Mr. McBride
Government
Cultural Literacy
1.
Absolute monarchy-Rule by one person. a monarch, usually a king. whose actions are restricted neither by
written law nor by custom.
2.
Acquittal- the judgement of a court that is charged with a crime is not guilty.
3.
Affirmative Action- a term referring to various government policies that aim to increase the proportion of
African- Americans, women and other minorities in jobs and educational institutions historically dominated by
white men.
4.
Alderman- A member of the city council.
5.
ACLU- American Civil Liberties Union An organization founded in the 1920 in wake of the red scare to defend
civil liberties.
6.
American Dream- A phrase connoting hope and prosperity and happiness, symbolized in particular by having a
house of one’s own.
7.
Amicus Curiae- an individual or group interested in influencing the outcome of a lawsuit but not an actual
party to the suit.
8.
Anarchism- The belief that all existing governmental authority should by abolished and replaced by free
cooperation among individuals.
9.
Anti-Semitism- prejudice r hatred towards Jews
10. Antitrust Legislation- Laws passed in the United States to prevent large business corporations called trusts,
from combining into monopolies to restrict competition.
11. Apartheid- The racist policy of South Africa that long denied blacks and other nonwhites civic, social, and
economic equality with whites.
12. Appeasement- A political policy of conceding to aggression by a war like nation.
13. Appropriation-The grant of money by a legislature for a specific purpose.
14. Arbitration- The settling of disputes between two parties by a impartial party, whose decision the contending
parties agree to accept.
15. Aristocracy- a privileged, primarily hereditary, ruling class, or a form of government controlled by such an
elite.
16. Autocracy- a system of government in which supreme political power id held by one person.
17. Bicameral Legislature- a; legislative with two houses, or chambers.
18. Bilateralism- trade or diplomatic relations between two countries.
19. Bioterrorism- Terrorism that relies or spreading diseases, such as anthrax or small pox.
20. Block Grant- A financial aid package that grants federal money to state and local governments for use in social
welfare programs.
21. Blue Laws- Laws that prohibit certain businesses from opening on Sunday or from selling certain items on that
day.
22. Branches of Government- The division of government into executive, legislative and judicial branches.
23. Broad construction- A theory of interpretation of the Constitution that holds that the spirit of the times, the
values of the justices, and the needs of the nation may legitimately influence the decisions of a court.
24. Cabinet- A select group of officials who advise a head of government.
25. Capital Hill- A hill in Washington D.C. on which the United States Capital building sits.
26. Capital Punishment- The death penalty for a crime.
27. Capitalism- An economic system and political system characterized by free markets for goods and services and
private control of production and consumption.
28. Caucus- A meeting of a political party to nominate candidates, choose convention delegates, plan campaign
tactics, determine party policy, or select leaders for a legislature.
29. Chauvinism- Exaggerated belief in the supremacy of one’s nation, class, casts or group.
30. Checks and Balances- A fundamental principle of American government, guaranteed by the Constitution,
whereby each branch of government has some measure of influence over the other branches and may block
procedures of the other branches.
31. Civil disobedience- The refusal to obey a law out of belief that the law is morally wrong.
32. Civil Liberties- In general, the rights of freedom of thought, expression, and action, and the protection of these
rights from government interference or restriction.
33. Civil rights- A broad range of privileges and rights guaranteed by the Untied States Constitution and
subsequent amendments and laws that g that guarantee fundamental freedoms to all individuals.
34. Clear and Present Danger- The standard set by the Supreme Court for judging when freedom of speech may
lawfully limited.
35. Closed primary- A type of direct primary limited to registered party members.
36. Cloture- A vote of the legislature used to stop debate on an issue and put the issue ti a vote.
37. Coalition- An alliance of political group formed to oppose a common foe or pursue a a common goal.
38. Coattail effect- The tendency for a popular political party leader to attract vote for other candidates of the same
party in an election.
39. Colonialism- The control of one nation by a transplanted people of another nation.
40. Common law- Law developed in the course of time from the rulings of judges, as opposed to law embodied in
statutes passed by legislatures or law embodied in a written constitution.
41. Communism- an economic and social system envisioned by Karl Marx. In theory, all means of production are
owned in common, rather than by individuals. In practice, a single authoritarian party controls both the political
and economic systems.
42. Confederation- A group of nation’s pr states, , or a government encompassing several states or literal divisions,
in which the component states retain considerable independence.
43. Confirmation hearing- Meetings held by the Senate to gather information about candidates for federal office
nominated by the President of the United States.
44. Congress-The legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the House of
Representatives and the Senate.
45. Congressional record- A published account of the votes, speeches, and debates of the United States Congress.
46. Conscientious objector- A person who refuses render military service on the grounds of moral principle of
religious beliefs.
47. Conservatism- A general preference for existing order of society, and an opposition to sharp change.
48. Constitution- A nation or states fundamental set of laws.
49. Constitutional monarchy- A form of national government in which the power of the Monarch is restrained by
a parliament, by law, or by custom.
50. Containment, policy of- A United States foreign policy doctrine adopted by the Harry S. Truman
administration in 1947, operating on the principle that communists government will eventually apart as as long
as they are prevented from expanding their influence.
51. Contempt of Congress- The deliberate obstruction of the workings of the federal legislative branch.
52. Contempt of court- The deliberate obstruction of a court’s proceedings by refusing to obey a court order or by
interfering with the court proceedings.
53. Counterinsurgency- Military power applied in guerrilla warfare in support of the established government.
54. Coup d’état -a quick and decisive seizure of governmental power by a strong military or political group.
55. Court of appeals- Courts, also called appellate courts, that are designed as part of the system of due process.
56. Cruel and unusual punishment- Punishment prohibited by the 8th Amendment to the Constitution. It includes
torture, deliberately degrading punishment, or punishment that is to severe for the crime committed.
57. De facto segregation- Racial segregation that happens “by fact” rather thinly legal requirement.
58. Defendant- The party that is being sued in court.
59. Dollar diplomacy- The use of diplomatic authority, economic influence, and military power to protect a
nation’s economic and business interests abroad.
60. Domino theory- The idea that one if one key nation in a region felt control of communists, other would follow
like toppling dominos.
61. Double jeopardy- Trying a person twice for the same crime, a practice prohibited by the 5th Amendment to the
Constitution.
62. Draft- A swarm for selecting young men for compulsory service, administered in the United States by the
Selective Service System.
63. Demagogue- A politician who seeks to win and hold office by appeals to mass prejudice.
64. Democracy-A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through
freely elected representatives.
65. Despotism- unlimited political rule by one person.
66. Deterrence- A military capability sufficiently strong to discourage any would be aggressor from starting a was
because of the fear of retaliation.
67. Dictatorship- Government by a single person or by a junta or another group that is not responsible to the
people or their elected representatives
68. Diplomatic immunity- Exemption of diplomats- ambassadors and representatives of a foreign nation- fro the
laws of that nation to which they are assigned.
69. Disfranchisement- removal of the franchise, or the right to vote.
70. Dissidents- Persons who refuse to conform to the prevailing political and social values.
71. Due process of law- The principle that an individual cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property without
appropriate legal procedures and safeguards.
72. E pluribus unum- Latin for “out of the many one”. A motto of the United States.
73. Entitlements- Federal programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, that disburse money
according to fixed formulas to citizens who fall into designated categories.
74. Equal protection of the laws- A phrase in the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution requiring that
states guarantee the same rights, privileges, and protections to all citizens.
75. Established church- A religious denomination that receives financial and other support from the government,
often to the exclusion of support for other denominations.
76. Ethnic cleansing- a euphemism to describe the forceful removal or genocide of minority ethnic groups.
77. Expatriation- Voluntary departure from the nation of one’s birth for permanent or prolonged residence in
another nation.
78. Ex post facto law- A descriptive term for an explanation or a law that is made up after an event and then
applied to it.
79. Executive branch- The bench of federal and state government that is broadly responsible for implementing
the , supporting, and and enforcing the laws made by the legislative branch and interpreted by the judicial
branch.
80. Extradition-The legal process by which one government may obtain custody of individuals from another
government in order to put them on trial or imprison them.
81. Faction- A group formed to seek some goal within a political party or a government.
82. Favorite son- A political figure nominated for the presidency by his or her state’s delegation the national
nominating convention of a major party.
83. Federalism- A system of government in which the power is divided between a national (federal) government
and various regional governments.
84. Fellow traveler- One who supports the aims or philosophies of a political group without joining it.
85. Felony- A grave crime, such as murder, rape, or burglary, that is punishable by death or imprisonment in a state
or federal facility.
86. Fifth amendment- One of the ten amendments to the United StatesConstitution that makes up the Bill of
Rights. It imposes restrictions on the government’s prosecution of person’s accused of crimes.
87. First amendment- an amendment to the United States Constitution guaranteeing the rights of free expression
and action that are fundamental to democratic government.
88. Foggy bottom- a nickname for the United States Department of State, whose offices were built in a formerly
swampy area of Washington D.C.
89. Foreign Relations Committee- A committee of the Senate charged with overseeing the conduct of foreign
policy.
90. Foreign service- The professional arm of the executive branch that supplies diplomats for the United States
embassies and consulates around the world.
91. Franchise- In politics, the right to vote.
92. Freedom of assembly-Te right to hold public meetings and form associations without interference by the
government.
93. Freedom of association- The right to form societies, clubs, and other groups of people, and to meet with people
individually, without interference from the government.
94. Freedom of religion- The right to choose a religion (or no religion) without interference by the government.
95. Freedom of speech- The right to speak without censorship or restraint by the government.
96. Freedom of the press- the right to circulate opinion in print without censorship by the government.
97. Gender gap-A phrase marking the trend in recent U.S. Presidential elections, whereby more female than male
voters support the Democratic Party candidate and more male than female voters support the Republican Party
Candidate.
98. Genocide- The deliberate destruction of an entire race or nation.
99. Gerrymander- To change the boundaries of a legislative districts to favor one party over another.
100.Global village- A phrase coined by Marshall McLuan to describe the world that has been “shrunk” by modern
advances in communication.
101.good neighbor policy- A United Sates foreign policy doctrine, adopted by FDR in 1933, designed to improve
relations with Latin America.
102.GOP- Abbreviation of Grand Old Party a nickname for the Republican Party in the United States.
103.Graft- In politics, the illegal acceptance of bribes by government officials.
104.Grand Jury- A jury that decides wether the evidence warrants bringing an accused person to trial.
105.Guerrilla warfare- Wars fought with hit and run tactics by small groups against an invader or against an
established government.
106.Guilt by association- The attribution of guilt to an individual because of the people or organization with which
they associate rather than because of any crime that they have committed.
107.Gunboat diplomacy- A policy towards a foreign country that depends on the use, or the threat of use, of arms.
108.Habeas corpus- A legal term meaning that an accused person must be present physically before the court with a
statement demonstrating sufficient cause for arrest.
109.Hawks and doves- Popularly, “Hawks” are those who advocate an aggressive foreign policy based on strong
military power. “Doves” try to resolve international conflicts with out the threat of force.
110.Hearsay- Information heard by one person about another.
111. Homicide- Forcible detention in one’s house rather than in a prison.
112.House arrest- Forcible detention in one’s house rather than in a prison.
113.Human rights- Freedom from arbitrary interference or restriction by government.
114.Hung jury-A jury that is unable to reach a verdict of guilty or not guilty.
115.Incumbent- One who holds public office.
116.Indictment- A formal accusation of a crime.
117.Injunction- A court order that either compels or restrains an act by an individual, organization, or government
official.
118.Integration- The free association of people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds.
119.Interest groups- An organized group that tries to influence the government to adopt policies or measures.
120.Impeachment- A formal accusation of wrong doing against a public official.
121.Imperialism- acquisition by a government of other governments or territories, or of economic or cultural power
over other nations or territories often by force.
122.Internationalism- The view that nations should cooperate in international organizations, such as the United
Nations, to settle disputes.
123.Intifada- Arabic for uprising.
124.Islamic fundamentalism- A movement that has gained momentum in recent decades within several Muslim
nations. Islamic fundamentalist oppose the infiltration of secular and western influences and seek to institute
Islamic law, including strict codes of behavior.
125.Isolationism- The doctrine that a nation should stay out of disputes and affairs of other nations.
126.Jingoism- Extreme and emotional nationalism, or chauvinism, often characterized by aggressive foreign policy,
accompanied by an eagerness to go to war.
127.Joint Chiefs of Staff- A high level military advisory board ins the Department of Defense, composed of highranking representatives of the Army. Navy, Air Force, an Marines.
128.Joint Resolution- A measure approved by both houses of the United States Congress, it is used to approve or
initiate foreign policy actions, to grant a single appropriations proposal. and to promote an amendment to the
Constitution.
129.Judicial activism- A theory of interpretation of the Constitution that holds that the spirit of the times, the values
of the justices, and the needs of the nation may legitimately influence the decisions of a court, particularly the
Supreme Court.
130.Judicial branch- The court systems of local, state, and federal governments, responsible for interpreting the
laws passed by the legislative branch and enforced by the executive branch.
131.Judicial restraint-A view that judges should be reluctant to declare legislature enactments unconstitutional
unless the conflict between the enactment and the Constitution is obvious.
132.judicial review- The principle by which courts can declare acts of either the executive or the legislative branch
unconstitutional.
133.junta- A group of military leaders who govern a country after a coup D’etat.
134.Jurisprudence- The philosophy of law. It temples creating a body of law and methods for interpretation the law,
studying the relationships between law and society, and predicting the effects of legal decisions.
135.Justice of the peace- A local officer of the judicial branch empowered to try minor cases, recommend cases for
trial, and perform civil ceremonies, such as marriages and oath taking.
136.Kangaroo court- A court that ignores principles of justice; a court characterized by incompetence and
dishonesty.
137.Kyoto protocol- An agreement on global warming reached by the United Nations Conference on Climate
Change in Kyoto Japan in 1997.
138.Lame duck- A public official or administration serving out a term in office after having been defeated for
reelection or when not seeking reelection.
139.Larceny- Theft; taking another person’s property with the intent of permanently depriving the owner.
140.Left-wing- A descriptive term for liberal, radical, or revolutionary political views, particularly that there are
unacceptable social inequalities in the present order of society.
141.Legislative branch-The branch of federal and local government empowered to make laws that are enforced by
the executive branch and interpreted bt the judicial branch.
142. Line-item veto- The authority of an executive to veto a specific appropriation in a budget passed by a
legislature.
143.Liberal- a disruptive term used for persons, policies, and beliefs associated with liberalism.
144.Lobby- A group whose members share certain goals and work to bring about the passage, modification, or
defeat of laws that affect those goals.
145.Logrolling- In politics, advanced agreement by legislators to vote for one another’s bills.
146.Majority leader- The leader of the party that hols a majority of seats in either house of Congress or another
state legislature.
147.Mandate- A command or a description of a desire, especially by a group of voters for a political program.
148.A man’s home is his castle- A proverbial expression that illustrates the principle of individual privacy, which is
fundamental to the American system of government.
149.Manslaughter- The unlawful killing of a person without malice or premeditation.
150.Massive retaliation- The doctrine that the best way to deter aggression is to threaten a potential aggressor with
devastation by atomic bombs.
151.Marxism- The doctrine of Karl Marx and his associate Fredrick Engels on economics, politics, and society.
152.Medal of Honor- The highest military decoration in the United States armed services, It recognizes valor and
bravery “above the call of duty”.
153.Medicare- A federal program providing medical care for the elderly.
154.Military industrial complex- A general term for the cooperative relationship between the military and the
industrial producers of military equipment and supplies in lobbying for increased spending on military
programs.
155.Minority leader- The leader of the party that hold s minority of seats in either house of Congress or of a state
legislature.
156.Miranda Decision- A decision by the United States Supreme Court concerning the rights of persons in police
custody.
157.Misdemeanor- A minor crime punishable by a fine or light jail term.
158.Most-favorite nation- Status in an international trading arrangement whereby agreements between two nations
on tariffs are extended to other nations.
159.Monarchy- A system of government in which one person reigns, usually a king or queen.
160.Moratorium- A period of delay agreed to by parties to a dispute or parties who are negotiating.
161.Multilateralism- trade or diplomatic negotiations among several nations.
162.Narrow construction- A theory of interpretation of the Constitution that hold that the courts, particularly the
Supreme Court, should be bound by the exact words of the Constitution.
163.Nationalism- The strong belief that the interests of a particular nation-state are of primary importance.
164.Naturalization- The process by which a foreign citizen becomes a citizens of a new country.
165.Natural rights- Rights that people supposedly have under natural law.
166.Neocolonialism- The dominance of strong nations over teak nations, not by direct political control, but by
economics and cultural influence.
167.Nolo contendere- A plea that can be entered in a criminal or civil case, by which an accused person neither
admits guilt nor proclaims innocence of a charge.
168.Nonproliferation treaty- An agreement made in 1968 to discourage the spread of nuclear weapons.
169.Nonviolent resistance-Refusal to obey a law considered unjust; civil disobedience.
170.NATO- North Atlantic Treat Organization
171.Oligarchy- A system of government in which power is held by a small group.
172.On the hill- A phase referring to Capital Hill in Washington D.C.
173.Open primary- A type of direct primary open to voters regardless of their party affiliation.
174.Pacifism- The view that war is morally unacceptable and never justified.
175.Parliamentary system- A system of government in which the power to make and execute law is held by a
parliament.
176.Patronage- The power of a government official pr leader to make appointments and offer favors.
177.Plaintiff- The party that institutes a suit in a court.
178.Platform- A political party’s or candidates written statement of principals or plans.
179.Plea bargain-An agreement that permits a defendant to plead guilty to a lesser charge instead of pleading not
guilty to a more serious one.
180.Plutocracy- Government by the rich.
181.Pocket veto- an automatic veto of a bill that occurs if the President of Governor neither signs nor vetoes a bill
within ten days of receiving it.
182.Polarization-In politics, the grouping of opinions around two extremes.
183.Political action committee- Committees formed by interest groups to funnel donations to political candidates
who are likely to support their position on various issues.
184.Political science- The scientific study of government and politics.
185.Populism- The belief that greater popular participation in government and business is necessary to protect
individuals from exploration by inflexible bureaucracy and financial conglomerates.
186.Pork barrel legislation- Appropriations made by the legislature for projects that are not essential but are sought
because they pump money and resources into the local districts of the legislators.
187.Power elite- A term used to describe a relatively small, loosely knit group of people who tend to dominate
policy American making.
188.Power of the purse- The influence the legislatures have over public policy because of their power to vote
money for public purposes.
189.Precedent- A previous ruing by a court that influence subsequent decisions in cases with similar issues.
190.Preemptive strike- A first strike attack carried out to destroy and anemia’s capacity to respond.
191.Pressure group- an organized group that tries to influence the government to adopt certain policies or
measures.
192.Prime minister- The head of government in many nations
193.Privacy, right of- The doctrine advanced by the Supreme Court most notibaby in Roe v. Wade, that the
Constitution implicitly guarantees protection against activities that invade citizens’ privacy.
194.Probate court- A court that has jurisdiction over wills, estates and guardianship of children.
195.Proletariat- In Marxism the industrial working class.
196.Propaganda- Official government communications to the public that are designed to influence opinion.
197.Proportional representation- An electoral system in which seats in a legislature are awarded to each party on
the basis of its share of the popular vote.
198.Protectorate- A relationship between a strong sovereign nation and a weak nation or area not recognized as a
nation.
199.Public defender- An attorney who is appointed and paid by a court to defend poor persons who cannot afford a
lawyer.
200.Quorum- The minimum number of members in a committee or legislative body who must be present before
business can officially or legally be conducted.
201.Radical- In politics, someone who demands substantial or extreme changes in the existing system.
202.Racism- The belief that some races are inherently superior to others and therefore have a right to dominate
them.
203.Ranking members-A legislator on a committee who belongs to the majority party and, by seniority, ranks first
after the committee chairman.
204.Ratification- The approval from the legislative branch required to validate government agreements.
205.Reactionary- An extremely conservative person or position that not only resists change but seeks to return to
the “good old days” of an earlier social order.
206.Realpolitik- Government policies based on hard, practical considerations rather than moral or idealistic
concerns,
207.Red tape- Administrative procedures, especially in a bureaucracy, that new marked by complexity and delay.
208.Referendum- A vote by the general public, rather than by government bodies, on a political bill or some other
important issue
209.Refugees- People who flee a nation, often to escape punishment for political dissent.
210.Republic- A form of government in which power is explicitly with the people, who in turn exercise their power
through elected representatives.
211.Rider- A provision, usually controversial and likely to pass on its own merits, that is attached to a popular bill in
the hopes that it will “ride” to passage on the back of the popular bill.
212.Right-wing- A descriptive term for a conservative or reactionary political views, particularly those supporting
the current social order or calling for the return to an earlier order.
213.Rugged individualism- The belief that all individuals or nearly all individuals, ca succeed on their own and
that government help for people should be minimal.
214.Satellite- In politics, a nation that is dominated politically by another.
215.Sedition- Acts that incite rebellion or civlil disorder against an established government.
216.Separate but equal- The doctrine that racial segregation is Constitutional as long as the facilities provide for
the blacks and whites are roughly equal.
217.Separation of church and state- The principle that government must maintain an attitude of neutrality toward
religion.
218.Separation of powers- A fundamental principle of the Constitution of the United States government, whereby
powers and responsibilities are divided among the legislative, branch, the executive branch, and judicial branch
219.Sexism- The belief that one sex (usually the male) is naturally superior to the other and should donate most
important areas of political, economic, and social life.
220.Slush fund- A collection of money by a political official or administration that it used to make payments for
various services.
221.Smart weapon- Bombs and projectiles guided by lasers and other means, known their extraordinary accuracy.
222.Smoke filled room- A popular expression used to describe a place where political wheeling and dealing pf
machine bosses is conducted.
223.Socialism- An economic system in which the production and distribution of goods are controlled substantially
by the government rather than by private enterprise, and i which cooperation rather than competition guides
economic activity.
224.Solidarity- A labor union in Poland, independent of the government and the Polish Communist Party, that grew
to a membership of several million in the 1980’s
225.Sovereignty- a nation or state’s supreme powers within its borders.
226.Speaker of the House-The presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives.
227.Split ticket- A vote for candidates of different political parties on the same ballot, instead of for candidates of
only one party.
228.Stare decisis- A latin phrase that literally means “ to stand on the decisions”. It expresses common law doctrine
that court decision should be guided by precedent.
229.Statutory law- A law or group of laws passed by a legislature or other official bodies.
230.Straw poll- Originally, a small, informal opinion survey. Today it is a large scale scientifically determined
public opinion survey based on a random sample of the population.
231.Subpoena- an order of the court, a legislature, or a grand jury compelling a witness to be present at a trial or
hearing, under penalty of fine or imprisonment.
232.Suffrage- The right to vote
233.Suffragette- A participant in the women’s movement to win voting rights in the United States.
234.Terrorism- Acts of violence committed by groups that view themselves as victims by some notable historic
wrong. Although these groups have no formal connection with governments, they usually have financial and
moral backing of sympathetic governments.
235.Theocracy- A nation or state in which the clergy exercise political power and in which religious law is
dominant over civil law.
236.Think tank- An institution in which scholars pursue research in publican policies.
237.Third world- The nonaligned nations— which are often developing nations— of Africa, Asia, and Latin
America.
238.Totalitarianism- Domination by government of all political, social, and economic activities in a nation.
239.The Ugly American- perforative term for Americans traveling or living abroad who remain ignorant of local
culture and judge everything by American standards.
240.Un-american- A term used primarily by extreme conservatives, to attack principles or practices considered to
be at odds with the values of most Americans.
241.Uncle Sam- A figure who stands for the government of the United States and for the United States itself.
242.Unilateralism- Action initiated or taken by a single nation rather than by two or several nations.
243.Veto- A vote that blocks a decision.
244.Victimless crime- A term sometimes used for various acts that are considered crimes under the law but
apparently have no victim.
245.Ways and Means Committee- A permanent committee of the House of Representatives, which makes
recommendation to the House on all bills for raising revenue.
246.Whip- In the United States or state legislatures, an assistant to the Majority Leader or Minority Leader
responsible for stirring up support on issue, keeping track of party members votes, and acting as a general
liaison between the Majority Leader or Minority leader and the other party members.
247.Welfare state- A state or government that promotes public welfare through programs of public health, pensions,
unemployment compensation, public housing, and the like.
248.Write in candidate- A candidate for public office whose name does not appear on the ballot but whose name
must be written on the ballot by votes.
249.Yankee- Originally a nickname for people from New England, now applied to anyone from the United States.
250.Filibuster- A strategy employed in the United States Senate, whereby a minority can delay a vote on proposed
legislation by making long speeches or introducing irrelevant issues.