Chapter 1
1. The science of human development may best be described as an attempt to understand:
A. how and why people from diverse cultures are different.
B. how children learn to speak and understand language.
C. how and why people change across the life span.
D. how humans and animals are similar and different.
Answer: C
2. Scientists seek to progress from:
A. fact to fiction.
B. observation to truth.
C. rumor to fact.
D. opinion to truth.
Answer: D
3. When something is said to be “empirical,” it is based on:
A. theories.
B. facts.
C. inferences.
D. opinions.
Answer: B
4. The first step in the scientific method involves:
A. posing a question.
B. running an experiment.
C. selecting a group of participants.
D. asking people to participate.
Answer: A
5. Within the scientific method, once a researcher poses a question, her next step is to:
A. draw conclusions.
B. run an experiment.
C. select a group of participants.
D. develop a hypothesis.
Answer: D
6. Once a researcher has developed a hypothesis, his next step in the scientific method is to:
A. draw conclusions.
B. design and conduct research to gather empirical evidence (data).
C. replicate the study.
D. report the results.
Answer: B
7. Once the researcher has tested his/her hypothesis, the fourth step in the scientific method is to:
A. replicate the study.
B. report the results.
C. draw conclusions.
D. write a new hypothesis.
Answer: C
8. The final step in the scientific method is:
A. test the hypothesis.
B. draw conclusions.
C. write a new hypothesis.
D. report the results.
Answer: D
9. What is replication of a study?
A. the repetition of a study, using different participants
B. the repetition of a study, using the same participants
C. designing a new study based on information from a previous study
D. designing a new study using new ideas and information
Answer: A
10. Why is replication of a study necessary?
A. to answer any questions that were not addressed in the previous study
B. to give more researchers more jobs
C. it is needed before the scientific community accepts the study's conclusions
D. to see if it is possible to do the same study two times
Answer: C
11. To be included in the statistics for SIDS, a seemingly healthy infant who has died in its sleep must
have been at least ______ of age.
A. 2 weeks
B. 2 months
C. 3 months
D. 8 days
Answer: B
12. Research on SIDS has shown that babies should be:
A. put to sleep on their backs.
B. swaddled tightly before being put to bed.
C. kept in a warm bedroom.
D. fed right before being put to bed.
Answer: A
13. Traits, capacities, and limitations that we each receive from our biological parents are said to be a
result of:
A. proteins.
B. nature.
C. nurture.
D. amino acids.
Answer: B
14. Developmentalists' argument over the relative importance of hereditary and environmental
influences is called the:
A. social-context debate.
B. genetic-engineering debate.
C. social-engineering debate.
D. nature-nurture debate.
Answer: D
15. When psychologists say that a given trait is due more to nature than nurture, they mean that the
trait:
A. is universal; that is, it is found in everyone.
B. is a result of experiences.
C. is mostly influenced by the genes inherited at the moment of conception.
D. cannot be influenced by the environment.
Answer: C
16. Parents who spend a great deal of time and money trying to find the best school for their children
are emphasizing the importance of:
A. nurture.
B. the zone of proximal development.
C. nature.
D. operant conditioning.
Answer: A
17. What does current research tell us about the resolution of the nature-nurture controversy?
A. Nature is proving to be dominant over nurture in the understanding of human behavior.
B. We can no longer attribute behavior to one or the other since virtually all human behaviors
result from a complex interaction between nature and nurture.
C. Nurture is far more important in understanding behavior than is nature.
D. It is clear that some behaviors are driven solely by nature and some are driven solely by
nurture.
Answer: B
18. Which of the following best summarizes the relative importance of nature and nurture in our
development?
A. The relationship between the two moves only in one direction. In other words, our genes
set the stage for our development; nurture affects the manifestation of those genetic
influences. Nurture has no effect on our genes.
B. The relationship between the two is clear. Genes (nature) determine our physical traits,
while nurture affects the development of our psychological and behavioral traits.
C. Nurture is the primary influence on our overall development. Genes only set the stage, and
from the moment of birth nurture takes over.
D. The relationship between the two is reciprocal. In other words, our genes set the stage for
our development; nurture affects the manifestation of those genetic influences. Nurture, in
turn, affects genes.
Answer: D
19. The term for all the environmental influences that affect development after conception is:
A. proteins.
B. nature.
C. nurture.
D. amino acids.
Answer: C
20. What is a “critical period” of development?
A. when certain things must occur for normal development
B. when a person is in critical condition
C. the point after conception and before implantation of a fetus
D. any time period after birth when the child is learning
Answer: A
21. What is a “sensitive period” of development?
A. when the child is most sensitive to instruction
B. when it is most difficult for development to occur
C. when a particular development occurs most easily
D. when the child is developing emotional control
Answer: C
22. The theory of human development that views all aspects of development as interacting with one
another is:
A. life-span perspective.
B. epigenetic theory.
C. multidirectional.
D. dynamic-systems theory.
Answer: D
23. A crucial element of the science of human development is the:
A. focus on all kinds of people, young and old.
B. search for the meaning of life.
C. focus on middle-class American people.
D. use of subjective research methods.
Answer: A
24. A manner of studying human development that takes into account all phases of life is referred to
as the:
A. plastic nature of development.
B. dynamic-systems theory.
C. life-span perspective.
D. multicontextual effect.
Answer: C
25. The notion that development involves gains and losses that do not always occur in a straight line
exemplifies the following characteristic of the life-span perspective:
A. multidirectional.
B. multidisciplinary.
C. plasticity.
D. multicontextual.
Answer: A
26. Which of the following concepts refers to behaviors that develop over time and appear to persist,
unchanging, from one age to the next?
A. continuity
B. systems
C. discontinuity
D. critical period
Answer: A
27. Which of the following concepts refers to behaviors that develop over time and appear quite
different from those that came before?
A. continuity
B. systems
C. discontinuity
D. critical period
Answer: C
28. The view that in the study of human development a person should be considered in all contexts
and interactions that make up life is:
A. the life-span perspective.
B. epigenetic theory.
C. the ecological-systems approach.
D. the dynamic-systems theory.
Answer: C
29. In order, the three nested levels Bronfenbrenner describes in his ecological-systems approach
are:
A. microsystems, exosystems, macrosystems.
B. macrosystems, microsystems, exosystems.
C. exosystems, microsystems, macrosystems.
D. microsystems, macrosystems, exosystems.
Answer: A
30. The fourth system described by Bronfenbrenner, which is used to connect the other systems in his
ecological-systems approach, is called the:
A. macrosystem.
B. exosystem.
C. microsystem.
D. mesosystem.
Answer: D
31. Cohort refers to a group of people who:
A. hold the same political beliefs.
B. are born within a few years of one another.
C. support each other in times of stress.
D. participate in a scientific experiment.
Answer: B
32. When people belong to different cohorts, they differ in:
A. membership in community groups.
B. socioeconomic status.
C. age group or generation.
D. ethnic or racial groups.
Answer: C
33. You and your high school classmates are part of the same:
A. social construction.
B. context.
C. socioeconomic status.
D. cohort.
Answer: D
34. The concept of a cohort is important because individuals in the same cohort experience the same
______ circumstances.
A. educational
B. socioeconomic
C. historical
D. familial
Answer: C
35. Dora, who is 75 years old, disagrees completely with her teenage granddaughter about the proper
role of women. Their arguments are most likely to arise from differences in which context?
A. educational
B. ethnic
C. historical
D. socioeconomic
Answer: C
36. Pam attended her 20th high school reunion and had a wonderful time dancing the old dances and
singing the old songs. According to the multicontextual characteristic of development, her
enjoyment may be attributed to:
A. a cohort effect.
B. fond memories of high school.
C. her success beyond high school.
D. social context.
Answer: A
37. At 55 years of age, Ross lost his job and had to be retrained in a new field that required taking a
course over the Internet. Never having gone online, he was baffled while his younger classmates
excelled. His frustration may be attributed to differences in the:
A. cultural context.
B. ethnic context.
C. social context.
D. historical context.
Answer: D
38. Socioeconomic status refers to an individual's:
A. culture.
B. ethnicity.
C. social class.
D. race.
Answer: C
39. An individual's socioeconomic status includes:
A. ethnicity.
B. level of education.
C. political beliefs.
D. religion.
Answer: B
40. A meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that
allows them to meet their basic needs of survival is referred to as their:
A. culture.
B. cohort.
C. ethnicity.
D. environment.
Answer: A
41. Identify an example of a cultural phenomenon.
A. A close loving bond can shield children against abuse.
B. More children than adults live in lower-income households.
C. American women tend to be shorter than American men.
D. American babies usually sleep in a room separate from their parents.
Answer: D
42. A researcher interested in making a multicultural comparison would be most likely to compare
which of the following?
A. males and females
B. eight-year-olds and eighteen-year-olds
C. computer users and non-users
D. Australians and Canadians
Answer: D
43. Han's parents immigrated to the United States from China. While they focused strongly on passing
their cultural traditions down to their son, they were distressed to observe Han incorporating
some American traditions into their Chinese heritage. It might be helpful for Han's parents to
understand that Han:
A. is rejecting his Chinese heritage to fit in with his American friends.
B. will experience his culture somewhat differently than his parents do because of having
moved to the United States.
C. is having difficulty finding his cultural identity because he is an adolescent.
D. is going through a sensitive period of development, so they need to be patient until he
passes through this phase.
Answer: B
44. Who was the leader in describing the interaction between culture and education?
A. Urie Brofenbrenner
B. F. Skinner
C. Lev Vygotsky
D. Sigmund Freud
Answer: C
45. What is the process by which mentors guide novices to master the skills and habits expected
within a culture?
A. guided participation
B. apprenticeship
C. teaching
D. lecturing
Answer: A
46. If a group of people have the same ancestors, religion, and language, they are said to be part of
the same:
A. nation.
B. racial group.
C. culture.
D. ethnic group.
Answer: D
47. The term for a group of people who regard themselves as different from other groups of people on
the basis of their physical appearance is:
A. ethnic group.
B. race.
C. heritage
D. culture.
Answer: B
48. Social constructions are ideas created by:
A. racial origins.
B. cultural backgrounds.
C. society.
D. ethnicity.
Answer: C
49. In many cultures around the world, people believe that it is the husband's responsibility to earn
the majority of the income for the family. This is an example of:
A. an ethnic belief.
B. a racial bias.
C. a social construction.
D. heritage.
Answer: C
50. For ease of study, human development is often divided into which three domains?
A. past, present, future
B. biological, social, cognitive
C. childhood, adolescence, adulthood
D. multicultural, multidisciplinary, multicontextual
Answer: B
51. The idea that the study of development involves several academic fields defines the ______
characteristic of development.
A. multidisciplinary
B. multicontextual
C. plasticity
D. multidirectional
Answer: A
52. Brain cells that respond to actions performed by someone else are called:
A. motor neurons.
B. mirror neurons.
C. sensory neurons.
D. glial cells.
Answer: B
53. When her grandfather stuck his tongue out at her, two-day-old Leila stuck her tongue out in
return. How might scientists explain her behavior?
A. Leila's behavior was strictly coincidental.
B. Mirror neurons were activated.
C. She was exhibiting early signs of high intelligence.
D. She was exhibiting the tongue-thrust reflex.
Answer: B
54. The notion of plasticity refers to the:
A. fact that many academic fields contribute data and insight to the science of development.
B. universals and specifics of human development in many cultural settings.
C. vast array of contexts in which development occurs.
D. ability of human traits to be molded during development.
Answer: D
55. Watching and recording others' behaviors in a systematic and objective manner is referred to as:
A. scientific observation.
B. a correlational design.
C. cross-sectional research.
D. a laboratory experiment.
Answer: A
56. Becky wants to study stealing in school-age children. She asked to review surveillance videos
from three stores that were focused on the candy aisle. Her method of study is:
A. a survey.
B. scientific observation.
C. an experiment.
D. an exploration.
Answer: B
57. If a researcher watches one-week-old babies and records how many times they open and close
their eyes while lying in their cribs, he is most likely using:
A. the case-study method.
B. a controlled experiment.
C. cross-sectional research.
D. scientific observation.
Answer: D
58. If a scientist wanted to use scientific observation to see how frequently schoolchildren share food
at lunch, she could:
A. give half of them candy and see how many would share.
B. mingle with the children and ask them about sharing.
C. bring a small group into her laboratory and observe them eating.
D. watch the children from an unobtrusive spot in the school lunchroom.
Answer: D
59. Scientific observation permits:
A. the study of individuals behaving as they normally do.
B. determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
C. precise control of the environment.
D. systematic manipulation of variables.
Answer: A
60. Identify an example of scientific observation.
A. asking employers about their employee's assertive behavior
B. asking teachers to rate children's activity levels in the classroom
C. watching mother–child interactions at home
D. bringing people to a laboratory to measure memory ability
Answer: C
61. Which of the following is the major drawback to observational research?
A. It must be done in a laboratory setting.
B. It cannot be generalized to other populations.
C. It does not allow us to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
D. It violates the ethical standards of research.
Answer: C
62. Experiments allow researchers to:
A. study the natural environment.
B. study the entire complexity and uniqueness of an individual.
C. inexpensively adhere to the scientific method.
D. determine a cause-and-effect relationship.
Answer: D
63. When a researcher is interested in the cause of a particular behavior, the appropriate research
method to use is:
A. the case study.
B. scientific observation.
C. the experiment.
D. the survey.
Answer: C
64. Which of the following is the best definition of “dependent variable”?
A. It is the measured variable that may change depending upon manipulation of an
experimental variable.
B. It is any unmeasured variable that is not controlled within the context of the experiment.
C. It is the variable that is intentionally manipulated by the researcher.
D. It is one of the external variables that cannot be controlled by the researcher.
Answer: A
65. Which of the following is the best definition of “independent variable”?
A. It is the measured variable that may change depending upon manipulation of an
experimental variable.
B. It is any unmeasured variable not controlled within the experiment.
C. It is the variable that is intentionally manipulated by the researcher.
D. It is one of the external variables that cannot be controlled by the researcher.
Answer: C
66. An example of a dependent variable in an experiment might be:
A. gender.
B. blood type.
C. eye color.
D. level of depression.
Answer: D
67. A researcher was interested in whether watching violence affected children's behaviors. To
examine this, he showed a violent film to one group of preschoolers and a nonviolent film to a
second group of preschoolers. Following the films, the behaviors of the two groups were
compared. This study was:
A. a naturalistic observation.
B. an experiment.
C. a case study.
D. longitudinal research.
Answer: B
68. A researcher was interested in whether watching violence affected children's behaviors. To
examine this, he showed a violent film to one group of preschoolers and a nonviolent film to a
second group of preschoolers, and then he observed their aggression levels. In this study, the
independent variable was the:
A. viewing of the violent film.
B. level of aggression displayed before the film.
C. level of aggression displayed following the film.
D. children's home environment.
Answer: A
69. A researcher was interested in whether watching violence affected children's behaviors. To
examine this, he showed a violent film to one group of preschoolers and a nonviolent film to a
second group of preschoolers. Following the films, the behaviors of the two groups were
compared. In this study, the comparison group was the children:
A. who watched the violent film.
B. who watched the nonviolent film.
C. whose behavior was the inspiration for the study.
D. who watch at least four hours of television per day.
Answer: B
70. In an experiment, the group of participants who receive the imposed treatment or special
condition is referred to as the ______ group.
A. independent
B. dependent
C. experimental
D. comparison
Answer: C
71. In an experiment, the group of participants who do not receive the independent variable is called
the:
A. dependent group.
B. significant group.
C. control group.
D. experimental group.
Answer: C
72. A reason why surveys might not be the most valid of research methods is because:
A. many people give inaccurate responses to impress the interviewers.
B. many people answer honestly but the interviewers do not believe them.
C. even a representative sample of people will be biased.
D. when asked the same questions again, responses differ.
Answer: A
73. Which of the following is an example of a survey method?
A. personal interviews
B. IQ test scores
C. height/weight statistics
D. school grades
Answer: A
74. To study people's thoughts about aging, a researcher would most likely use:
A. a laboratory experiment.
B. a survey.
C. naturalistic observation.
D. the case-study method.
Answer: B
75. The three methods that social scientists from every discipline use to explore human behavior are:
A. observation, experiments, survey.
B. cross-sectional, longitudinal, cross-sequential.
C. biological, social, cognitive.
D. significance, odds ratio, factor analysis.
Answer: A
76. To study change over time, researchers use which three basic research designs?
A. observation, experiments, survey
B. cross-sectional, longitudinal, cross-sequential
C. biological, social, cognitive
D. significance, odds ratio, factor analysis
Answer: B
77. The quickest and least expensive way to study development is with:
A. cross-sectional research.
B. the case study.
C. cross-sequential studies.
D. longitudinal research.
Answer: A
78. In cross-sectional research on development, each of the groups studied is of a different:
A. sex.
B. social class.
C. age.
D. political affiliation.
Answer: C
79. A researcher was interested in finding out whether children's ability to exhibit self-control when
offered unhealthy food changed with age. He asked parents of three-year-old, six-year-old, and
nine-year-old children to bring their children into the laboratory, where they were allowed to eat
as much candy, cookies, and cake as they wanted. The researcher then compared the amount of
food eaten by children of the three different ages. This is an example of:
A. a naturalistic observation.
B. cross-sectional research.
C. longitudinal research.
D. cross-sequential research.
Answer: B
80. Which of the following is a common difficulty in cross-sectional research?
A. There are too many variables to keep track of.
B. Longitudinal changes are not easily measured.
C. Cohort differences—that is, differences in background variables.
D. Cultural differences.
Answer: C
81. A researcher who tests the same individuals over thirty years, when they are 10, 20, 30, and 40
years old, is conducting:
A. cohort research.
B. longitudinal research.
C. continuous research.
D. cross-sectional research.
Answer: B
82. To study how members of a particular group change or remain the same as they grow older, the
best method is:
A. cross-sectional research.
B. a survey at the end of the time period.
C. longitudinal research.
D. establishing an experimental group and a control group.
Answer: C
83. If a researcher wanted to study the development of handwriting ability in children, she could
measure the handwriting of a group of second-graders and continue to take handwriting samples
from these same children each year until sixth grade. This is an example of:
A. longitudinal research.
B. cross-sectional research.
C. cross-sequential research.
D. a replication study.
Answer: A
84. What is most likely the biggest problem with longitudinal research?
A. changing ages of participants
B. not being able to keep participants over time
C. changing historical context
D. participants becoming aware of the goals of the study and changing their behaviors or
answers
Answer: C
85. Which of the following is the most complex and beneficial way to study change over time?
A. a cross-sequential design
B. a cross-sectional design
C. a meta-sequential design
D. a longitudinal design
Answer: A
86. A cross-sequential design:
A. examines a single group of people who are the same age at one point in time.
B. examines two or more groups of people who are of different ages at one point in time.
C. follows a single group of people over an extended period of time.
D. follows two or more groups of people who are of different ages over a period of time.
Answer: D
87. Unlike other types of research, a cross-sequential design allows researchers to:
A. disentangle differences due to chronological age from differences related to historical
period.
B. disentangle differences in groups of individuals who are of different ages.
C. reduce sample bias.
D. conduct research over only a small time period.
Answer: A
88. A researcher studies the relationship between two variables and determines the likelihood that a
change in one variable will result in a change in the other. What type of research is this person
conducting?
A. experimental
B. correlational
C. observational
D. descriptive
Answer: B
89. A correlation does not indicate that one variable causes the other to occur; rather, it indicates that
there is a ______ between the two variables.
A. proof
B. validity
C. reliability
D. relationship
Answer: D
90. The range of numbers (indicating the degree of relationship) that can occur in a correlation is:
A. –10 to +10.
B. –1.0 to +1.0.
C. 0 to 10.
D. –100 to +100.
Answer: B
91. A correlation is considered to be positive if:
A. both variables increase or decrease together.
B. one variable increases while the other variable decreases.
C. no connection between the two variables is seen.
D. there is no instance of a positive correlation.
Answer: A
92. A correlation is considered to be negative if:
A. there is no instance of a positive correlation.
B. both variables increase or decrease together.
C. one variable increases while the other variable decreases.
D. no connection between the two variables is seen.
Answer: C
93. A correlation is considered to be zero if:
A. one variable increases while the other decreases.
B. there is no instance of a negative correlation.
C. both variables increase together.
D. no connection between the variables is seen.
Answer: D
94. The more Hank eats, the less hungry he feels. The correlation that exists between his food intake
and his hunger is:
A. positive.
B. negative.
C. zero.
D. causal.
Answer: B
95. After he got his first job and a regular paycheck, Juan found himself buying more and more DVDs,
especially as he got pay raises. The correlation between the size of his paycheck and the DVDs is:
A. positive.
B. negative.
C. zero.
D. causal.
Answer: A
96. Which of the following numbers indicates the weakest correlational relationship?
A. .90
B. –.76
C. .05
D. –.50
Answer: C
97. Which of the following numbers indicates the strongest correlational relationship?
A. –.98
B. .85
C. –.40
D. .32
Answer: A
98. What is one of the reasons that correlations do NOT indicate causation?
A. Not applicable. Correlations do indicate causation if the correlation is a perfect –1.0 or
+1.0.
B. There could be a third variable not being taken into account that can interact with the
other variables being examined.
C. Correlations are unexpected.
D. Social scientists do not know why correlations do not indicate causation.
Answer: B
99. If you find a correlation between school grades and school attendance, you can conclude that:
A. high attendance and high grades tend to occur together.
B. high attendance causes high grades.
C. smart children often miss school.
D. smart children enjoy school.
Answer: A
100. Research data that may be categorized, ranked, or numbered is:
A. anecdotal.
B. qualitative.
C. quantitative.
D. hypothetical.
Answer: C
101. Quantitative information always involves:
A. data on subjects.
B. obtaining much information from research participants.
C. numerical data.
D. studying people over a period of time.
Answer: C
102. Which of the following would be an example of qualitative data collection?
A. Interviewing all of the siblings of a pair of conjoined twins and asking them about their
personal interactions.
B. Documenting how many hours of television an eight-year-old child watches per week.
C. Observing and documenting the number of aggressive behaviors demonstrated by threeyear-olds in a day-care setting.
D. Measuring the heights and weights of a group of preschoolers.
Answer: A
103. Research data that is open-ended and not easily transferable to numbers is:
A. quantitative.
B. qualitative.
C. correlational.
D. hypothetical.
Answer: B
104. The set of moral principles used by each academic discipline and professional society to protect
the integrity of research is referred to as their:
A. policies and procedures.
B. participant rules.
C. code of ethics.
D. conditions of liability.
Answer: C
105. Zeke is reviewing a research study design for a co-worker. In it, he discovers a procedure that is
questionable in terms of participant safety. For guidance, he turns to his academic discipline's:
A. policies and procedures.
B. code of ethics.
C. participant rules.
D. conditions of liability.
Answer: B
106. The initials IRB stand for:
A. Institutional Research Board.
B. International Research Board.
C. Internal Review Board.
D. Intelligence Research Board.
Answer: A
107. Researchers obtain informed consent of individuals participating in their studies to ensure the
participants understand that:
A. participation is voluntarily, confidential, and harmless for all.
B. they will be paid for their participation.
C. researchers are not liable for unanticipated outcomes.
D. their names will be published in the final research report.
Answer: A
108. In seeking participants for research studies, researchers must explain the purposes and
procedures of the study in advance, obtain written permission, and allow participants to stop at
any time. This process is known as:
A. holding harmless.
B. informed consent.
C. release of liability.
D. rite of research.
Answer: B
109. When doing research with children, which of the following must be obtained?
A. the children's birth records
B. the names of the children's biological parents if the children are adopted
C. the parents' informed consent
D. the names of the children's peers
Answer: C
110. An example of a behavior by a researcher that would be considered unethical is:
A. halting the study if harm is suspected.
B. changing the data to support the hypothesis.
C. obtaining informed consent.
D. maintaining confidentiality.
Answer: B
111. In order to prevent a researcher's bias from interfering with ethical data collection and reporting,
which of the following is an important part of the research process?
A. keeping the research separate from the participants at all times
B. keeping the names of the research participants anonymous
C. providing details of the study which will allow for replication
D. using the same research team for replicating future studies
Answer: C
112. Researchers have an ethical obligation to choose topics of study that:
A. may be researched quickly.
B. may be researched inexpensively.
C. are of major importance to society.
D. are politically correct.
Answer: C
113. Suppose you were curious about people's views regarding instant messaging and how it has
affected the lives of Americans. Would the age of the individuals whose opinions you asked
matter? Thinking about the concept of a cohort, describe how instant messaging might tend to
be viewed by individuals who are 12 years old, 30 years old, and 70 years old.
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Answer: Students should affirm that age matters in this case. Specific views will vary, but students
should demonstrate an understanding of the importance of historical context. For instance,
70-year-olds grew up without computers, 30-year-olds grew up using computers for a much more
limited number of tasks, and 12-year-olds have grown up using the computer as a means of
communication.
114. First define and then compare and contrast the following terms: (a) race, (b) ethnic group, and
(c) socioeconomic status.
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Answer: Race is meant to be a biological categorization (e.g., hair and skin color), whereas ethnic
group is meant to be a category based on national origin, religion, customs, and language. Social
scientists prefer not to use race, because there are no clear-cut categories. SES refers to income,
education, community, etc., and is related to ethnic group but is certainly not the same.
115. Cassie is 3 years old and just witnessed her friend Sara fall from her tricycle and skin her knee.
Sara starts to cry and the teacher hurries toward her. Explore Cassie's possible reactions to this
incident, considering recent research on mirror neurons.
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Answer: Recent research on mirror neurons has found “neural activity that mirrors not only the
movement but also the intentions, sensations, and emotions of those around us.” This implies that
Cassie may reflect her friend's pain by crying and/or exhibiting facial expressions associated with
distress. Cassie may also mirror the teacher's behavior by running toward Sara.
116. Think about a belief you hold strongly that is in disagreement with your parent, grandparent, or
other adult relative. This belief may concern marriage, education, drug and alcohol use, the roles
of men and women, child rearing practices, and so forth. Briefly describe your perspective on the
topic and then describe your parent's perspective. How have the historical context in which you
grew up and the historical context in which your parent grew up influenced your differences on
this issue?
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Answer: Answers will vary, but students should choose a social construction and sufficiently describe
specific aspects of the historical contexts that would influence differences in ideas.
117. Explain why researchers interested in human development study different cultures. Give an
example of a research question that would benefit from a multicultural comparison.
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Answer: Researchers interested in human development study different cultures in order to allow them
to notice when patterns are universal and to provide insights into the effects of different environments.
Examples will vary, but students should provide an example that demonstrates one of these purposes.
118. List, in order, and explain each of the five basic steps of the scientific method.
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Answer: Step 1: Begin with curiosity. Pose a question based on theory, prior research, or personal
observation. Step 2: Develop a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a specific research question/prediction that
can be tested through research. Step 3: Test the hypothesis. Design and conduct research to gather
empirical evidence. Step 4: Draw conclusions. Using the evidence gathered in the research, conclude
whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted. Step 5: Report the results, share the data, conclusions,
and alternative explanations.
119. What is scientific observation? Give an example of a research question that could be addressed
with this method. Describe one advantage and one limitation of this method.
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Answer: Scientific observation involves watching people in their natural settings. Research questions
will vary, but should not involve cause and effect, and should include variables that can be observed in
a natural setting. Advantages of scientific observation include that it is unobtrusive and that people act
naturally. Limitations include that the researcher has minimal control and that one cannot make claims
about cause. Observation can also occur in a laboratory or by searching archival data.
120. Define correlation and give an example. Can one determine cause and effect from correlations?
Explain why or why not.
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Answer: A correlation exists between two variables when one changes (increases or decreases) as the
other changes. It is impossible to determine cause and effect from correlations because correlations
indicate a connection between two variables, but cannot determine a reason for the connection because
no other variables are controlled.
121. What is an experiment? Give an example of a research question that could be addressed with
this method. Describe one advantage and one limitation of this method.
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Answer: The experiment is a research method in which a researcher manipulates one variable and
then looks for and records any changes in some other variable. Sample research questions will vary,
but should involve an independent variable that can be manipulated (i.e., not age, gender, race,
intelligence, etc.) and a dependent variable that can change. Advantages include ability to determine
cause and effect relations and ability to manipulate or control the environment. Limitations include that
it is usually an artificial situation and participants usually know they are research participants, so we
cannot generalize to real-world situations.
122. Describe two reasons why it is sometimes difficult to get valid data with a survey.
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Answer: Answers will vary, but students should describe two reasons. For instance, people may try to
make themselves look smart or nice, wording of questions may influence results, data may be
incomplete if everyone doesn't respond, and people can be inaccurate reporters (e.g., memory
difficulties).
123. Imagine you are interested in the relationship between age and reading ability for children
between 4 and 10 years of age. Briefly summarize how you could test this using a crosssectional design.
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Answer: The students should state that they will find several groups of children ranging in age from 4
to 10. They will then evaluate each child's reading ability or ask parents or teachers to do so. Finally,
they will compare the children of various ages and look for differences.
124. Give a brief description of longitudinal research and a brief description of cross-sequential
research. Describe the differences between these two designs, and cite one advantage that each
design has over the other.
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Answer: Longitudinal research is a procedure in which people of a given age are studied repeatedly
over time to measure their stability and change over time. Cross-sequential research involves
examining several groups of people of different ages repeatedly over time in order to examine age
differences on a particular variable. Longitudinal design uses a single group, whereas cross-sequential
design uses multiple groups of different ages. Advantages of longitudinal design over cross-sequential
design are that it is simpler to conduct and analyze. Advantages of cross-sequential design over
longitudinal design include that it can differentiate between true changes due to age and effects due to
cohort, or historical period.
125. Defining culture as a social group's “design for living,” think about the college campus culture
and the culture in your home. How are they alike? How do they differ? What values are
emphasized on campus that may not be emphasized at home? Likewise, what values are present
in the home that may not exist on campus?
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Answer: Students should compare and contrast campus and home values and then identify campus
values not present at home and home values not present on campus.
126. Define and discuss the term plasticity as it relates to human development. What influences
plasticity in development? Offer at least one example of plasticity that has or is operating in your
life.
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Answer: Students should include both aspects of plasticity in their definition: the molding of human
traits into different forms and shapes, and the durability of identity. Influences include culture,
upbringing, and genes. Their example should relate to some aspect of growth in their lives.
127. Summarize methods of ensuring that research is designed, conducted, and reported in an ethical
manner. What practices should be built into the study to protect participants and to protect the
integrity of the research?
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Answer: Students should include the process of informed consent, the need for scientific collaboration
and training of the researchers, accurate and objective reporting of results, and replication.
128. Suppose you want to investigate how abuse in early childhood affects personality development in
middle childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
using cross-sectional and longitudinal research in exploring this topic?
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Answer: Answers should acknowledge that cross-sectional research is faster and less expensive than
longitudinal research. Answers should also indicate that longitudinal research has its shortcomings. For
instance, it is difficult to follow the same individuals for a long period of time, and it is hard to assess
the impact of participation in the research on their development. Alert students may also point out that
historical factors are always a potential source of error with both longitudinal and cross-sectional
research; results that were true for a particular cohort in one historical period may not hold for other
cohorts growing up earlier or later. For instance, some of the long-term results of child abuse may well
depend on the attitude and actions of the community with regard to abuse and the ability of medical
personnel to detect abuse—both of which have changed markedly during the past twenty years.
129. Using the ecological-systems approach, think about the impact of poverty on a child's cognitive
development. Give an example of an influence within each of the following four contexts: family,
school/peers, neighborhood/community, and cultural values/economic policies.
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Answer: The answers should incorporate an ecological approach to describe the effects of poverty on
cognitive development. Answers will vary, but should include the relation between poverty and family
interactions (e.g., parents' stress will decrease quality of parenting), school/peers (e.g., the condition
of schools), neighborhood/community (e.g., may be unsafe neighborhood, causing children stress on
the way to and from school), and cultural values/economic policies (e.g., Head Start program).
130. What are some of the basic rights of children involved in research? Refer to the standards on
page 36 of the text.
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Answer: When involving children in research, experimenters must ensure that the subjects are not
harmed, participation is voluntary, children and parents are informed about what will occur, and all
information is kept confidential.
131. Suppose you are on an advisory committee whose purpose it is to ensure that experiments
involving young children are conducted in an ethical manner. Give an example of an experiment
that you would consider ethical, one you would consider unethical, and one that would be
difficult to evaluate. Defend your reasons in each case.
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Answer: Answers will vary, but ethical experiments are ones that will ensure that the subjects will not
be harmed by the research process and participation is voluntary and confidential. Unethical
experiments would involve violation of any of these conditions. One that would be difficult to evaluate
would be a study in which there is some potential for harm but also one where there are potential
benefits as well (e.g., effects of particular medicines or therapies).
132. Do you think it is ethical for children to be involved in research projects? Why or why not? What
are your best arguments FOR their involvement? What are your best arguments AGAINST their
involvement?
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Answer: Answers will vary, but a clear understanding of the ethical issues regarding children in
research should be addressed. Answers must be based in academic understanding and critical thinking.
133. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research. Offer at least two examples of
methods that may be used for each type of research when conducting a study examining snack
food choices in middle-school children.
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Answer: Quantitative research includes data that may be ranked, categorized, or numbered, while
qualitative research includes data that is difficult to assign numbers to such as open-ended questions
and descriptions. Two examples of quantitative methods that could be used when examining snack food
choices in middle-school children might be ranking their favorite snacks and determining the average
number of snacks that they consume daily. Qualitative methods might be asking open-ended questions
about how their favorite snacks make them feel and describing the environment in which snacking
typically takes place.
134. Explain the concept of “informed consent,” and identify those from whom consent must be given
for either adults or children to participate in research.
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Answer: Informed consent is the process of obtaining written consent from research participants
before the research begins that explains its purposes and procedures and states that participation is
voluntary, harmless, and confidential. Participants must consent in writing; if they are children, parents
must consent.
135. Briefly describe one of your personal characteristics or abilities that you believe is primarily the
result of nature and one that you believe is primarily the result of nurture. Then, demonstrate
how nurture has had an influence on the “natural” characteristic and how nature has had an
influence on the “nurtured” characteristic.
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Answer: Answers will vary, but students must demonstrate an understanding of the distinction
between nature and nurture and of how they interact.
136. Describe the difference between a critical period and a sensitive period of development. Give an
example of each period that is NOT one of the examples in the textbook.
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Answer: The critical period of development is a time during which something must happen if it is ever
going to happen. A sensitive period of development is a time when development is most likely to
happen, although it can happen at a different time. Examples of each period will vary.
137. Define and describe the five characteristics of development.
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Answer: Refer to Table 1.3 for a brief overview of each characteristic: multidirectional,
multidisciplinary, multicontextual, multicultural, and plasticity.
138. Define independent variable and dependent variable. Think of an experiment you would like to
conduct and identify the dependent and independent variable for the experiment.
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Answer: The independent variable is the variable that is introduced to see what effect it will have on
the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable that may change as a result of the new
condition added by the experimenter. Examples of each variable will vary.
139. The science of human development examines how, but not why, people change over time.
Answer: False
140. The primary concern of developmental scientists is to explore the processes of development
(“how”), rather than the reasons behind these processes (“why”).
Answer: False
141. The purpose of the scientific method is to find ways to support researchers' hypotheses.
Answer: False
142. A research question becomes a hypothesis when it is restated as a prediction or idea that can be
tested.
Answer: True
143. Conclusions of a scientific study are based on whether the evidence supports or refutes the
hypothesis.
Answer: True
144. The first step of the scientific method is to test the research question.
Answer: False
145. Replication of a study involves using the same participants to facilitate acceptance of a study's
conclusion by the scientific community.
Answer: False
146. The campaign to decrease the incidence of SIDS deaths is called the “Back to Sleep Campaign.”
Answer: True
147. The incidence of infant mortality, including SIDS, has increased in recent years.
Answer: False
148. In 2005, 5,245 babies died of SIDS.
Answer: False
149. In nation after nation, the incidence of SIDS deaths has been cut in half by using the “Back to
Sleep Campaign.”
Answer: True
150. The concept referred to as nurture involves environmental as well as genetic influences that
impact development after conception.
Answer: False
151. Nurture begins at the time of conception.
Answer: True
152. Nature and nurture always interact with each other.
Answer: True
153. Nature is more important than nurture in how a trait or behavior is expressed.
Answer: False
154. A critical period of development is a time when a particular development must happen if it is
ever going to happen.
Answer: True
155. Sensitive and critical periods are the same thing.
Answer: False
156. No period of development is a critical or sensitive period unless a combination of maturation and
experience make it so.
Answer: True
157. The study conducted in New Zealand on maltreatment in children indicated that the low-MAOA
gene, rather than the high-MAOA gene, predicted aggression.
Answer: True
158. Developmental science studies only young children and adolescents.
Answer: False
159. Development can be conceptualized as linear, or one-dimensional.
Answer: False
160. Individuals in the same cohort are exposed to the same historical context.
Answer: True
161. The term cohort refers to individuals born in the same geographical region and within the same
social class.
Answer: False
162. Low socioeconomic status does more damage in childhood than later in life.
Answer: False
163. The socioeconomic status of a family primarily reflects the household income.
Answer: False
164. People who share a common ancestry and language are all a part of the same socioeconomic
status.
Answer: False
165. Culture affects actions more than thoughts.
Answer: False
166. Culture may be understood as a meaning and information system passed through generations
that allows people to meet basic needs and derive meaning from life.
Answer: True
167. Through guided participation, societies teach novices the skills and habits expected within a
particular culture.
Answer: True
168. We must be aware of aspects of culture in order to transmit them effectively.
Answer: False
169. People can be affected by more than one culture simultaneously.
Answer: True
170. Race involves, in additional to outward appearance, shared attributes of heritage, national origin,
and culture.
Answer: False
171. Brain cells that reflect someone else's gestures, mouth movements, and body actions are called
expressive neurons.
Answer: False
172. One reason that the discovery of mirror neurons is so valuable to our understanding of human
behavior is because it indicates that merely observing incidents may be like experiencing them.
Answer: True
173. A researcher who watches college students during an exam and counts how many students bite
their nails is conducting a scientific observation.
Answer: True
174. A significance level of .05 would indicate that chance would produce this result once in 100
times.
Answer: False
175. The main advantage of observation is that the scientist can make determinations about cause
and effect.
Answer: False
176. An advantage of the experimental method is that it has the ability to indicate cause and effect.
Answer: True
177. In conducting an experiment, researchers manipulate the dependent variable to see if it affects
the independent variable.
Answer: False
178. In an experiment, the group receiving the special treatment is referred to as the comparison
group.
Answer: False
179. In an experiment, the comparison group often varies substantially from the experimental group
on basic characteristics such as sex, age, and level of education.
Answer: False
180. The purpose of a survey is to allow a researcher to make generalizations about the larger
population.
Answer: False
181. A limitation of the interview or survey method is that people may give inaccurate or misleading
information about themselves.
Answer: True
182. A survey enables the researcher to thoroughly study one individual.
Answer: False
183. One disadvantage of cross-sectional research is that differences in results could be due to cohort
rather than development.
Answer: True
184. Longitudinal research allows a group of people of one age to be compared with groups of
younger and older people of similar social class and educational background.
Answer: False
185. In longitudinal research, the same people are measured over a period of time.
Answer: True
186. Developmentalists agree that longitudinal research is more accurate than cross-sectional
research.
Answer: True
187. Cross-sequential research is a combination of a cross-sectional approach and a longitudinal
approach.
Answer: True
188. Correlations indicate that there is a connection between two variables, but they cannot indicate
the reason for the connection.
Answer: True
189. When two variables are unrelated, the correlation between them is zero.
Answer: True
190. If we were to find a correlation between level of education and verbal skills, we could then
conclude that more education causes increased verbal skills.
Answer: False
191. If a change in one variable tends to go with change in another variable, it is clear that one
variable causes the other variable to change.
Answer: False
192. Derrick wants to conduct a quantitative research study for his psychology class. He should
develop a series of open-ended questions to collect data for his research.
Answer: False
193. Researchers only need participants' informed consent when the researchers believe that harm
may come to the participants during the study.
Answer: False
194. The risk of doing harm to participants in a research study can happen at any age.
Answer: True
195. Researchers have little ethical responsibility for how media or politicians might interpret their
research.
Answer: False
196. Researchers have an ethical responsibility to study topics that will help people.
Answer: True
197. The study of how and why people change over time and how and why they remain the same is
the science of _______ .
Answer: human development
198. Something based on data, demonstrations, or facts is called _______ .
Answer: empirical
199. The _______ is used to rein in a researcher's personal biases and to avoid unexamined opinions.
Answer: scientific method
200. Often the last step of the scientific method is to make the findings available so that other
researchers can repeat, or _______ , the research.
Answer: replicate
201. After a researcher has formulated a research , he or she must reformulate it into a specific idea
to be tested, called a(n) ______.
Answer: question; hypothesis
202. A hypothesis is an idea (generated by a question) that can be _______ by various research
methods.
Answer: tested (or evaluated or examined)
203. The term that refers to the traits inherited at conception is _______ .
Answer: nature
204. The combination of all environmental influences that affect a developing person is called
_______ .
Answer: nurture
205. A time when certain types of development are most likely to happen (although they may happen
at a later time) is called a _______ .
Answer: sensitive period
206. _______ period of development is a time in which a particular development must occur if it is to
occur at all.
Answer: Critical
207. The view of human development as an ongoing and ever-changing interaction between different
aspects of a person, family, or society is known as _______ .
Answer: dynamic-systems theory
208. _______ was the researcher who first recommended an ecological-systems approach to
developmental study.
Answer: Urie Bronfenbrenner
209. Andrea and her circle of friends were all born within three years of one another. Because of the
probability of their experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts, this group of
individuals may be considered to be a _______ .
Answer: cohort
210. A(n) _______ is a group of people born roughly at the same historical time.
Answer: cohort
211. When discussed from a social science perspective, SES means _______ .
Answer: socioeconomic status
212. The set of shared values, assumptions, customs, and patterns of behavior that are maintained
by people in a specific setting is known as _______ .
Answer: culture
213. Social scientists have recently realized that _______ is a confused concept and prefer to focus
on the relationship between ethnicity and race and their effect on development.
Answer: race (or racial group)
214. Race is an idea created by society; such an idea is called a _______ .
Answer: social construction
215. Sean yawned during a meeting and within a few minutes several others attending the meeting
began to yawn. The brain cells activated in others by Sean's yawn are called _______ .
Answer: mirror neurons
216. If a researcher observes a family at home, this is considered observation in a(n) _______
setting.
Answer: natural or naturalistic
217. When differences between the experimental group and the control group are so large that they
could not have occurred simply by chance, they are considered to be _______ .
Answer: significant
218. Researchers who want to establish a causal relationship between two variables should use a
research design called a(n) _______ .
Answer: experiment
219. In a(n) _______ , the scientist deliberately changes one variable and measures the change in
some other variable.
Answer: experiment
220. A researcher interested in examining whether a memory training program can improve the
memory skills of elderly individuals tested his program by dividing a group of elders into two
groups. The group that received the memory training was the group. Memory skills at the end of
the training are referred to as the ______ variable.
Answer: experimental; dependent
221. When obtaining information from large numbers of people from written questionnaires, one is
using the _______ method.
Answer: survey
222. Research that compares people of different ages who are similar in other important ways is
called _______ research.
Answer: cross-sectional
223. Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age is a _______ approach to
conducting research.
Answer: longitudinal
224. When a group of exceptionally gifted students is studied as the students go through elementary
school, secondary school, and college, the research design is called _______ research.
Answer: longitudinal
225. Cross-sequential research can be thought of as a mix between a design and a ______ design.
Answer: cross-sectional; longitudinal
226. The more Drake exercises, the more physically fit he becomes. Exercise and fitness, then,
exhibit a positive _______ .
Answer: correlation
227. Brett asked a group of high school students a series of open-ended questions about their study
habits. He was conducting _______ research.
Answer: qualitative
228. If Robin is converting all her research into numbers that can be reported as averages,
percentages, and so on, her data is said to be _______ .
Answer: quantitative
229. Each academic discipline and professional society involved in research on human development
has a code of _______ , a set of moral principles.
Answer: ethics
230. Research subjects' participation must always be , and the information obtained from a particular
subject must be kept ______.
Answer: voluntary; confidential
231. Professor Lopez is researching the effectiveness of a new method of teaching reading to secondlanguage learners. Prior to testing his new method, he had to ensure that all participation was
voluntary, confidential, and harmless. Through this process he was seeking the _______ of
participants.
Answer: informed consent