stages of
hedonic experiential consumption (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook & Hirschman,
1982). However, to our best knowledge, no single unifying conceptual model has emerged to
explain these and it seems unlikely individual decision processes fit neatly into a single
decision theory in hedonic experiential consumption situation.
We also echo Goulding and Shankar (2011) call for advancing our knowledge in clubbing
experience. Nightclubs are a good example of this type of hedonic experiential consumption
as they consist of rituals such as mythology, formulism, sacredness, communitas and
transformation, where “…the body becomes the locus of the experience” (Goulding &
Shankar, 2011, p. 1449). Pleasure and hedonic consumption are important components of
clubbing, where pleasure is “a complex biosocial phenomenon subject to competing
sociohistoric discourses” (Goulding, Shankar, Elliott, & Canniford, 2009, p. 760) and
hedonic consumption is “consumers' multisensory images, fantasies and emotional arousal in
using products” (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982, p. 93). Morover, consumers seek situations
to escape the reality of everyday life and play an active role in the consumption of an
experience (Fine, 2010; Firat & Dholakia, 1998). Therefore, marketers seek to engage
consumers in a memorable and involved manner, offering extraordinary experiences
(Arnould & Price, 1993; Caru & Cova, 2007; Schmitt, 2003). In other words, consumer
experiences are at the heart of contemporary consumer behaviour and have a vital impact on
what consumers play, enjoy (pleasurable experience), remember, and learn depending on
their social and personal identities (Belk, 1988; Sherry, Kozinets, & Borghini, 2007).
Bringing together literature from leisure, tourism and marketing, this paper combines
different theories and concepts to create a unified model of hedonic consumption and apply it
to the nightclub environment. This is in order to answer the underpinning research question:
How do the differing stages of consumption affect the entire hedonic consumption
experience? For example, how does the pre-stage influence the actual consumption stage and
the final outcome? We divide the paper into three sections, the literature on consumption
experience is reviewed and the theoretical constructs of the preconceived attributes
(motivation, sociability and leisure entitlement), playful interaction (communitas, flow and
ecstasy) and fulfilment (arousal and pleasure) as well as the proposed conceptual framework
are introduced. The second section presents our methods and results, focusing on the
questionnaire and the structural equation model which was analysed using Partial Least
Squares (PLS). Finally, we discuss results, further research and implications.
Literature Review and Conceptual Model
Preconceived attributes (motivation to escape, sociability and leisure entitlement)
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Lee, Lee, Bernhard, and Yoon (2006) identify three frameworks (including sociological,
psychological and experiential) through which motivation has been studied in the context of
gambling (an experiential consumption sharing many features of nightclubbing). Arguably,
motivation to gamble is rooted in understanding of leisure behaviour and experiential
consumption (Lee et al., 2006). Experiential rewards can be seen as “the temporary
improvement in positive mood people experience when they are acting in goal-directed,
purposeful ways”, and are an important motivation in examples of hedonic consumption such
as night-clubbing (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Hosany and Witham (2010) have shown that
escapism plays a strong motivating factor in their analysis of the experiential consumption of
cruising, supporting wider tourism literature. However they identified that escapist intentions
did not link strongly to overall satisfaction, or intention to recommend an experience to
others, and call for further research using other scales to measure motivation and its
importance in the subsequent experience consumption. Wohlfeil and Whelan (2006) highlight
a link between arousal and the situational involvement that motivates people to an eventmarketing or experiential activity. As such a relationship between escapist motivations and
arousal directly may be expected.
Sociability is the tendency toward aligning and spending time with others rather than
remaining alone (Spake & Megehee, 2010b). Levels of sociability show a strong link to
character traits; high sociability people tend to be extroverted and crave excitement, need
people talk to and laugh with, and are more prone to engage in social activities (Hills &
Argyle, 2001). Spake and Megehee (2010) have argued that sociability has an impact on
commitment to service providers in high involvement settings whilst outlining the need for
consumer sociability to be further studied in experiential situations. This is not a new
discovery, however. Sparks and Tucker (1971, p. 70) have shown that "sociability combined
with emotional stability and irresponsibility is oriented toward one sort of action while
sociability combined with emotional instability and cautiousness is oriented toward its
opposite". Jafari, Taheri, and vom Lehn (2013) have cautioned against oversimplification of
sociability due to the different levels of interaction people are willing to partake in and the
importance of personal characteristics, such as motivation. The literature shows indirect links
between the sociability construct and the desire to enter a variety of relationships and groups
(Spake & Megehee, 2010b).
Unger and Kernan (1983b) have shown how leisure has subsequently been understood as
disinterested and hedonistic, seen to involve an emotional element of pleasure, as personally
rewarding, and to involve intrinsic satisfaction (Iso-Ahola, 1982). McGinnis and Gentry
(2004b) and McGinnis, Gentry, and Gao (2012) presents a useful framework – 'leisure
entitlement' – in which to understand the construct in the context of consumer research.
Leisure entitlement is conceptually defined here as the extent to which people believe they
have the rights to and time for leisure. It measures whether leisure takes priority in a person's
life and whether a person sets aside time specifically for activities that are independent of
work and one's obligations to others." Further work highlights that leisure entitlement is
constrained by intrapersonal (such as lack of knowledge, interest or time); interpersonal
(difficulty finding someone to join in leisure with, restrictive societal expectations such as
perceptions of gender appropriate activities); and structural (scheduling problems, seasonal
cycles, family life cycles) constraints (McGinnis & Gentry, 2006b).
Playful interaction (Communitas, Flow and Ecstasy)
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McGinnis and Gentry (2004) have explored the concept of “play” and demonstrated how golf
can be seen to involve this element of playfulness; here we use the concept for our analysis of
nightclub consumption. Their definition of play contends that it is made up of communitas,
flow and ecstasy; it is derived from definitions given by Deegan (1988), who describes play
as liberation from modern societal structures, and Holt (1995), who describes it as autotelic
consumption with no ulterior end. Play is similar to fun, differentiated in that fun does not
carry the same liberating quality. The constructs which make up play are explored
individually below.
Turner (1956) used the term communitas to describe the unstructured, or – more applicable in
a clubbing study – rudimentarily structured collective of equal individuals. During a
“moment in and out of time” these individuals share “a generalized social bond that has
ceased to be and has simultaneously yet to be fragmented into a multiplicity of structural ties”
(Turner, 1969 p.96). Communitas plays a central role in the conceptualization of ‘play’ in
ritual experience, leisure activity and hedonistic consumption where it produces a
transcendent group camaraderie (Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993). It can be seen as a removal of
status and social categorisation, a period in which “people of the same condition develop
fleeting feelings of comradeship and egalitarianism” (McGinnis & Gentry, 2004 p.405) and
“wherein each member’s essential humanity is recognized and shared” (Deegan, 1998 p.26).
“Communitas, although highly enjoyable and transcending, does not necessarily relate to the
leisure pursuit itself as much it does to the participation and comradeship of other
participants.” (McGinnis et al, 2008) As such we expect the relationship between leisure and
communitas to be less powerful than between leisure and flow.
Another element of the ‘play’ conceptualization is flow, defined by its architect
Csikszentmihlayi (1988, 1990) as an autotelic experience involving the harmonious ordering
of consciousness. According to Belk, Wallendorf, and Sherry (1989, p. 8) it involves “a
centring of attention, a loss of self, a feeling of being in control of self and the environment”.
Flow is often described as stand out moments, memorable yet effortless, a loss of selfconsciousness and appreciation of ordinary reality during which senses become heightened
and the individual more serene (Deegan, 1989; McGinnis & Gentry, 2004). As such flow
presents an important tool in experiential and hedonic consumption environments. McGinnis
et al (2008) highlight that leisure is an intrinsically motivated pursuit, and that flow – through
its autotelic capacity – closely represents intrinsically motivated behaviour; as such, a strong
relationship is expected.
Sacred, ritual like processes have been analysed as being able to produce ecstatic experiences
so strong that individuals feel as though they are standing outside of themselves (Belk et al,
1989). It is related to the other components of this “During” phase of consumption in that, as
with flow and communitas, someone must feel involved in order to experience ecstasy. It is a
momentary experience which cannot be achieved if alienation prevents the required mental
capacity required to feel positive, almost transcendental, emotions (Belk, 1989; McGinnis &
Gentry, 2004). Belk et al (1989) show that, though not essential, group experiences can
strengthen ecstasy.
Fulfilment stage (Arousal and Pleasure)
Pleasure is a concept which has emerged in many contexts and descriptions of affect, dating
back as far as the fourth century B.C. when it was described as “the beginning and root of all
good” by Epicurus (Russell, Weiss, & Mendhelson, 1989). It has come to be thought of as an
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essential emotion, the maximization of which forms a basic human motive (Russell, 2003).
Bigné, Andreu, and Gnoth (2005) have defined pleasure as referring to someone feeling
good, feelings of joyfulness and happiness.
The origins of arousal are much more contemporary than those of pleasure though they can
be seen in Wundt’s (1912/1924, cited in Russell et al 1989) proposal of tension-relaxation.
Arousal, activity and activation have been studied in a number of context and arousal is
defined by Russell et al (1989) as, though involving or being based on physiological activity,
representing a reported subjective feeling. Bigné et al (2005) have defined arousal as
representing the degree an individual feels stimulated or active. Arousal is controlled by the
brain’s emotional centre, the amygdale, and it is possible to differentiate empirically between
low (base) and high (elevated) levels of arousal; “elevated arousal diminishes cognitive
capacity and results in heuristic or superficial processing” (Fredorikhin & Patrick, 2010).
Individuals in a high-arousal state have been seen to be more perceptive to peripheral cues
and a disrupting effect on information processing has been seen (ibid).
Figure 1 shows an overview of hypothesized effects. Preconceived attributes (motivation to
escape, sociability and leisure behaviour) influence playful interaction (Communitas, Flow
and ecstasy) and fulfilment stages of the nightclub experience. Preconceived attributes also
influence fulfilment; this is illustrated in Figure. 1.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
Method and Results
To analyse the data, we used Partial Least Squares (PLS). Unlike co-variance based structural
equation modelling (e.g., AMOS), which use the structure of latent variables, PLS is a
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component based approach suitable for both predictive applications and theory building
(Gotz, Kerstin, & Krafft, 2010) and appropriate for different levels of data (Henseler, Ringle,
& Sinkovics, 2009). It is also used to estimate the structural paths coefficients, R2 using 500
randomly generated sub-samples (Gotz, et al., 2010). Moreover, Alexander, MacLaren,
O’Gorman, and Taheri (2012) and Chin (2010) applied the geometric mean of the average
communality and R2, within a range of values from zero to one as overall goodness of fit
(GoF) measures for PLS. To ensure content validity of our survey we initially conducted a
literature review to identify appropriate measures, employing existing scales for the main
constructs (Bigné et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2006; McGinnis & Gentry, 2004b, 2006b; Spake &
Megehee, 2010b). Scales were measured using 7 point Likert scales with “disagree stronglyagree strongly” as anchors. 54.7% of participants are male (total sample size: 1045). In the
case of the scales (Table 1), Composite reliability (ρcr) scores range from .80 to .91 above
the recommended cut off of .7 (Hair et al., 2010). Convergent validity was assessed using
average variance extracted (AVE) and our factors scored .50 and .63 once again meeting the
.5 threshold suggested (Chin, 2011; Hair et al., 2010). Finally, discriminate validity of the
scales was measured by comparing the square root of AVE (represented by the diagonal with
inter-construct correlations in (Table 2). All appear to support the reliability and validity of
the scales. To examine the hypotheses, the structural model (Table 3) was simultaneously
tested within SmartPLS (Ringle, Wende, & Becker, 2005). The modelled constructs explain
20% of the variance in communitas, 35% of the variance in flow, 19% of the variance in
ecstasy, 45% of variance in arousal and 90% of variance in pleasure; the overall GoF is .62.
To simplify the model only significant relationships are displayed.
Conclusions
The present study contributes to a better knowledge of the interplay among the stages of
hedonic experiential consumption in the clubbing context. The majority of proposed
relationships have been supported by the data which is also supported by previous studies
(Belk, Wallendorf, & Sherry, 1989; Lee et al., 2006; McGinnis & Gentry, 2004b; McGinnis
et al., 2012; Russell et al., 1989; Spake & Megehee, 2010b) (Table 3). This study highlights
the need for further research into the influence of preconceived motivational factors and
playful experience on arousal and pleasure.
Our study adequately demonstrates that motivation to escape; sociability and leisure
behaviour can positively influence clubbers playful experience, something widely explore in
the extant literature (Cheek & Buss, 1981; Hills & Argyle, 2001; McGinnis & Gentry, 2004a,
2006a; McGinnis, Gentry, & Gao, 2008; McGinnis et al., 2012; Pine II & Gilmore, 1998;
Reynolds & Beatty, 1999; Spake & Megehee, 2010a). Motivation to escape and leisure
behaviour directly influence arousal with leisure also sharing a direct relationship with
pleasure; these links supporting assertions from previous literature (Berlyne, 1969; Dawson,
Bloch, & Ridgway, 1990; McGoldrick & Pieros, 1998; Unger & Kernan, 1983a). Given the
lack of emphasis on the relationship in the literature explored here it is perhaps not surprising
that sociability does not influence arousal and pleasure. Communitas and ecstasy affect
arousal, but do not affect pleasure. Flow influences pleasure and does not influence arousal.
These relationships have no been empirically analysed elsewhere though some suggestions of
playful interaction upon the pleasure and arousal constructs has been suggested (Belk,
Wallendorf, & Sherry Jr., 1989; Canniford & Shankar, 2013; McGinnis & Gentry, 2004a)
In this exploratory study, the authors aimed to explore the consumption experience model in
a hedonic situation based on previous studies. We have produced a putative model
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highlighting the importance of the relationships between accepting constructs. Further, the
model outlines the importance of relationships along the three-stages of the consumption
process. By establishing a distinct multidimensional approach to measuring hedonic
experiential consumption, this study lays the groundwork for future research examining
different established constructs in hedonic experiential consumption model which plays
important role for decision-making process in a hedonic environment. As such, further study
of hedonic experience should employ mixed-method approaches in order to explore concepts
further. In terms of managerial implications, the results are primarily relevant for the
management and marketing of night clubs.
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Appendix:
Table 1: Assessment of the Measurement model
Scales
Motivation
M1: To escape from routine life
M2 : To alleviate boredom
M3 : To escape from responsibility
M4 : To release tension
Sociability
S1: I like to be with other people
S2 : I prefer being with others than being alone
S3 : I enjoy social gatherings just to be with people
S4 : I value having relationships with other people
S5 : I generally view myself as a person who is interested in establishing
relationships with others
Leisure entitlement
L3 : I usually have several hours for leisure each week
L4 : Nobody sets restrictions upon my leisure time
L5 : Leisure time is something to which I believe I am entitled
L6 : My leisure time is closely monitored
L7 : I believe that I am deserving of my leisure time
Communitas
C3 : When I go out to nightclubs, I feel a sense of belonging with others at the club
C4 : When I go out to nightclubs, I feel a sense of harmony with the others
C5 : When I go out to nightclubs, I feel a sense of sharing with the people there
C6 : Clubbing really allows me to get to know my fellow clubbers
Flow
F2 : Clubbing is the best way to relieve my stress
F4 : When I go out to nightclubs, it receives my total concentration
F5 : When I go out to nightclubs, I am surprised to find I have lost track of time
F6 : When I go out to nightclubs, I can become totally involved in what I am doing
F7 : When I go out to nightclubs, time seems to rush by quickly
Ecstasy
E1: I find clubbing to be a very liberating experience
E3 : I often lose control when I club due to extreme excitement
E4 : When I go out to nightclubs, I often become spiritually uplifted
E5 : When I go out to nightclubs, I often lose my mind in rapture
E6 : When go out to nightclubs , I get caught in a state of euphoria
E7 : When I go out to nightclubs, I easily become ecstatic
Pleasure
P1: Unhappy-Happy
P2 : Annoyed- Pleased
P3 : Unsatisfied- Satisfied
P4 : Melancholic- Contented
P6 : Bored- Relaxed
Arousal
A1: Calm- Excited
A2 : Slugglish- Frenzied
A3 : Relaxed- Stimulated
Item
loading
Composite
reliability
0.80
AVE
0.89
0.63
0.86
0.50
0.86
0.52
0.86
0.56
0.91
0.60
0.90
0.58
0.84
0.57
0.50
.75
.70
.79
.70
.80
.73
.82
.82
.80
.73
.80
.73
.77
.70
.74
.82
.79
.73
.70
.71
.70
.74
.71
.74
.77
.81
.81
.78
.80
.76
.81
.80
.80
.71
.80
.78
.73
Note: Only the significant items used in Table2. Non-standardized coefficients; p< 0.5
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Table 2: Latent variables correlation matrix (discriminate validity)
Arousal
Communitas
Ecstasy
Flow
Arousal
.75
Communitas
.36
.72
Ecstasy
.46
.44
.77
Flow
.39
.39
.49
.74
Leisure
.64
.43
.55
.57
Leisure
Motivation
Pleasure
.70
Motivation
.32
.33
.28
.34
.29
.70
Pleasure
.63
.37
.32
.51
.63
.26
.76
Sociability
.36
.23
.26
.38
.32
.40
.31
n.a. Not applicable.
Table 3: The results of hypothesis testing
Structural relations
M
M
M
M
S
S
S
L
L
L
L
C
F
E
A
C
F
E
C
F
E
C
F
A
P
A
P
A
Standardised path
coefficients
.124*
.196**
.176*
.383***
.181**
.155**
.150*
.197**
.493***
.513***
.722***
.162*
-.138*
.140*
***p<0.001; **p<0.01; *p<0.05
Sociability
.79
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