CONSTRICTING TERRITORIES: THE YANA, RESTRICTED
MOBILITY, AND THE FAUNA FROM KINGSLEY CAVE
____________
A Thesis
Presented
to the Faculty of
California State University, Chico
____________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts
in
Anthropology
____________
by
Adam Gutierrez
Fall 2012
CONSTRICTING TERRITORIES: THE YANA, RESTRICTED
MOBILITY, AND THE FAUNA FROM KINGSLEY CAVE
A Thesis
by
Adam Gutierrez
Fall 2012
APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES
AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH:
_________________________________
Eun K. Park, Ph.D.
APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE:
______________________________
Guy Q. King, Ph.D.
Graduate Coordinator
_________________________________
Frank E. Bayham, Ph.D., Chair
_________________________________
Antoinette M. Martinez, Ph.D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
List of Tables..............................................................................................................
v
List of Figures.............................................................................................................
vii
Abstract.......................................................................................................................
ix
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
IV.
The Yana and Euroamerican Contact in Northern California ..................
1
The Yana, Euroamerican Contact, and Kingsley Cave ................
Territory and Resources ...............................................................
Research Questions ......................................................................
Thesis Organization......................................................................
2
7
8
9
Ethnography, Territoriality, and Euroamerican Contact ..........................
12
Yana Ethnography and Archaeology............................................
Territorial Home Range and the Environment .............................
Impact of Euroamericans on the Landscape.................................
Implications of Euroamerican Influx into Yana Country.............
Chapter Summary.........................................................................
13
14
23
28
31
Theoretical Orientation.............................................................................
32
Evolutionary Ecology and Modeling Human Behavior ...............
Ideal Free Distribution, Resources, and Territoriality..................
Resource Intensification, Optimal Foraging and
Archaeofaunal Remains ........................................................
Chapter Summary.........................................................................
33
34
Kinglsley Cave: History, Methodology, and Faunal Data Set .................
47
Kingsley Cave ..............................................................................
The Kingsley Cave Faunal Assemblage.......................................
48
54
iii
40
45
CHAPTER
PAGE
Faunal Data Set.............................................................................
Chapter Summary.........................................................................
55
67
Results of the Faunal Analysis from Kingsley Cave................................
68
Diet Breadth and Prey Choice ......................................................
Skeletal Representation, Food Utility, and Density
Mediated Attrition.................................................................
Fragmentation...............................................................................
Chapter Summary.........................................................................
70
Regional Perspectives...............................................................................
83
Overview of FS-110 and FS-701..................................................
Faunal Data Sets for Forest Service Sites.....................................
Faunal Analysis for Forest Service Sites......................................
Chapter Summary.........................................................................
84
86
88
99
Interpretation and Discussion ...................................................................
100
Interpretation and Comparison of Kingsley Cave Results ...........
Discussion.....................................................................................
Conclusion....................................................................................
101
104
107
References Cited.........................................................................................................
109
V.
VI.
VII.
iv
72
78
82
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
PAGE
1.
Southern Cascade Foothills Chronology ..................................................
18
2.
Calcined Bone...........................................................................................
53
3.
Analyzed Excavation Unit Summary........................................................
57
4.
Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation
Unit Level for A-5 ..............................................................................
59
Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation
Unit Level for C-5...............................................................................
61
Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation
Unit Level for C-10.............................................................................
62
Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element
and Excavation Level for A-5.............................................................
64
Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element
and Excavation Level for C-5 .............................................................
65
Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element
and Excavation Level for C-10 ...........................................................
66
10.
A-5 Artiodactyl Index by Level................................................................
70
11.
C-5 Artiodactyl Index by Level ................................................................
71
12.
C-10 Artiodactyl Index .............................................................................
71
13.
Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency and Density Correlation ..........
74
14.
Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency and Density
Correlation Without Outliers ..............................................................
75
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
v
TABLE
15.
PAGE
Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency vs. Food Utility
Correlation ..........................................................................................
78
16.
A-5 Medium/Large Mammal Fragmentation Data ...................................
80
17.
C-5 Medium/Large Mammal Fragmentation Data ...................................
81
18.
C-10 Medium/Large Mammal Fragmentation Data .................................
82
19.
Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation
Unit Level for FS-110.........................................................................
87
Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation
Unit Level for FS-701.........................................................................
89
Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element
and Level for FS-110 ..........................................................................
90
Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element
and Level for FS-701 ..........................................................................
91
23.
FS-110 Artiodactyl Index .........................................................................
92
24.
FS-701 Artiodactyl Index .........................................................................
92
25.
Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency vs. Bone Density .....................
93
26.
Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency vs. Bone Density
(Outliers Removed).............................................................................
95
27.
Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Element Frequency vs. FUI ......................
96
28.
FS-110 Medium/Large Long Bone Mammal Fragmentation Data...........
98
29.
FS-701 Medium/Large Long Bone Mammal Fragmentation Data...........
98
20.
21.
22.
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
1.
Yana ethnographic boundaries..................................................................
4
2.
Overall Trends in California Deer Populations ........................................
29
3.
Ideal Free Distribution Model...................................................................
35
4.
Restricted Territorial Distribution Model .................................................
39
5.
Excavation Trench Layout at Kingsley Cave ...........................................
50
6.
Comparison of Calcined Bone Representation .........................................
53
7.
Taxonomic List from Excavation Unit A-5, C-5, and C-10 .....................
58
8.
A-5 Scatter Plot of Artiodactyl Bone Element Frequency vs.
Density ................................................................................................
74
C-5 Scatter Plot of Artiodactyl Bone Element Frequency vs.
Density ................................................................................................
74
C-10 Scatter Plot of Artiodactyl Bone Element Density vs.
Frequency............................................................................................
75
11.
A-5 Mean FUI of Artiodactyl Bone Elements by Level...........................
76
12.
C-5 Mean FUI of Artiodactyl Bone Elements by Level ...........................
76
13.
Mean FUI of Artiodactyl Bone Elements by Level ..................................
77
14.
A-5 Average Fragment Weight by Level..................................................
79
15.
C-5 Average Fragment Weight by Level..................................................
80
16.
C-10 Average Fragment Weight by Level................................................
81
9.
10.
vii
FIGURE
PAGE
17.
Site Locations in relation to Kingsley Cave .............................................
85
18.
Taxonomic List for Site FS-110 and FS-701............................................
86
19.
FS-110 Scatter Plot of Artiodactyl Bone Element Frequency vs.
Density ................................................................................................
94
FS-701 Scatter Plot of Artiodactyl Bone Element Frequency vs.
Density ................................................................................................
94
21.
FS-110 Mean FUI of Artiodactyl Bone Elements by Level .....................
95
22.
FS-701 Mean FUI of Artiodactyl Bone Elements by Level .....................
96
23.
FS-110 Average Fragment Weight by Level ............................................
97
24.
FS-701 Average Fragment Weight by Level ............................................
97
20.
viii
ABSTRACT
CONSTRICTING TERRITORIES: THE YANA, RESTRICTED
MOBILITY, AND THE FAUNA FROM KINGSLEY CAVE
by
Adam Gutierrez
Master of Arts in Anthropology
California State University, Chico
Fall 2012
European colonization in the Americas had devastating impacts on indigenous populations. At the onset of the Gold Rush within northeastern California, these
impacts were severely felt by the indigenous Yana. This thesis addresses such impacts
on Yana territoriality and subsistence. Using evolutionary ecological models, this research seeks to explain adaptive settlement and foraging strategies by the Yana. Analyzing faunal remains from Kingsley Cave, aspects of diet breadth, skeletal element representation, and bone fragmentation are explored. Results show some evidence of resource intensification and support increased processing of Mule Deer remains. Further
findings suggest the difficulty in observing intensification trends under such extreme
population declines.
ix
CHAPTER I
THE YANA AND EUROAMERICAN
CONTACT IN NORTHERN
CALIFORNIA
The impacts of European exploration and colonization upon the indigenous
peoples of the New World were widespread. With the colonization of the Americas after
1492, Europeans ushered in continual and steady growth of their newly arrived
populations. Indigenous peoples however suffered quite the opposite effect. Through
disease, displacement, slavery, and genocide, native populations were devastated, some
to the point of extinction (Thorton 1987:xv). These colonizing impacts had dual affects.
As the rate of death increased in native populations, birth rates dropped. These aspects
led to overall major losses of indigenous populations for years to come (Dobyns
1966:410).
These statements are not exaggerated; indigenous populations of the Western
Hemisphere prior to contact were nearly 100 million by some estimates. After contact,
native populations are suggested to have dropped to approximately 4.5 million at their
lowest point (Dobyns 1966:415). Looking at pre-contact North America itself, Dobyns
estimates indigenous populations at almost 10 million, with a post-contact reduction to
nearly half a million (1966:415). That is a devastating decrease in native populations by
almost 95 percent. Similar trends are presented by Thorton who estimates indigenous
1
2
populations in what is now the United States to have reached a low of 300,000 by the late
19th century (Thorton 1987:xvii).
While estimation methods and numbers vary to some degree, the situation is
clear, the impacts of colonization on native populations in the New World were
enormous. One place that demonstrates the severity of these impacts is California. The
Spanish Missions began in California in the latter half of the 18th century and with them
arrived the cruel impacts upon native populations. A small pox epidemic in 1828 alone
reduced the indigenous mission population by about fifty for every one thousand (Cook
1939:177). While the Missions illustrate this increased European presence in California,
it was with the Gold Rush in 1849 that Euroamerican settlement increased on a scale not
before witnessed in the area.
Euroamerican influx into California after 1849 brought with it not only
disease and massacre, but other more subtle impacts. Displacement of indigenous
populations within California removed native groups from their regular home ranges and
forced them into ever shrinking territories. This increased encroachment on indigenous
land use constricted native territories affecting both access and availability to local
resources. Within the Southern Cascade foothills of northeastern California, the
indigenous Yana exemplified the harshness of this situation.
The Yana, Euroamerican Contact,
and Kingsley Cave
Situated in the foothills of the Southern Cascade mountain range of
northeastern California, the Yana resided along creek drainages branching from alpine
elevations near Lassen Peak to the Sacramento River Valley. The Yana were defined
3
somewhat late after initial Euroamerican influx into the foothill region. Work by Powers
(1877) marks possibly the earliest establishment of a defined Yana group. Later work by
Waterman (1918) further attempted to define the territorial region of the Yana. The
largest body of work concerning the Yana was established after 1911. It was at this time
that Ishi, considered the last Yahi/Yana Indian remaining in the region’s wilderness,
made contact with Euroamerican settlers.
Touted as the last “wild indian,” Ishi became the most authentic living link to
the eradicated Yana people. It is through Ishi that the Yana and Yahi works of Kroeber
(1925), Pope (1918), and Sapir and Spier (1943) exist. Later ethnographic research by
Johnson (1978) further synthesizes and builds upon these works. As presently defined,
the Yana are considered to be ethnographically divided into four sub-groups (Figure 1).
The most southerly of these sub-groups, the Yahi, are of particular interest. Concentrated
along the Mill and Deer Creek drainages, the Yahi territory was home to Ishi. Further,
Mill Creek is the location of Kingsley Cave, the archaeological site that will be the focus
of this thesis’ research.
Often referred to as the “Mill Creeks” in newspapers of the time, the Yahi
were a point of considerable contention for the local Euroamerican settlers. Beginning in
1850, interactions between the Mill Creeks and local settles ranged from sightings to
attacks. By the 1860s, numerous accounts of altercations between Euroamerican settlers
and local Indian groups are represented in newspapers from Red Bluff and surrounding
areas (The Butte Union Record ca.1865; The Red Bluff Independent ca. 1865). While
most of these incidents of raiding are attributed to the Yahi, there remains doubt as to
whether it was in fact Yahi or other groups of displaced Indians.
4
Figure 1. Yana ethnographic boundaries.
Source: Adapted from Waterman, Thomas T., 1918, The Yana Indians. University of
California Publication in American Archaeology and Ethnology, 13:35-102.
5
The Yahi were soon the target of numerous massacres exacted at the hands of
local settlers, many being documented between 1846 and 1870 (Anderson 1909; Heizer
and Kroeber 1979; Johnson 1978; Moak 1923; Sapir and Spier 1918). In June of 1862, an
attack by the Yahi at Rock Creek led to a chain of retaliation. By August of the same
year, Hiram Good led a group of volunteers to avenge this attack, killing possibly 17
Yahi (Heizer and Kroeber 1979:9-60). Considered one of the most devastating attacks on
Yahi Indians, the Three Knolls Massacre in 1865 killed possibly 40 Yahi. Soon after this,
in 1867 or 1868, one further account describes the tracking and systematic killing of
possibly 30 Yahi at a site now referred to as Kingsley Cave (Kroeber 1961:68). While
definitive accuracy and details concerning the massacres are lacking, Yahi groups in the
region were assuredly being sought after and killed by local settlers. Given accounts such
as this, Yana and Yahi populations were affected by the genocide occurring within the
region.
While ethnographic population estimates vary, prior to contact Yana numbers
are suggested have been about 1100-1800 (Kroeber 1925:339). Cook (1943:97) suggests
a Yana population of 1,900 in 1848, by 1884 a decrease to as low as 35, and by 1955, 8
people. Taking the Yahi group specifically, Kroeber (1925:341) suggests a pre-contact
population of 200-300 people. A team of surveyors in 1908 located a group of four,
possibly five, Yahi hiding in a secluded area above Deer Creek, now referred to as
Grizzly Bear’s Hiding Place. This would suggest that by this time at least some Yahi
were still surviving in the area, albeit hiding in increasingly remote areas (Kroeber
1961:58). Based on Kroeber’s (1925) pre-contact estimate and the above incident, Yahi
people were under extreme decline from roughly 1848 to 1908.
6
By 1911, Ishi is believed to have been the sole surviving Yahi or Yana still
living in the wild. Upon his emergence from the wilderness, Ishi was taken to UC
Berkeley where he worked with Alfred Kroeber and was considered a living exhibit of
the recent past. Upon Ishi’s death in 1916 from tuberculosis, his brain was removed and
given to the Smithsonian. With new laws enacted during the late 20th century, such as the
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), a tribal coalition
re-obtained Ishi’s brain in 2000, its disposition remains private.
New laws such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation
Act directed institutions to return Native American remains to their descendants. The
Kingsley Cave assemblage, excavated by UC Berkeley in the 1950s, held numerous
human remains. While Kingsley Cave is suggested to have been the site of an historic
massacre, the archaeological assemblage itself holds its own history. Originally
excavated from National lands, the Lassen National Forest exerted responsibility for the
repatriation of these remains in 2005. It was through this process that the faunal
assemblage from Kingsley Cave was received by the Lassen National Forest and lent to
CSU Chico for safekeeping and analysis.
The Yana and Yahi population estimates provide a regional context for the
large-scale impacts of European colonization in the Americas. While disease and
massacre played a role in population declines of the Yana, increasing Euroamerican
populations likely influenced the environmental landscape and available resources in the
region. To address these issues, the site of Kingsley Cave offers a window into the local
realization of post-contact impacts. It is through the faunal remains from Kingsley Cave
that the research within this thesis is accomplished.
7
Territory and Resources
It is the purpose of this study to address the effects of Euroamerican
settlement on Yana territoriality and resource availability. For these purposes,
territoriality is described as an ecological area of use and the extent of mobility with a
home-range. Increasing populations of Euroamerican settlers affected the Yana and their
subsistence resources in various ways. The interfering nature of increased population
densities likely displaced Yana groups and affected their traditional territorial use. For the
Yana, disruption in their seasonal transitions would have greatly affected their established
access to needed resources.
While interference from Euroamerican settlement disrupted Yana territoriality
in the region; overhunting, lumber industries, and livestock grazing were just a few ways
valuable resources were increasingly being depleted and removed. Being one of the
largest animals available in the area, Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were likely one
of the most vital resources for Yahi groups along Mill Creek. Archaeological
investigations within the Southern Cascade foothill region document a heavy reliance on
animals for food (Baumhoff 1955, 1957; Bevill et al. 1996; Dugas et al. 2001; Greenway
1982; Hamusek 1988; Lechner 2005; Leigh 1998). Faunal remains at site CA-TEH-01
and CA-TEH-563 showed relatively substantial amounts of Artiodactyl and Mule Deer
bone, indicating the importance of this food source within the assemblages (Baumhoff
1955; Bevill et al. 1996).
It is the aim of this thesis to address how Yana groups survived under the
widespread impacts of Euroamerican contact. Significant to this research are the complex
relationships between increasing population densities, habitat suitability, and
8
territoriality. How were the Yana and Yahi affected by these changing ecological
conditions?
Given the context of expanding Euroamerican population and resource use,
Yana access to and availability of resources would have been diminished. This
occurrence of depleting resources has been termed resource depression (Charnov et al.
1976). Under such conditions, available resources may be processed more intensively in
order to extract higher amounts of calories. Thus, the term resource intensification is
given to this practice (Boserup 1965; Earle 1980). Because the animal remains of Yana
diets may illuminate adaptation under these changing conditions, the faunal assemblage
from Kingsley Cave offers a unique opportunity to address these issues.
Research Questions
A key component of archaeological research resides in the understanding of
culture change. More specifically, changes or adaptations in subsistence practices,
settlement patterns, territoriality, and technology continue to be subjects of ongoing
research. Keeping in line with this, the research conducted here explores how Yana
groups adapted to increasing Euroamerican populations after contact. It will do this by
focusing on Yana territoriality, as an ecological home range, and subsistence practices.
Given the context of Euroamerican population influx into the region, what were the
affects on Yana territoriality, resources use, and intensification? Further, does the faunal
assemblage from Kingsley Cave show a change in resource use or intensification after
Euroamerican contact?
9
It is the hypothesis of this research that, after Euroamerican influx into the
region, the Yana experienced decreased territorial mobility and intensified their use of
resources. Under the predictions of evolutionary ecological models, two expectations
ensue. The first expectation is that Yana groups will occupy less habitable patches and
have smaller territories. The second expectation is that the faunal bone from Kingsley
Cave will show indications of resource intensification. The Ideal Free Distribution model
will explore aspects of increased populations, habitat depression, and the ensuing affects
on Yana territorial use. This will provide the theoretical setting in which aspects of
resource depression and intensification can be explored. Here, three optimal foraging
models: prey choice/diet breadth, central place foraging, and patch choice will be used to
explore the Kingsley Cave faunal assemblage.
Thesis Organization
This chapter has provided an overview of the Yana and their situational
context at the onset of Euroamerican influx into the region. It has emphasized and
questioned the affects that rising populations had upon territoriality and the availability of
resources in the region.
Chapter II will more deeply explore the ethnographic information concerning
the Yana and their subgroup of Yahi, and evaluate their suggested territoriality and
settlement patterns. An overview of archaeological research in the region will highlight
important chronological frameworks that support certain ethnographic accounts. It will
further research the affects of Euroamerican impacts upon the environment with special
10
emphasis on the deer herd residing in the region. Lastly, Chapter II will present the
apparent implications of Euroamerican contact on Yana territoriality.
Chapter III will outline the theoretical basis for addressing questions of
territoriality, increasing populations, habitat suitability, and resource intensification. It
will overview evolutionary ecology, human behavioral ecology, and optimal foraging as
the theoretical foundation for the subsequent research. These foundations will then be
extended using evolutionary ecological models of Ideal Free Distribution (IFD) and
optimal foraging. Lastly, Chapter III will address ideas of resource intensification and
state the predictions and expectations in the analysis of archaeofaunal material from
Kingsley Cave.
Chapter IV will provide an overview and history of the Kingsley Cave site. It
will address the methodology employed during its excavation by UC Berkeley in 1952
and 1953. Further, it will discuss issues of methodology and site integrity at Kingsley
Cave. Lastly, it will provide faunal data for which the research conducted within this
thesis will be based.
Chapter V will discuss the results of the faunal analysis from Kingsley Cave.
The methodology and results of analysis will be presented for diet breadth, food utility,
density mediated attrition, and fragmentation.
Chapter VI will provide a regional perspective of the faunal remains. It will
use the same methodological analysis on two additional sites from the Mill and Antelope
Creeks. The findings from site FS-110 along Mill Creek and site FS-701 along Antelope
Creek will be analyzed in the same fashion as Kingsley Cave and be presented in order to
provide some level of regional comparison.
11
Chapter VII will provide interpretation and discussion of the research
findings, showing mixed results. It will address the Kingsley Cave results as they
compare to the other two regional sites. Lastly, the overall indications of resource
intensification will be discuss as they pertain to the Yana after Euroamerican influx into
the region.
CHAPTER II
ETHNOGRAPHY, TERRITORIALITY,
AND EUROAMERICAN CONTACT
The last chapter provided an overview of the Yana and their situational
context at the onset of Euroamerican influx into the region. It emphasized and questioned
the affects that rising populations had upon territoriality and the availability of resources
in the region. Important to this thesis is the ecological use of Yana territories and the
settlement practices therein. Further essential to this study are the impacts of expanding
Euroamerican populations within these territories. This chapter will explore these
important aspects.
First, an overview of ethnography will establish the Yana as a Hokan speaking
culture residing in a distinct region at the time of Euroamerican contact. It will further
present the settlement practices and territorial environments suggested by ethnographic
accounts. Multiple researchers have undertaken a more extensive and detailed treatment
of Yana ethnography and this will not be repeated here (Gifford and Klimek 1939;
Johnson 1978; Kroeber 1925; Pope 1918; Powers 1877; Sapir and Spier 1943; Waterman
1918).
While much of this research informs the details of Yana culture and lifeways,
the paucity of five ethnographic informants (White et al. 2005:21) allows little
comparison between individual opinion and the practice of the cultural group at large.
12
13
Further obfuscation stems from the context in which the interviewees were born and lived
through. Most of the Yana informants were born around 1855 (White et al. 2005:21) and
thus were raised within a context of systematic massacre and hiding. This state of cultural
crisis undoubtedly altered traditional lifeways and affected the day to day living of Yana
groups.
Next, archaeological studies in the region will be overviewed while exploring
significant trends that appear over time. It is here that the established culture chronology
for the Southern Cascade foothills will be reviewed against territorial backdrop important
to this thesis. The environmental effects of post-Euroamerican contact will then be
addressed. This will demonstrate the conflict between Euroamericans and the Yana for
both ecological territory and resources in the region.
Lastly, this chapter will discuss the implications of Euroamerican influx into
the Yana region. In doing so it will show the archaeological paucity of sites representing
the post-contact period and set the stage for addressing Yana territorial constriction
through theoretical models in the following chapter.
Yana Ethnography and Archaeology
Initial linguistic work associated with the Yana was undertaken by Dixon and
Kroeber (1913, 1919) and Sapir (1917). These works place the Yana into the Hokan
language group, the language group suggested to have the earliest time depth in
California and originally occupied the Sacramento Valley (Golla 2007; Kroeber 1925;
Moratto 1984; Shipley 1978). The Hokan speaking Yana have been divided into four subgroups, Northern Yana, Central Yana, Southern Yana, and Yahi (Johnson 1978; Kroeber
14
1925). Based in large part on the work of Sapir (1910, 1917, 1918, 1922, 1929) these
subgroups appear linguistically to be separated into three distinctions: Northern Yana,
Central Yana, and Southern Yana; Northern and Central Yana being closely associated
together and the Yahi dialect considered a subset of Southern Yana (Golla 2011:101).
Continued research has further suggested an expansion of non-Hokan
language speakers (Penutian) expanding into the valley and adjacent areas displacing
Hokan speaking groups (Golla 2007, 2011; Moratto 1984; Whistler 1977). These areas
include the southern Cascade foothills, for which the ethnographic Yana resided. The
above linguistic research helps this thesis to establish a distinct Yana culture with smaller
subgroups located within the Southern Cascade region of study.
The linguistic research presented here is based largely on Sapir’s (1910, 1917,
1918, 1922, 1929) work with Yana speakers. While this informative work offers
important documentation that has supported later analysis and research (Golla 2007,
2011; Moratto 1984), the sparse number of post-contact Yana speaking informants that
were used for this documentation lends some uncertainty to its accuracy in pre-contact
times. This being so, it would appear that at the time of Euroamerican contact Yana
groups were established within the region of study, their specific territorial emphasis is
next addressed.
Territorial Home Range and
the Environment
Like many indigenous California groups, the accounts of geographic and
territorial boundaries vary in defined location. In general, the four Yana groups were
situated in the Southern Cascade foothills. They are thought to have occupied multiple
15
river drainages running from Lassen Peak in the northeast to a western extent that is
argued to stop somewhere between the edge of the foothills and the Sacramento River
(Johnson 1978; Krober 1925; Waterman 1918). The Northern and Central Yana are
presumed to have traditionally resided in the watershed of Cow Creek, the Southern Yana
in the Battle and Antelope Creeks, and Yahi occupying Mill and Deer Creek watersheds.
Figure 1 depicts the ethnographic territory of the Yana and its subgroups.
The eastern extent of these river drainages provided higher elevation
mountainous terrain and more temperate climates of abundant winter snowfalls and deep
snow pack that lingered into spring. The abundance of snow during winter months
suggests these higher elevation localities were likely used during the more accessible
spring through summer seasons. These cooler elevations range approximately from
3500ft to 10,000ft in elevation and currently sustain Sierran Mixed Conifer woodland
with patches of oak stands occurring (Allen 1988). This sort of mixed conifer forest
sustains close to 355 species of animals (Verner and Boss 1980). This environment would
have permitted access to numerous hunting and vegetal resources to include some acorn.
Traveling southwest along these river drainages, elevations decrease into
foothill terrain marked by Mixed and Montane Chaparral and Blue Oak woodland
communities mixed with Gray Pine (England 1988; Risser and Fry 1988; Ritter 1988;
Verner 1988). These areas range in elevation from approximately 3500ft to the valley
floor. While the Yana territory spanned these multiple habitats, the nature of their
occurrence along river drainages additionally provided continual access to riparian
communities. These riparian communities support various wildlife species by offering
water sources, migration corridors, food, and vegetation (Grenfell 1988; Thomas 1979).
16
Overall, the foothill and riparian wildlife habitats support various and multiple
species of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Available fauna would include:
Mule Deer, California Quail, Black Bear, Martin, Black Tailed Jack Rabbit, Bobcat,
Coyote, Spotted Owl, and Rainbow Trout. This would have allowed multiple hunting
sources, grasses, acorn and other vegetal material for exploitation by the Yana.
West (2005), using core samples from Little Willow Lake in the Lassen
National Park, has established some prehistoric environmental information concerning
these higher elevation areas. A major finding of this study suggests a change in forest
vegetation around 3100 BP. These results show an expanding fir population within the
dominant pine forest and are likely the result of increased moisture levels around this
time (West 2005:110). While oak is present, it occurs only in relatively small amounts
and likely shows an expansion occurring at lower elevation areas from about 90003000BP.
These data would suggest that there were increased moisture levels after
3100BP; this would have likely increased seasonal snow levels at higher elevations and
affected regional wildlife habitats. Further, expanding populations of oak would have
provided increased resources at lower elevations. While West’s (2005) data encompasses
large timeframes, it provides a prehistoric environmental context that would support
seasonally mobile use of the region.
Johnson (1978) has suggested that the Northern and Central Yana possessed
close cultural practices maintaining permanent villages with short traveling. This may
have been especially true of the Northern Yana who are presumed to have maintained
larger populations (Johnson 1992). The Southern Yana and Yahi have less evidence to
17
suggest a triblet practice like their northern counterparts and could possibly exhibit
smaller, band-level organization.
Taking the Yahi specifically, it is believed that the western expanse of the
Mill and Deer Creek drainages, below approximately 3000ft in elevation, made up their
winter settlement locations. Higher than this, along Mill Creek, is roughly understood to
be their location for seasonal movement during the summer, as resources below 2500ft in
elevation began to be depleted during this time (Johnson 1978).
Modern deer migrations in the region also appear to coincide with this
seasonal system of relocation. The Eastern Tehama Deer Herd, as investigated by
Ramsey (1981), suggests deer migration to take place during the spring and fall. These
movements show a seasonal relocation from lower elevation valley and foothill areas
(wintering range) to higher elevation areas near Lassen Peak during the summer months.
Cementum increment analysis of deer teeth, by Leigh (1998), and further studies (Potter
2003, Dugas et al. 2001) additionally support this type of seasonal transition by Yahi
groups along Mill Creek. Additional aspects of the Eastern Tehama Deer Herd will be
discussed later in this chapter.
The mobility exercised by the Yana within their territory allowed access to
resources year round. Their area within the lower elevation foothills provided numerous
resources through the winter months and upon depletion, movement was made to the
upper elevation reaches of the various river drainages. Important to this thesis is both the
proposed territorial use by the Yana and their seasonal movement strategy. Situated
within this context, territorial infringement by neighboring groups and Euroamerican
settlers would have restricted Yana mobility and negatively affected access to valuable
18
resources. Given these contexts, archaeological deposits along these creek drainages may
illuminate the practice of resource intensification and seasonal movement.
Archaeological Studies
These ethnographic studies provide irreplaceable research that has illuminated
aspects of Yana lifeways and established and informed a working chronology. However,
more recent archaeological research in the region may supply additional information for
addressing the context in which culture change and adaptation were occurring through
these areas in question (Bevill et al. 1996; Dugas 2003; Dugas et al. 2001; Greenway
1982; Greenway et al. 1985; Gutierrez et al. 2011; Hamusek 1988; Johnson 1973, 1984;
Johnson & Theodoratus 1984; Johnston 1975; Lechner 2005; Leigh 1998; Wiant 1981).
Through early work at both Kingsley Cave and Paynes Cave, Baumhoff
developed the first working chronology of the southern Cascade foothill area. This initial
framework established two complexes, the earlier Kingsley (Baumhoff 1955), and the
latter Mill Creek (Baumhoff 1957). More recent work (Johnson 1973; Johnson and
Theodoratus 1984; Greenway 1982,) has helped to refine Baumhoff’s original
chronology and establish five cultural complexes. These complexes of the Southern
Cascade Foothills chronology are described below and presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Southern Cascade Foothills Chronology.
Deadman
3500-2500BP
1500-500BC
Kingsley
2500-1500BP
500BC-AD500
Dye Creek
1500-500BP
AD500-1500
Mill Creek
500BP-Contact
AD1500-1845
Yana
Post Contact
Post 1845
19
Deadman Complex
Comprehensive archaeological research (Johnson 1973; Johnson &
Theodoratus 1984) in Yana territory proposes seldom and sporadic use of this area prior
to 3500 BP. After this time, frequency of use increases as a product of expanding
populations in the northern Sacramento Valley. This increasing yet sporadic use is
represented by the Deadman Complex. The Deadman Complex dates from 3500 BP to
2500 BP and marks the earliest continued association for this area. Ground stone is
represented by mano and metate, while projectile point forms are large side-notched and
leaf shaped. Basalt material use is most common in comparison to obsidian. Olivella shell
and Haliotis disk beads are present.
Kingsley Complex
The Kingsley Complex spans from 2500 BP to 1500 BP. While this complex
bears many of the same details as the Deadman, there is an increasing frequency of use
during this time. Excavation by Johnson along Dye and Mill Creeks within the lower
elevation foothills area shows a more intensive use during this complex (Johnson &
Theodoratus 1984). Basalt use continues to be emphasized along with large size
projectile points to include stemmed styles. A major difference during this complex
appears in the addition of the hopper mortar style of ground stone, this may indicate the
increased use of acorn as a food resource. The discovery of house floor structures
suggests both single and multifamily use.
Dye Creek Complex
The Dye Creek Complex, from 1500 BP to 500 BP, notes the most expansive
and intensive period of use. Nearly every site tested within Yana territory bear strong
20
markers for this time frame. The frequency and density of use during this complex has
led some researchers to suggest a population exceeding that of ethnographic estimates
(Watts and Dugas 1998). Whistler (1977) and Kowta (1980) additionally suggest an
expansion of neighboring Maidu groups around 1300-1000 BP that could suggest the
beginnings of encroachment upon the Yana territory by neighboring groups around this
time. This encroachment could account for an increased concentration of use in certain
areas with decrease site use and later abandonment of others.
Perhaps the most striking change during this complex is the increased use of
obsidian over basalt in lithic material preference. Research shows a dominate use of two
obsidian sources: Kelly Mountain near the northeastern boundary of Yana territory and
the Tuscan source in the west. Greenway and Nilsson (1986) suggest a dominant use of
the Tuscan source during this complex. However, at higher elevation Yahi sites, XRF
samples suggest a high use of the closer Kelly Mountain obsidian source during this
period (Gutierrez et al. 2011).
The initial use of bow and arrow technology also occurs during this period
and may have played some role in lithic material procurement and use. While many
projectile points continue to be large to medium in size and serrated, smaller point forms
arise that resemble the Gunther barbed series. Ground stone continues in much the same
fashion as the previous Kingsley Complex.
Mill Creek Complex
The Mill Creek Complex spans from 500 BP to approximately 105 BP
(Euroamerican settlement). While sites continue to have a considerable representation
during this complex, their frequency shows a decreasing trend. This decrease in use is
21
seen on the western boundary of Yana territory and also along the southern and
northeastern boundary of the Yahi area. Johnson found little evidence for this complex
represented at multiple sites along the western edge of the foothills and suggests
abandonment by Yana groups around 500 BP (Johnson and Theodoratus 1984, Johnson
1973, 1992) The decrease in use at the western expanse of Yana territory during this
complex is additionally noted by Johnston (1975), who suggests a possible restriction of
Yana mobility due to encroachment by neighboring groups.
Excavations along Deer Creek show a strong decrease in representation during
this complex (Dugas et al. 2001) and suggest a decreasing use in sites along the southern
boundary of Yahi territory. Further, decreasing evidence of use along the northeastern
boundary of Yahi territory comes from high elevation sites along Mill Creek.
At elevations near Mount Lassen, excavation at Childs Meadow (Gutierrez et
al. 2011) showed noticeable decreases in artifacts and relatively smaller hydration rim
values representative of the Mill Creek Complex. Opposingly, one site in this same area
shows an extremely strong representation for the Mill Creek Complex. However, the
excavated artifacts from this site were atypical of the adjacent Yahi sites and bore a
greater association with the boarding Maidu groups (Dugas 2003). While decrease in use
is observed in these boundary territories, this complex continues to be represented within
the Yana territory overall (Dugas et al. 2001; Johnson 1973; Ritter 1987; Ritter & Tyree
1999).
Characteristics of this complex offer whole spire-lopped Olivella beads,
Glycymeris shell beads, magnesite cylinders, and twined basketry. The Southern Cascade
serrated and Desert Side-notched, both smaller sized projectile point forms, show
22
prevalence. Rock rings suggest single-family dwellings, with sites recorded as having one
to twenty-eight house rings. Lithic material continues to be dominated by obsidian.
However, the Kelly Mountain obsidian source appears to decline with increase in the
Tuscan source.
Yana Complex
This complex is marked by the increased seclusion and hiding by the
ethnographic Yana groups in order to avoid systematic extermination by Euroamerican
settlers. The Yana Complex is designated as the time from western settlement (AD 1845)
until 1911. During this complex, beads made from pine nuts and historic white glass
begin to appear. Southern Cascade serrated and Desert Side-notched projectile points
continue in use as well as other small side-notched and corner-notched forms. Lithic
material continues to be obsidian with the additional use of historic glass. Single family
and larger ceremonial dwellings appear during this complex, along with pitted boulder
petroglyphs.
Due to the restrictive and hiding nature of the Yana during this complex,
continually fewer sites are represented of this period. Many of these sites are found away
from Yana territorial boundary areas. Indeed, most of the excavated sites near the
northeastern and southern boundary of Yana territory lack a single proto-historic artifact
(Dugas 2003; Dugas et al. 2001; Gutierrez et al. 2011).
Upon Euroamerican contact, archaeological sites show a dramatic decrease in
representation for this period. Only two sites in the Yahi territory are strongly associated
with this complex: Grizzly Bears Hiding Place and Kingsley Cave. This likely
emphasizes Euroamerican encroachment into Yana territory, through which decreasing
23
habitat suitability forced native groups to forage and move in adaptive ways.
Euroamerican settlement into the region affected the environmental habitats for which the
Yana depended on for food. Aspects of this Euroamerican environmental use will be
discussed next.
Impact of Euroamericans on the Landscape
The influx of Euroamerican settlement in California after 1845 played
multiple roles in effecting the environment and its wildlife. Land grants, immigrant trails,
ranching, homesteading, logging, mining, water diversion, recreation, and overhunting all
worked to manipulate the landscape and effect the environment in major ways. In the
Southern Cascade region, certain aspects of Euroamerican influx would have caused
conflict and competition with Yana groups for territory and resources. This would have
likely distressed Yana ability to procure regular food sources and increased the need for
resource intensification.
The issuing of Mexican land grants will provide a basis for initial sustained
presence in the region after about 1844. Immigrant trails, ranching, logging,
homesteading, and mining will then be addressed in order to present the extent and
effects that Euroamerican use was having upon the regional environment. Lastly, the
region’s deer population, the Eastern Tehama Deer Herd, and its overhunting will be
explored.
Mexican Land Grants
While initial Spanish settlement of California began around 1769, steady
Euroamerican presence in the Yana territory of the Southern Cascade foothills and
24
associated river drainages occurs around 1844 with the issuing of Mexican land grants.
Three grants in particular were important to this area. These were issued to Peter Lassen,
Albert Toomes, and Job Dye, on land east of the Sacramento River. These land grant
areas are located along the Sacramento River convergences of Deer, Mill, and Antelope
Creeks. Euroamerican use of these areas would have restricted Yana access to the valley
reaches of multiple the river drainages.
The Lassen Trail
In 1849, the aforementioned Lassen established an immigrant trail that cut
directly through the Yana region under study. Only in use for about three years, the
Lassen Trail brought troves of Euroamerican settlers to the valley by way of the ridgeline
between Mill and Deer Creeks in Yana region. This overland route brought an expanding
Euroamerican presence in the area further placing the Yana into competition for territory
and resources.
Livestock Grazing
The newly established Lassen Trail and initial land grant settlements brought
with them a steady presence of cattle and other grazing animals into the region. This
likely caused a change in local vegetation and also a decrease in available forage for deer
populations (Bowyer and Bliech 1984; Dye 1951; Longhurst et al. 1952; Mackie 1981;
Read and Gains 1944). Cattle ranching continued to grow until 1861 when drought killed
off large amounts of cattle in the region (Vankat 1970). During this time, there are
historic accounts of large oak stands being felled for cattle to forage (Delano 1936).
While no quantitative data exists for this practice, its effects would have been negative to
Yana foraging.
25
This historic drought had two significant effects. First, ranching switched
focus to sheep instead of cattle and higher elevation areas began to be used for summer
livestock ranging (Watts and Dugas 1998). Sheep ranching and, to a lesser extent, cattle
ranching continued to be practiced into the early 20th century, having an extreme effect
on the environment and natural forage in the region. Historic accounts of heavy grazing
and fires being set by sheepherders suggest the overall depleting nature ranching
operations had on forage within the region (Johnston 1992; McKelvey and Johnston
1992). Historic ranching would have therefore increased Euroamerican presence into the
region, further infringing upon Yana territory. Additionally, livestock operations would
have decreased available forage for local deer populations.
Lumber Industry
The early 1850s saw the first sawmills in the area placed near the valley floor.
Lumber began to be harvested within the foothill and higher elevations. Large wooden
flumes were constructed in order to bring lumber from higher elevation logging areas to
the lower valley. A major flume operation was established in 1871 at the upper elevations
above Antelope Creek. The Empire Flume ran from Belle Mill near Lyman Springs
through the foothills to Sesma in the valley below (Woodrum and Ritter 2009). Logging
and the lumber industry altered the original environment by reducing timber stands and
further increasing Euroamerican infringement on Yana territories.
Homestead Settlements
Early homestead settlement after the 1850s along Mill and Deer Creek
drainages show increasing Euroamerican presence in these areas. General Land Office
(GLO) survey maps show multiple homesteads and cabins along these creeks by 1868
26
(Bavium 1884; Haranbergh 1873). It is no surprise that the river drainage areas
increasingly used by early homestead settlers were the same areas first populated by
Yana groups. This is evidenced by the high density of prehistoric archaeological sites
occurring at these homestead locations. These patterns of settlement along the river
drainages further show the direct conflict of territoriality that Yana populations suffered.
Overhunting of Deer
While large-scale mining operations had no direct effects or presence along
Mill and Deer Creeks, the overall increase of mining within California and the
surrounding regions undoubtedly had consequences. Indeed, the lumber industry in the
region was a result of increased Euroamerican populations occurring in California at the
time of the Gold Rush. In the context of environmental resources and its place within this
thesis, one of the most important consequences of gold mining was the decimation of
deer populations throughout California. Specific to the Southern Cascade foothills and
Mill Creek drainage is the local deer population, the Eastern Tehama Deer Herd.
The Eastern Tehama Deer Herd (ETDH) resides roughly on the western slope
of the Sierras expanding south from the Shasta Lake Reservoir to Deer Creek and the
vicinity of Chico. This western slope makes up their wintering area with a migratory
movement to upper alpine elevations, extending eastward to Lassen National Park and
almost reaching to Eagle Lake (Longhurst et al. 1952; Ramsey 1981). Comprised of Mule
Deer, the population of the ETDH was estimated at 39,000 in 1952 (Longhurst et al.
1952:35), with fluctuations up to 100,000 in 1963 (Ramsey 1981:5). At present, the
ETDH is the largest migratory deer herd in California occupying the largest range,
1,440,600 acres (Longhurst et al 1952; Ramsey 1981).
27
The current range of the ETDH encompasses the entire ethnographically
defined territory of the Yana. Additionally, current migratory patterns of the ETDH
coincide with the proposed seasonal mobility practiced by Yana and more specifically
Yahi groups. Seasonality studies by Leigh (1998) further support this form of seasonal
migratory movement for both Yahi groups and deer populations. The season of death for
deer was obtained using cementum increment analysis of deer teeth from the prehistoric
assemblage of CA-TEH-199. CA-TEH-199 is a site located near the boarder area
between summer and winter ranges for the ETDH. Results of the research showed deer
kills that would coincide with migratory movements during the spring and fall, as deer
population transitioned between summer and wintering areas.
Assuming prehistoric deer herds operated in similar fashion as currently
described, the availability of deer would have been paramount as a key resource to
indigenous groups residing along Mill Creek. Effects on deer populations and their
supporting resources are then of fundamental importance to understanding resource
availability after Euroamerican contact. While the introduction of cattle and sheep
grazing would have limited overall forage available to deer herds in the region (Bowyer
and Bliech 1984), market hunting of deer at the time of the Gold Rush is believed to have
drastically reduced deer populations throughout California (Leopold et al. 1951;
Longhurst et al. 1952).
There exists numerous reports of large amounts of deer being taken by mining
camps and miners turned market hunters. Audubon and Bachman (1854) write of some
camps taking one or two deer per day and other incidents of three deer taken in one
morning alone. They further state, “The hardy miners have killed hundreds, nay
28
thousands, of black-tailed deer” (Audubon and Bachman 1854:29-31). Longhurst et al.
(1952:12) note 18 of the better known commercial deer hunting camps in California
operating from 1850-1903, three of which occurred near the vicinity of the ETDH. In
1880, a single company out of Redding, directly adjacent the ETDH, recorded the
shipment of 35,000 deer hides (Hunter 1924).
Various anecdotal reports by early California Fish and Game Wardens note
single hunters taking anywhere from 93 to 120 deer in one year. Longhurst et al.
(1952:13) state of overhunting as, “One of the important contributory causes of deer
scarcity at the turn of the century.” In 1852, the California State Government, becoming
aware of this rapid deer decline, issued a yearly, six month closed season. However, little
enforcement was facilitated and deer continued to be taken in great numbers (Leopold et
al. 1951). Adapted from research by Leopold et al. (1951:7), Figure 2 depicts the greater
trends of deer populations in California over time. As observed, deer populations
plummeted after Euroamerican influx into the state.
Emphasizing the importance of deer, the above information shows a dramatic
depletion of resources occurring after Euroamerican influx into the region. The continued
increase in Euroamerican populations likely persisted in reducing habitat quality and
pushed the Yana and Yahi groups into smaller and poorer quality habitats.
Implications of Euroamerican Influx
Into Yana Country
In the context of this thesis, the above archaeological studies have helped to
construct a chronology for the Southern Cascades region and offer two important overall
trends. First, around 1300-1000BP neighboring non-Yana groups may have been
29
Figure 2. Overall trends in California deer populations.
Source: Adapted from Leopold, A. Starker, T. Riney, R. McCain, and L.
Tevis, Jr., 1951, The Jawbone Deer Herd. California Fish and Game. Game
Bulletin 4:1-139.
expanding and encroaching on Yahi territory. This is likely evidenced in the overall
decrease in sites representing the Mill Creek Complex along Yahi boundary areas.
Second, upon Euroamerican contact, there are a dramatically small number of sites
representing the late period Yana Complex. These two points illuminate the possibility of
territorial constriction and decreasing habitat suitability affecting the Yana both after
Euroamerican contact.
Overall, it would appear that excavated archaeological sites in Yana territory
were established to their highest extent during the Dye Creek Complex (1500–500BP).
After which the archaeological signature begins to decreases in site number and intensity
throughout the region (Dugas 2003; Dugas et al. 2001). Additionally, encroachment by
30
neighboring Madiu and Wintu groups could have begun to affect Yana territoriality and
seasonal movement after 1300 BP (Kowta 1988; Whistler 1977).
Sites near Yana territorial boundaries to the northeast, west, and south may
represent this encroachment by decreased site use and representation of the Mill Creek
Complex. Additionally, changes in resource use near northeastern boundaries suggest that
Yana groups may have suffered restricted access to the Kelly Mountain obsidian source,
ethnographically located in Maidu territory. While territorial encroachment may have
affected the Yana in prehistoric times, the introduction of Euroamerican settlers likely
affected Yana territoriality and access to resources.
Lack of late period, proto-historic artifacts at multiple sites near territorial
boundaries along Deer and Mill Creeks (Dugas 2003; Dugas et al. 2001; Gutierrez et al.
2011) suggest that after Euroamerican contact, dramatically fewer sites were being
occupied. Most of these sites being confined to secluded areas at lower, wintering
elevations. Clearly, additional studies are needed to more fully realize the Yana situation.
Euroamerican influx into the Southern Cascade region brought with it a
multifaceted array of effects upon the Yana. Increasing Euroamerican populations would
have interfered with Yana ability to obtain resources, depleted valuable food sources such
as deer, and constricted Yana territories. Under these conditions, the Yana may have
adapted by intensifying their use of available resources. In order to more firmly address
these aspects of population density, habitat suitability, territorial practice, and resource
intensification, a theoretical framework will be applied. The use of evolutionary
ecological models will allow these studies to be grounded within an evolutionary
framework. The following chapter will provide the theoretical orientation for addressing
31
the impacts of Euroamerican encroachment on Yana territorial use and subsistence
practices through the faunal assemblage at Kingsley Cave.
Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed Yana ethnography, territoriality, and environmental
context after Euroamerican contact. Linguistic research established the Yana and Yahi
subgroup as a Hokan speaking culture residing between expanding Penutian speaking
groups. Ethnographic research provided the setting for environmental resources and
mobility practices by the Yana. A survey of archaeological studies from the region
provided chronological framework and explored territorial infringement occurring both
prehistorically and after Euroamerican contact.
Euroamerican influx into the region was shown to have had dramatic effects
on the environment through both depletion and interference with habitat resources. These
effects could have led to Yana and Yahi resource intensification, which could be evident
in the archaeological record. Theoretical modeling will provide an evolutionary
framework for more fully addressing these issues and will be explored the next chapter.
CHAPTER III
THEORETICAL ORIENTATION
The previous chapter presented questions concerning the greater Yana and
their subgroup of Yahi located along Deer and Mill Creeks. Archaeological and
ethnographic research suggested a territorial mobility that was likely restricted after
Euroamerican contact. The influx of Euroamerican populations likely caused dramatic
effects upon the landscape and decreased overall resource and habitat suitability in the
region; deer populations being of particular importance. Further, these affects may be
represented in the archaeological record through indications of resource intensification.
This chapter will outline the theoretical basis for addressing these questions of
territoriality, increasing populations, habitat suitability, and resource intensification. First,
an overview of evolutionary ecology, human behavioral ecology, and optimal foraging
will be expressed as the theoretical foundation for the subsequent sections and chapters.
Second, these foundations will be extended using the Ideal Free Distribution (IFD) model
as it addresses population increase, territoriality, and habitat suitability. This will outline
the expectations of the model and illuminate the way Euroamerican influx affected Yana
territoriality and resources. Next, optimal foraging theory and resource intensification
will address the course of this study and discuss the expectations involving diet breadth,
bone utility indices, and fragmentation in the archaeofaunal assemblage from Kingsley
Cave.
32
33
Evolutionary Ecology and Modeling
Human Behavior
The research presented in this thesis works within the theoretical paradigm of
human behavioral ecology and its larger orientation of evolutionary ecology. Researchers
have given various definitions of evolutionary ecology (Bird and O’Connell 2006;
Broughton and Cannon 2011; Smith and Winterhalder 1992). Essentially, evolutionary
ecology uses the theory of natural selection to study adaptation within the larger
ecological context of which it takes place. An extensive amount of research and
researches have combined to develop evolutionary ecology into its own field of study
(Brown 1964; Krebs and Davies 1997; MacArthur 1958, 1961; Pianka 2000).
Comprehensive discussions of the early development of evolutionary ecology have been
undertaken by Smith and Winterhalder (1992:5) and will not be repeated here.
Various adaptive aspects of the interplay between evolution and ecology can
be addressed, when these aspects address the behavior of humans, it is referred to as
human behavioral ecology (HBE). While the groundwork of human behavioral ecology
was established with the development of evolutionary ecology in the 1970’s, expanded
research brought HBE into use for the testing and interpretation of human behavior
(Broughton and O’Connell 1999; Cronk 1991; Winterhalder and Smith 1981, 2000).
The move to apply evolutionary ecological approaches to human behavior was
aimed at bringing archaeological research into an evolutionary framework. This
development in research was part of a larger paradigm shift occurring in archaeology at
the time. Referred to as processual archaeology, this change attempted to explain past
cultural processes within the systems of which they were a part (Binford 1962:217).
34
Ushered in by Binford, middle-range theory offered a bridging mechanism between high
theorizing and archaeological data (Binford 1962; Binford and Binford 1968).
Epitomized by ethnoarchaeological research, Binford’s (1978) work with the Nunamiut
was instrumental in developing foraging theory within this middle ground.
Foundational to the middle-range research of evolutionary ecology and human
behavioral ecology, is the use of predictive models that can be tested against occurrences
in real life. Such models hypothetically predict the interactions between organisms and
their ecological backdrop. In order to predict such complicated interactions, these models
often make assumptions that simplify an array of complexities (Pianka 2000). The thesis
research conducted here uses this type of hypothetical modeling to explore human
behavior as it pertains to population distribution and foraging practice. Models
concerning Ideal Free Distribution and Optimal Foraging are next discussed.
Ideal Free Distribution, Resources,
and Territoriality
The ideal free distribution (IFD) model developed by Fretwell and Lucas
(1970) provides a means for addressing the interaction between population density and
habitat suitability or resource availability. Under this model organisms ideally know what
are the most suitable patches and are free to utilize those various habitats and resources.
As shown in Figure 3, IFD suggests that as population density increases within a patch or
habitat, the suitability of that habitat decreases. Population density then decreases the
suitability of a particular habitat to the point at which it is equal in suitability to a lesser
patch. The lesser patch then begins to be used, equalizing the economic intake between
both patches (Fretwell and Lucas 1970; Sutherland 1996).
35
Best Quality Habitat
Point of Distribution to
Lesser Quality Habitat
Lesser Quality Habitat
Figure 3. Ideal free distribution model. As population density increases within
Habitat A, its suitability is decreased. Habitat A decreases in suitability to a point at
which it is equal in suitability to Habitat B, this is represented by the horizontal
dashed line. At this point populations begin to distribute themselves in Habitat B,
the lesser quality habitat.
Source: Adapted from Fretwell, Stephen Dewitt, and Henry L. Lucas Jr., 1970, On
Territorial Behavior and Other Factors Influencing Habitat Distribution in Birds. Acta
Biotheoretica 19:16-36.
The decrease in habitat suitability logically stems from the growing
populations and their interactions between themselves and the resources of the habitat.
This type of negative feedback or competition is considered to occur in two basic ways:
36
interference and depletion. Interference is the ways individuals affect each other’s access
to a habitat or resource. It is the affect of presence and can take the form of “fighting,
stealing food, or making prey inaccessible by disturbing it” (Sutherland 1996:9).
Depletion on the other hand comes from the actual removal of resources through use or
destruction. Further, the interactions of populations may be addressed at various levels of
scale. At differing scale, the affects of competitive interactions can work to expand
resource types and/or constrict territorial habitats.
A central assumption of IFD is that individuals are equally free to utilize the
most ideal habitats. As is the case of Yana and Yahi groups, this assumption is not always
correct. Territoriality can play a role in the landscape distribution of populations. In order
to address territoriality and unequal access to habitats, ideal despotic distribution is next
considered.
Ideal Despotic Distribution and Territoriality
Ideal despotic distribution (IDD) (Fretwell and Lucas 1970) is an adapted
version of the IFD in that it attempts to consider population distribution given a context
of territoriality and unequal access to habitats. Through both territorial practice and
interference, new individuals attempting to enter the most productive patch may be
unable to do so and are thus pushed to a lesser patch. This unequal access to resources
results in imbalanced productivity between patches. This unequal productivity between
patches is the major difference between the IFD and IDD models.
The effect of despotic distribution leads to the occurrence of disproportionate
population densities in less suitable resource patches. This suggests important
consequences for Yahi groups along Mill and Deer Creeks. The IDD model predicts that,
37
given unequal access to resources, certain populations will occupy poorer patches and be
restricted to smaller territories. This sort of buffering effect in areas of high population
densities has been observed in non-human animals (Brown 1969). Human territoriality
remains a complex interaction of multiple factors. In order to better discuss these
complexities, territoriality can be explored through a means of cost-benefit analysis.
In this view, economic defendability is a reflection of the benefits incurred
from a location in comparison to the cost of their defense. Cost can be considered in a
number of ways: time, energy, or danger directly involved in defense of a location.
Indirectly, the time territorial defense takes away from other activities is also a cost.
Benefits take the form of the resources available within the defended location.
Territoriality is then expected to occur when the benefits of defense exceed the cost
(Brown 1964; Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978; Sutherland 1996).
Various authors have developed this approach in human territorial
applications (Cashdan 1983; Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978). Key work by DysonHudson and Smith (1978) emphasized the important relationship between a resource’s
predictability and density when exploring the economic defendability of a territory.
According to this framework, resources become more economically defendable as they
increase in both predictability and density. The expectation is such that, areas with dense
and predictable resources will exhibit a stronger territorial practice.
Important to Yana groups, aspects of this territorial research are highlighted
by the decreasing deer populations emphasized in the previous chapter. As the density of
a resource decreases, so too would the economic defendability of that territory; even
given that predictability is maintained. For the Yana, dramatic decreases in deer could
38
have begun to lessen the economic defendability of their territory. The IDD and the costbenefit approach both address the distribution of human populations on a landscape and
the use of territoriality.
While the cost-benefit model addresses the relationship between density and
predictability of resources, there remains the difficulty in defining these variables for
prehistoric populations. Further, as in the case of the Yana, influx in population densities
and unequal access to depleting resources likely affects territorial use. The IDD model
provides a framework for discussing the interactions of these complexities. Its application
within the context of Euroamerican influx into the Yana region is next discussed.
Restricted Territorial Distribution
The IDD model can be seen as an integration of the relationships between
habitat suitability (resources abundance), population densities, and population
distribution across the landscape. Under this framework as populations increase there is a
decrease in habitat suitability. Presented with dissimilar quality of resource patches, the
highest quality patches will be occupied first. Once the highest quality patches are
depleted to the same degree as lesser patches, populations will begin to inhabit these
lesser patches as well. Here the IDD model accounts for differential or unequal access to
resources or habitats (Kennet et al. 2006).
The unequal restricted access to resources under the IDD provokes the
occurrence of disproportionate population densities in less suitable patches (Sutherland
1996, Kennet et al. 2005). Because of this, changes in habitat suitability and/or
population density can then lead to changes in the variety or intensity of resource use and
territorial size. The IDD model predicts that, given unequal access to resources, certain
39
populations will occupy poorer patches and be restricted to smaller territories. Being a
marginalized and socially unequal group, Yana territoriality would have been affected by
both increasing populations and decreasing habitat suitability.
Developed from the IFD and IDD models, Figure 4 depicts the relationship
between population density and habitat suitability in the context of unequal access to
Figure 4. Restricted territorial distribution model. Habitat A depicts
traditional Yana territorial size, seasonal mobility, and access to
resources. Habitat B represents restricted Yana territorial size and
reduced mobility after Euroamerican contact. Habitat C represents
further Yana territorial restriction and reduction in mobility.
Source: Adapted from Fretwell, Stephen Dewitt, and Henry L. Lucas Jr.,
1970, On Territorial Behavior and Other Factors Influencing Habitat
Distribution in Birds. Acta Biotheoretica 19:16-36.
40
resource patches and restricting territoriality. Given that habitat quality is logically linked
to its size (Jarman 1974), territorial size additionally affects habitat suitability. As a
resource patch or territory decreases in size, so too does its available resources.
Patch A represents Yana ethnographic territorial use with seasonal mobility
between lower and higher elevation areas. After Euroamerican influx into the region,
Patch B represents a restriction of Yana territorial use and seasonal movements. Patch C
depicts a further restriction in territorial size and use. The expectations of this model are
thus: As population densities increase and habitats become less suitable, less socially
equal groups (the Yana and Yahi) will occupy less habitable patches and have smaller
territories.
As expressed in the archaeological studies of the previous chapter, there
appear to be fewer Yana sites representative of the post-contact era. While further studies
are needed to identify and understand the true nature of post-contact Yana sites, these
data appears to support the expectations of the above model. Under these conditions of
decreasing habitat suitability, increasing Euroamerican populations, and constricting
territoriality; predictions can be further extended that suggest resource intensification by
Yahi groups. The theoretical foundation for this is next expressed.
Resource Intensification, Optimal Foraging
and Archaeofaunal Remains
As evidenced in the ideal free distribution model expressed above, the
relationship between population increases and depressing affects on resources is
emphatic. Separate models pertaining to optimal foraging (patch choice and central place
foraging) have addressed just this sort of resource depletion phenomena and coined the
41
term “resource depression” (Charnov et al. 1976). This research has been further
expanded and modeled by researchers and shows heightened resource depression where
there is increasing population density and decreased mobility (Bayham 1982; Bayham et
al. 2011; Hamilton and Watt 1970; Vickers 1989).
Under these conditions, available resources may be processed more
intensively. This sort of resource intensification may be observable in the archaeological
faunal record. Resource intensification is most readily defined by two specific
occurrences: the increase in productivity for a patch of land and a decrease in the
efficiency of production (Boserup 1965; Earle 1980). Most often considered a product of
increasing population densities, various researchers have explored resource
intensification as it pertains to prehistoric populations (Basgall 1987; Beaton 1991;
Broughton 1994a, 1994b, 1999, 2002; Cannon 2003; Cohen 1981; Nagaoka 2002). This
sort of research is most often accomplished using foraging models.
Anchored in evolutionary framework, foraging models surmise that humans
will maximize the energetic return of foods procured while minimizing the effort put
forth to obtain and process them. Optimal foraging models then rely on an inherent drive
to maximize the energy return of an action, while minimizing the energy exerted; thus
precipitating into increased reproductive success. This is due to the position that the less
time and energy expended in successful food acquisition, equates to more time and
energy available for reproduction or other behaviors that support reproductive fitness and
survival.
The optimal foraging models used here have three basic components: decision
assumptions, currency assumptions, and constraint assumptions (Stephens and Krebs
42
1986:5-7). Decision assumptions deal with the particular choice a foraging must make. In
the case of this thesis the questions are: What prey animal to take? What portions of the
animal to use and transport? What degree to process animal bone? The currency
assumption is the means for measuring the related outcome of the decision, and the
constraint assumption provides limitations in the relationship between decisions and
currency (Stephens and Krebs 1986:9).
Diet breadth, central place foraging, and patch choice provide the greatest
example of these models (Charnov 1976; Schoener 1979; Stephens and Krebs 1986).
Early work by Charnov (1976) established key use of optimization models though his
development of the marginal value theorem, or patch choice. Optimal foraging theory has
since expanded to address ideas of prey choice and central place foraging. The use of
prey choice, central place foraging, and patch choice optimization models within this
thesis will allow assumptions and predictions to be made in addressing human foraging
strategies and resource intensification. When coupled with zooarchaeological methods in
the analysis of animal bone, optimal foraging models offer powerful tools for testing
predictions of resource intensification.
Prey Model/Diet Breadth
The prey model, also referred to as the fine-grained prey model or diet
breadth, ranks specific prey items from highest to lowest, usually based on caloric return.
Caloric return equates most readily to prey body size and assumes foragers will take the
most beneficial prey item when encountered. A key aspect of this model, the “finegrained environment” assumption allows that all prey items are searched for at the same
time and that the encounter rate is random; this is key in that it allows post-encounter
43
return rate to be the proxy for the addition or subtraction of a prey item from the diet
(Broughton 1999; MacArthur and Pianka 1966; Smith 1991).
A cost-benefit approach is applied within this model. Costs are a factor of
search and handling time, which includes catching, processing and consuming the prey,
with search time being the same for all resources. Benefits are measured in calories. Prey
are added to the diet breadth in ranking fashion from highest to lowest, with foragers
seeking to maximize their rate of calorie intake.
Given that prey are ranked according to their overall caloric return, the prey
choice model makes three predictions. First, that prey items will be added and deleted
from the diet by order of their rank. Second, high ranked resources will be pursued upon
encounter. Lastly, lower ranked resources will be added to the diet as a function of
encounter rate (abundance) with higher ranked resources, not as a function of their own
abundance (Lupo 2007; MacArthur and Pianka 1966; Pulliam 1974; Pyke 1984; Smith
1983; Stephens and Krebs 1986). Most often exemplified by the use of relative
abundance indices (Bayham 1979) that calculate the ratio of large animals to small
animals, application of this model within archaeological contexts has become
increasingly fashionable (Broughton 1994a, 1994b, 1999, 2002; Butler 2000; Cannon
2003; Nagaoka 2001, 2002; Szuter and Bayham 1989).
Within the Yana region of research, the highest caloric return from a single
animal would have been large game in the form of artiodactyls (deer, antelope, and elk),
deer be the most common. Given the Yana situation after Euroamerican impact on deer
populations, the prey choice model would predict an increase in lower ranking prey items
44
being added to the diet. Archaeologically, this would be observed by increases in the
bone remains of small animals relative to artiodactyls.
Central Place Foraging
Central place foraging theory refers to models that consider the travel time
spent moving to and from locations where food resources are procured (Metcalf and
Barlow 1992; Orians and Pearson 1979; Stephens and Krebs 1986). These models
address how travel and transport time from a home base affect a variety of forager
decisions such as: load size, choice of resources, processing technique, degree of
processing, etc. (Lupo 2007:152). Under central place foraging, a forager expends energy
to, from, and within the area of resources acquisition. As the forager increases travel
distances, they must increase load yield in order to balance the incurred travel costs. In
other words, a cost-benefit approach is once again applied.
The application of central place foraging models to human transport decisions
of animal carcasses has offered some insight into the complex processes affecting forager
transport and processing decisions (O’Connell et al. 1988, 1990). In general, the central
place foraging model predicts that as travel distance from a central place increases, the
forager will increase the yield of resources brought back. This has important implications
in the context of Yana foraging strategies after Euroamerican contact.
The central place foraging model predicts that Yana groups, in the context of
reduced mobility and resource depression, would increase travel distances and thus
transport relatively greater amounts of high valued items. In the currency of
archaeofaunal bone remains, foragers are expected to field process low utility bone
elements at kill sites and transport only the higher utility elements back to a central place.
45
The Marginal Value Theorem and Patch Choice
Developed by Charnov (1976), the marginal value theorem models how long
foragers should utilize a specific resource patch before departing. Considering that
resources are not always homogenously distributed across the landscape, the patch choice
model assumes resources occur in heterogeneous clusters. While resource clusters or
patches have often been defined as spatial locations, they can also be considered specific
prey types or a particular foraging strategy (Lupo 2007:149). Much like the prey choice
model, resource patches are added to the diet in ranked order. The patch is then departed
from (removed from the diet) when the average foraging returns decline to a point where
travel time and use of a new patch is more beneficial (Charnov 1976; Charnov et al.
1976; Lupo 2007).
Under the logic of the patch choice model, as overall resources are depressed
and foraging returns decline, increasing time should be spent processing patch or prey
resources. In other words, resource depression leads to resource intensification.
Meaningful to this thesis, as Yana groups became less mobile and resources (habitats)
were being increasingly depressed, there is an expectation for increased processing of
animal carcasses. Archaeologically this would take the form of increasing fragmentation
of faunal bone.
Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the theoretical foundation of evolutionary ecology as it
pertains to this thesis; emphasizing ideal free distribution and optimal foraging models.
These models provided four predictions and expectations. Predicted by the IFD/IDD
46
models, as population densities increase and habitats become less suitable, less socially
equal groups (the Yana and Yahi) will occupy less habitable patches and have smaller
territories. Expectations follow that fewer archaeological sites will represent late period
Yana Complex sites and these sites will be located in increasingly constricted locations.
The next three predictions are developed from optimal foraging models under
the context of increasing Euroamerican presence and decreasing habitat suitability. First,
the prey model predicts an increase in lower ranking prey items to the diet. The
archaeological expectation would thus be an observable increases in the bone remains of
small animals relative to artiodactyls. Second, central place foraging predicts an increase
in the transport of relatively greater amounts of high valued resources. In the currency of
archaeofaunal bone remains, archaeological assemblages are expected to show increased
frequency of high utility bone elements. Lastly, the marginal value theorem predicts
increasing time spent on the processing of patch or prey resources. The archaeological
expectation is that there will be an observed increase in the fragmentation of faunal bone.
Given the territorial constriction and restricted mobility predicted by the
restricted territorial distribution model, Yana groups were likely suffering from resource
depression and unequal access. The Yana sites situated along Mill Creek may exhibit this
predicament archaeologically. In order to further explore aspects of resource depression
and intensification, the faunal remains from Kingsley Cave will be analyzed and
discussed. The following chapter will provide an overview of Kingsley Cave, the history
and methodology of its excavation, and the faunal data set for which this research is
based.
CHAPTER IV
KINGLSLEY CAVE: HISTORY,
METHODOLOGY, AND
FAUNAL DATA SET
The previous chapter presented the predictions and expectations concerning
Yana territoriality and resource intensification as it will be addressed through
archaeological faunal remains from the Kingsley Cave site. It was shown that given the
context of Euroamerican expansion in the region, Yana populations became restricted in
their territorial home range and at the same time were pushed into increasingly marginal
habitats. Those conditions provided a context in which optimal foraging models predict
an intensification of resources. The faunal remains from Kingsley Cave offer a unique
window into this post contact intensification. Under such model predictions, these faunal
data are expected to show expanding diet breadths, increases in bone fragmentation, and
changes in skeletal element representation.
This chapter will present an overview and background of Kingsley Cave as
the suggested site of a historic massacre. Next, the history and methodology of its
excavation by University of California Archaeological Survey, then out of UC Berkeley,
will be explored. Lastly, the faunal data set for which this research is based will be
presented. These faunal data sets will be presented in tables for each analyzed excavation
47
48
unit showing: species frequency and unidentifiable fragments by level, and artiodactyl
element representation by level.
Kingsley Cave
The Ishi Wilderness, being a designated wilderness area within the Southern
Cascade foothills of the Lassen Nation Forest, is home to Kingsley Cave. Set near 1900
feet in elevation, it lays approximately 20 miles east of Red Bluff in the lower foothill
reaches of Yana territory. Nestled within the Kingsley Cove canyon-draw of Mill Creek,
Kingsley Cave is located specifically within the ethnographic territory of the Yahi.
Considering the seasonal settlement pattern outlined in Chapter II, Kingsley Cave would
have rested at an elevation suggestive of winter use. While definitive use of the site
remains unsure, Baumhoff suggests it to be a winter residential location (Baumhoff
1955). In the recent past, Kingsley Cave has seen steady public interest due to it being the
supposed location where numerous Indians were killed at the hands of Euroamerican
settlers.
Documentation of the incident is less than exact and much of the details
remain unknown. After the apparent killing of a steer by Yahi Indians, the group was
tracked to the cave by Norman Kingsley where, with the help of others, he proceeded to
shoot and kill possibly 30 Yahi victims. Kingsley is reported to have asked for his
revolver, as he thought his rifle was too destructive on the smaller children and infants
(Kroeber 1961:61). T. T. Waterman is reported to have visited the site some time after the
massacre and found no evidence of human remains or graves. This may suggest that Yahi
surviving the massacre returned and removed the bodies or the location of such a
49
massacre took place elsewhere. In an attempt to determine if Kingsley Cave was indeed
the location of the massacre, the University of California Archaeological Survey, then
based out of UC Berkeley and under the direction of Martin A. Baumhoff, excavated the
site in 1952 and 1953.
Under the direction of Martin A. Baumhoff and the University of California
Archaeological Survey, Kingsley Cave was excavated during the spring of 1952 and
1953. Aimed at determining the legitimacy of Kingsley Cave as the aforementioned
massacre site, evidence of bullet trauma on human skeletal remains was lacking. While a
hole was observed in one adult sternum, little other evidence was found. However,
Baumhoff notes the overall poor condition of the human skeletal remains and suggests
this as a likely factor in the inability of determining such bullet trauma (Baumhoff 1955).
Excavation Units
Excavation of the site consisted in twenty-six 5x5 ft. (152x152 cm) units dug
along 4 trenches labeled as Trenches C, D, 5, and 7. Trenches C and D extend from the
opening of the rockshelter inward toward the back of the site. Trenches 5 and 7
perpendicularly intersect the other two trenches running roughly northwest across the
opening of the rockshelter. Trenches 5 and C were initiated in the 1952 excavation and
were continued during the following year. Along with the remainder of Trenches 5 and C,
Trenches 7 and D were initiated and completed during the 1953 excavation. Adapted
from Baumhoff (1955), Figure 5 shows the excavation trench layout within Kingsley
Cave.
Excavation units were dug in 6-inch (15.24 cm) levels with units reaching
maximum depths from 12 inches (30.5cm) to 66 inches (167.64 cm). Total excavated
50
Figure 5. Excavation trench layout at Kingsley Cave.
volume was approximately 60.2 cubic meters of sediment. Of the twenty-six excavated
units, fourteen are reported to have possessed human burials. As Baumhoff notes, some
human burials appeared to have affect earlier burials (Baumhoff 1955). Further, both
original and later burials may have affected the stratigraphic integrity of specific
excavation units. Important to the research conducted within this thesis, one of the three
excavation units analyzed, unit C-5 reported two human burials.
Unit C-5 reports two incidents of human remains within its walls, one at 40
inches and the other at 60 inches. The burial occurring at 60 inches remains below the
faunal assemblage and is assumed to have no bearing on the integrity of the deposit. A
small portion of a burial extending from an adjacent excavation unit represents the human
51
remains at 40 inches. Research of the burial sketches and documents housed at the
Phoebe A. Hearst Museum show the extent that burials enter C-5. A burial adjacent
excavation unit B-5 enters C-5 along the southeast wall only slightly, extending inward
less than nine inches. Unit A-5 and C-10 report no presence of human remains or burials
within their walls. Overall, the analyzed excavation units appear little affected by burials.
Due to the lack or minimal amount of post-depositional disturbance from burials at units
A-5, C-5, and C-10, a degree of deposit integrity is assumed.
Screening and Collection
The use of screens for sifting excavated sediment remains unmentioned within
the Kingsley Cave report. This holds some significance for the research conducted here in
that screen use and collection methodology play a role in the faunal data represented.
While the method of shovel broadcasting (throwing shoveled soil onto plywood and
collecting the observed artifacts) was in use during this time, no mention is given of this
either. With no indication of screen use, shovel broadcasting, or collection methodology,
perhaps the most useful information comes from an excavation conducted around the
same time in the same region.
In a nearby excavation conducted three years after Kingsley Cave by the same
University of California Archaeological Survey and Martin Baumhoff, a more detailed
account of methodology is provided. In the Payne’s Cave excavation report, Baumhoff
details the specific use of trowels and mesh screens (Baumhoff 1957:9). “The excavation
was begun by simple troweling in 6 inch levels, recording location of artifacts by precise
depth and horizontal position, while unmodified mammal bone, wood, etc., were kept in
level bags” (Baumhoff 1957:9). After encountering dry midden the excavators, “screened
52
all dry midden, keeping everything separate found in each three inch level” (Baumhoff
1957:9). The report notes the use of screens that had 8 meshes to the inch (1/8 inch). The
wet midden was troweled throughout as noted above (Baumhoff 1957:9).
The unclear use of screens at Kingsley Cave brings to issue the faunal bone
collection processes that took place during the excavation. An aspect of this comes to
light when comparing calcined faunal bones from the Kingsley Cave sample to other
more recently excavated sites in the nearby area. Results of the studies from these more
recently excavated Forest Service sites (FS-110 and FS-701) are fully presented in
following chapters. However, this analysis shows a marked difference is the percentage
of calcined bone between the Forest Service and Kingsley Cave Samples.
When compared with calcined bone at sites FS-110 and FS-701, the
percentages observed in the Kingsley Cave samples show a marked difference. Figure 6
displays the comparison of calcined bone fragments found within the M/L Mammal
samples of all Kingsley Cave excavation units and the FS samples. The Y-axis represents
the percentage of M/L Mammal fragments that were entirely calcined. The X-axis shows
the various samples from all sites and also combines the Kingsley Cave samples as a
whole. Table 2 further shows the frequency of calcined M/L Mammal bone fragments for
each sample. Moving across the table, each sample for the Kingsley Cave and FS sites
present their total M/L Mammal fragments, calcined bone fragments, and those
percentages.
As observed in the comparative table and figure, lower frequencies and
percentages of calcined bone fragments are found in the Kingsley Cave samples. Though
the effects of cultural processing as the cause for these dissimilarities are not ruled out,
53
Figure 6. Comparison of calcined bone representation.
Table 2. Calcined Bone.
Excavation Unit
A-5
C-5
C-10
All Kingsley Cave
FS-110
FS-701
Frequency of M/L Mammal Calcined Bone Fragments
M/L Mam Fragments
# Calcined
% Calcined
212
1
0.40%
442
3
0.70%
145
0
0
799
4
0.5%
257
23
9%
1267
107
8%
these finding may suggest a collection bias against calcined bone fragments at Kingsley
Cave. While this may be so, these biases likely occurred uniformly throughout each level
of the excavation process. This would still allow for meaningful observations and
analyses of the Kingsley Cave faunal assemblage.
54
Assemblage Summary
The Kingsley Cave excavation encountered 14 burials (Baumhoff 1955;
White et al. 2005) along with an overall large cultural assemblage. Recovered artifacts
included: 329 projectile points and point fragments, 125 bifacially worked tools, 148
pieces of ground stone, 127 shell beads and haliotis ornaments, 44 bone tools, and 16
historic glass items. A large faunal bone assemblage was also recovered, for which
Baumhoff notes the presence of a number of species: rabbit, squirrel, bobcat, coyote, elk
and deer. Baumhoff summarizes Kingsley Cave as a winter site with a focus on deer and
seed procurement. Analysis of the stratigraphic distribution of artifacts led Baumhoff to
suggest some disturbance to the site by prehistoric digging and newer burials affecting
older burials (Baumhoff 1955).
The Kingsley Cave Faunal Assemblage
The archaeological assemblage from Kinsley Cave remained in the possession
of UC Berkeley’s Phoebe A. Hearst Museum until 2006, at which time the Lassen
National Forest asserted ownership of the assemblage. Under the Native American
Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990, federal agencies were
mandated to return Native American remains and cultural materials to their respective
groups. Responding to the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act the
Lassen National Forest, under the direction of Chris O’Brien, requested possession of the
Kingsley Cave assemblage in order to comply with the federal mandate.
The Phoebe A. Hearst Museum relinquished control of the human burials to
the Lassen National Forest in 2006. Along with human burials, a large cultural
55
assemblage was associated with the Kingsley Cave site, this included over 5000 animal
bones and fragments. The human skeletal remains and associated funerary objects were
then repatriated to a local tribal coalition. The Lassen National Forest retained the animal
bone portion of the assemblage; this faunal material was later made available to CSU
Chico for identification, analysis and safekeeping.
Headed by Dr. Frank Bayham, CSU Chico’s Zooarchaeology program uses
their comparative faunal collection to train students in zooarchaeological methods and at
the same time identify and analyze various archaeological assemblages such as Kingsley
Cave. In class, students identify bone fragments by matching the fragment in question to
a comparable bone element from known taxa within the comparative faunal collection.
The fragment is further compared with various taxa and sizes in order to confidently
determine its classification. The class instructors then confirm these determinations.
Since the reception of the Kingsley Cave faunal material in 2006, students
have worked to identify the taxonomic composition and perform analysis on a large
portion of the assemblage. The research conducted for this thesis stems from such
analysis. The following section will provide an overview of the faunal data and
methodology used in this research.
Faunal Data Set
The faunal analysis conducted for this thesis’ research is taken from three
excavation units at Kingsley Cave, A-5, C-5, and C-10 (Figure 5). Within the excavation
layout, units A-5 and C-5 are the first and third units located along Trench 5 near the
rockshelter mouth. Unit C-10 is located along Trench C near the rear of the rockshelter
56
wall. Units A-5 and C-5 were excavated during the 1952 excavation while C-10 was
excavated in the 1953 field season. Table 2 summarizes the information concerning these
three excavation units.
The faunal bone analysis conducted for this research used the CSU Chico
comparative collection and the same fragment comparison process previously described.
However, all bone fragment identifications for this thesis were performed by myself. In
determining taxonomic categorization, each faunal bone fragment is considered
“identified” when it can be classified to a specific skeletal element at the taxonomic level
of Order. Faunal bone fragments unable to be assigned to the level of Order are
considered “unidentifiable.” If able, these unidentifiable fragments are then categorized
to the level of Class (i.e. Mammal) and assigned a likely animal size from which they
came.
Important to these data expressed in this research, identifiable bone fragments
assigned to the Order of Artiodactyl are considered to represent Mule Deer (Odocoileus
hemionus), as they are the most highly represented Artiodactyl in the assemblage and the
most historically represented Artiodactyl in the region. The Medium/Large Mammal
categorization accounts for mammals which are correspondingly smaller than large
mammals (e.g., bear, elk, cow) and larger than medium (e.g., coyote, dog, sheep) and
small (e.g., bobcat, rabbit, squirrel) mammals. Given the taxa available within the region
of study, the M/L size range corresponds most fittingly with Mule Deer.
A total of 2055 bone specimens were analyzed from the three excavation
units; the total number of specimens for each unit is shown in Table 3. The maximum
depths for all units are surmised from the maximum depth of accessioned artifact bags
57
Table 3. Analyzed Excavation Unit Summary.
Unit
A-5
C-5
C-10
Max. Depth
66”
54”
48”
Total Specimens
532
1132
391
Location
Rockshelter mouth
Rockshelter mouth
Rear of rockshelter
from the assemblage. Each unit’s data were analyzed independently and their
corresponding data will be presented.
Figure 7 provides a taxonomic list of the total identified species from
excavation unit A-5, C-5, and C-10. Overall, these excavation units comprised 613
identifiable specimens representing eleven different species. Of the identifiable
specimens, 95% (585) were assigned within the Artiodactyl order. Total unidentifiable
specimens amounted to 1475 with 69% (1020) assigned to the M/L Mammal category.
As stated previously, this category most fittingly represents the Artiodactyl taxa.
Indeterminate size mammal comprises (30%) the bulk of the remaining unidentifiable
specimens. The indeterminate categorization denotes unidentifiable fragments that are too
fragmented for confident assignment to a size category.
Identified Species Frequency and
Unidentifiable Fragments
The following tables present the frequency of identifiable and unidentifiable
specimens per excavation level for each of the analyzed units. As previously discussed,
identifiable specimens are those that could be placed at the Order, Family, Genus, or
Species level. Unidentifiable specimens are those bone fragments assignable only to the
class level and further categorized to animal size. Within this study, the term “specimen”
refers to a single bone or bone fragment. Specimen counts depicted in the following
58
Class
Order
Family
Order
Family
Order
Family
Family
Family
Order
Family
Family
Family
Order
Family
Family
Class
Clade
Family
Mammalia
Insectivora
Talpidae
Scapanus latimaus
Broad-footed Mole
Lagomorpha
Leporidae
Lepus californicus
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Spermophilus beecheyi
Geomyidae
Thomomys bottae
Erethizontidae
Erethizon dorsatum
Carnivora
Canidae
Canis latrans
Felidae
Lynx rufus
Mephitidae
Mephitis mephitis
Artiodactyla
Antilocapridae
Antilocapra americana
Cervidae
Odocoileus hemionus
Gastropoda
Sorbeoconcha
Semisulcospiridae
Juga nigrina
California Ground Squirrel
Botta’s Pocket Gopher
Common Porcupine
Coyote
Bobcat
Striped Skunk
Pronghorn
Mule Deer
Black River Snail
Figure 7. Taxonomic list from excavation units A-5, C-5, and C-10.
tables show the number of times a specific category of identifiable or unidentifiable bone
appeared in the sample.
Table 4 shows the bone specimen frequencies by taxa and unit level for A-5.
Moving across the rows, specimen numbers are given for each six-inch excavation level,
Table 4. Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation Unit Level for A-5.
Level (in.)
Identifiable
Leporidae
Lepus californicus
Rodentia
Spermophilus beecheyi
Canis latrans
Lynx rufus
Artiodactyla
Odocoileus hemionus
0-6
6-12 12-18 18-24 24-30 30-36 36-42 42-48 48-54 54-60 60-66 Total
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
41
4
Unidentifiable
Mammalia Med/Lg
37
Mammalia Small
1
Mammalia Indeterminate 22
Total
103
10
16
1
14
1
25
3
23
1
10
15
14
2
10
8
1
17
1
25
19
45
26
24
20
2
10
16
13
31
16
84
22
64
4
35
26
10
28
27
22
66
37
4
31
2
1
1
4
1
1
186
13
252
4
100
532
59
60
with the far right showing the total for each taxa overall. Moving down the table columns
each of the identified and unidentified taxonomic categories are shown, with the overall
total for each level shown along the bottom. As observed, the identified specimens from
A-5 are dominated by those assignable to Artiodactyl. Unidentified specimens are mainly
assigned to M/L Mammal.
Set up in the same manner, Table 5 depicts the bone specimen frequencies by
taxa and unit level for C-5. In similar fashion, identifiable specimens are dominated by
those assignable to the Artiodactyl order. As well, unidentifiable specimens are mostly
assigned to the M/L Mammal category. Continuing this trend, bone specimen frequencies
by taxa and unit level for C-10 are shown in Table 6. Here again identifiable specimens
are dominated by those assignable to Artiodactyl, while unidentifiable specimens are
comprised mainly of the M/L Mammal categorization.
Under the process used in categorizing both identifiable and unidentifiable
specimens, these data suggest a strong representation of Artiodactyl/Mule Deer within the
analyzed assemblage. In order to more fully explore aspects of Artiodactyl use at
Kingsley Cave, the next section will address the representation of Artiodactyl skeletal
elements.
Artiodactyl Element Representation
The next tables present the frequency of Artiodactyl skeletal elements, per
level for each of the studied excavation units. These data comprise the total skeletal
element representation for specimens identified as Artiodactyl (even-toed ungulates).
This Order includes Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) and Mule Deer (Odocoileus
hemionus). Based on prehistoric availability of artiodactyl fauna, Mule Deer are the likely
Table 5. Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation Unit Level for C-5.
Level (in.)
Identifiable
Juga nigrina
Scapanus latimanus
Lepus californicus
Sciuridae
Spermophilus beecheyi
Thomomys bottae
Erethizon dorsatum
Lynx rufus
Mephitis mephitis
Artiodactyla
Antilocapra americana
Odocoileus hemionus
Unidentifiable
Mammalia Lg
Mammalia Med/Lg
Mammalia Med
Mammalia Small
Mammalia Indeterminate
Total
0-6
6-12
12-18
18-24
24-30
1
1
1
30-36
36-42
42-48
48-54
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
25
1
18
169
89
302
17
20
28
9
4
9
11
5
83
2
98
32
103
1
56
168
1
71
211
9
59
24
174
48
54
123
26
1
15
5
4
2
7
4
2
9
21
31
15
22
23
1
41
Total
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
141
2
77
2
591
1
1
304
1132
61
Table 6. Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation Unit Level for C-10.
Level (in.)
Identifiable
Lagomorpha
Lepus californicus
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Canis latrans
Artiodactyla
Odocoileus hemionus
Unidentifiable
Mammalia Med/Lg
Mammalia Med
Mammalia Indeterminate
Total
0-6
6-12
12-18
18-24
24-30
30-36
36-42
42-48
1
Total
20
2
1
33
4
12
7
13
7
14
1
19
1
14
2
14
3
1
1
1
1
1
139
27
29
31
17
22
14
17
3
55
7
76
1
37
21
2
8
52
6
44
2
36
1
35
26
3
10
56
177
5
38
391
1
1
1
62
63
species representing the Artiodactyl order. This is further bolstered by Mule Deer being
the single most identified species in the analyzed sample (Tables 4, 5, 7). Specimen
counts in the following tables show the number of times a specific Artiodactyl skeletal
fragment appeared in the sample.
Table 7 shows artiodactyl specimen frequencies by skeletal element and
excavation level for A-5. Moving across the table, the number of specimens for each
skeletal element are shown for each of the six-inch excavation levels, with the totals for
each skeletal element given in the right hand column. Moving down the table, each
column shows element specimens per excavation level, with the total Artiodactyl
specimens for each level given in the bottom row. As observed, vertebral elements are
scant throughout most of the levels while limb and mandible elements are well
represented.
Table 8 shows artiodactyl specimen frequencies by skeletal element and
excavation level for C-5. In the same arrangement as Table 6, Table 7 shows a more
uniform representation of skeletal elements. While limb and mandible elements are more
abundant, vertebral elements are more highly represented in C-5 than A-5.
Set up in the same fashion as the previous two tables, Table 9 shows
artiodactyl specimen frequencies by skeletal element and excavation level for C-10. Here
again limb and mandible elements are abundant with a lesser representation of vertebral
elements. While Artiodactyl vertebral elements are present in the assemblage, they
appear somewhat underrepresented overall. In order to more fully explore this aspect of
the assemblage, further analysis addressing skeletal element representation and densitymediated attrition is presented in the next chapter.
Table 7. Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element and Excavation Level for A-5.
Level (in)
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Vert -Cervicle
Vert -Thoracic
Vert - Lumbar
Sacrum
Ribs
Sternum
Scapula
Innominate
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Tibia
Metacarpal
Metatarsal
Metapodial
Carpal
Tarsal
Phalanx
Total
0-6
1
7
6-12
12-18
1
4
2
18-24
1
24-30
4
30-36
1
36-42
1
42-48
48-54
1
1
1
54-60
60-66
1
1
9
2
5
6
5
1
1
3
2
1
2
4
1
8
3
2
1
1
4
2
1
4
7
2
4
2
3
1
1
3
1
2
2
2
1
3
3
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
2
45
1
5
4
1
1
2
2
4
1
1
1
4
2
4
2
9
3
1
199
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
1
17
15
28
24
10
15
16
10
39
3
3
16
10
2
25
30
8
17
15
2
2
1
10
Total
1
6
19
64
Table 8. Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element and Excavation Level for C-5.
Level (in)
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Vert Cervicle
Vert Thoracic
Vert Lumbar
Sacrum
Ribs
Sternum
Scapula
Innominate
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Tibia
Metacarpal
Metatarsal
Metapodial
Carpal
Tarsal
Phalanx
Total
0-6
2
2
1
3
6-12
3
1
2
4
3
9
2
1
2
44
1
4
18-24
2
4
24-30
1
2
1
10
3
12-18
2
3
3
2
2
1
3
6
3
5
4
1
3
8
36-42
42-48
1
1
2
48-54
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
3
30-36
1
10
1
2
2
1
5
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
3
1
16
1
3
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
3
1
1
2
6
1
3
5
3
1
6
1
1
1
29
1
39
14
42
9
6
1
21
Total
4
4
27
1
6
2
34
1
14
3
13
12
3
14
22
12
27
16
2
2
1
220
65
Table 9. Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element and Excavation Level for C-10.
Level (in)
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Vert Cervicle
Vert Thoracic
Vert Lumbar
Sacrum
Ribs
Sternum
Scapula
Innominate
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Tibia
Metacarpal
Metatarsal
Metapodial
Carpal
Tarsal
Phalanx
Total
0-6
3
1
6-12
12-18
18-24
24-30
4
1
6
2
4
1
1
5
30-36
36-42
2
1
1
42-48
6
2
40
1
1
2
3
2
1
2
6
2
5
11
4
8
16
9
6
27
3
2
7
11
4
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
4
3
9
1
1
4
4
1
2
4
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
2
1
1
4
2
4
2
1
2
1
1
1
22
37
Total
2
4
22
1
2
1
19
20
15
20
16
17
166
66
67
Chapter Summary
This chapter provided an overview of Kingsley Cave and reviewed its history
and methodology of excavation. The methodology called into question some aspects of
the excavation such as screen use and collection bias. These methodological aspects
likely occurred uniformly over the entirety of the excavation. This being so, the
excavated assemblage from Kingsley Cave still provides quality data. Therefore, it is
assumed for the purpose of this study that data generated within this thesis has integrity
in its analysis and interpretation.
Human remains from Kingsley Cave were repatriated to a tribal coalition in
2006. At that time, the faunal bone assemblage was graciously lent to CSU Chico for
safekeeping and analysis. It is from this material that excavation units A-5, C-5, and C-10
provide this thesis’ research data. The subsequent data shown in Tables 5-10 will provide
the bases for further analysis. The following chapter will explore the results of the
analysis concerning these data.
CHAPTER V
RESULTS OF THE FAUNAL ANALYSIS
FROM KINGSLEY CAVE
The previous chapter presented an overview of Kingsley Cave along with the
history and methodology of its excavation. Lack of information concerning the
methodology of excavation and problems of collection biases were addressed. Screen use
as Kingsley Cave remains unmentioned, however, judging from Baumhoff’s excavation
of Payne’s Cave just three years later, detailed and controlled methodology was in
practice during this time (Baumhoff 1957:9). Further, biases in faunal bone collection
may have occurred, as evidenced by the low amounts of calcined bone found at Kingsley
Cave when compared with other local sites. Nevertheless, these practices appear to
uniformly take place over the entirety of the excavation. This allows for meaningful
findings in the Kingsley Cave faunal data and presumes a degree of deposit integrity. The
previous chapter further introduced the faunal data for which the following analysis is
based.
This chapter will detail the methodology and results of the specific faunal
bone analysis conducted from the Kingsley Cave assemblage. In doing so, it will address
the model expectations as put forward in Chapter III. Briefly revisiting, these model
expectation are predicted under the context of Euroamerican population increases,
constriction of Yana mobility, and reduction in Yana access and availability to resources.
68
69
Given this setting for resource intensification, the prey choice model expects low ranking
resources to be added to the diet. This would be evidenced at Kingsley Cave by the
increase in low ranking prey items in the upper, post-contact, excavation levels.
The central place foraging model predicts changes in the transportation of
specific Artiodactyl skeletal elements. At Kingsley Cave the expectation is an increase in
high value bone elements within the upper, post-contact, levels. Lastly, the patch choice
model predicts that foragers will increase the processing of Artiodactyl bone as time
within a patch increases. The expectation at Kingsley Cave is that there will be an
increase in M/L Mammal bone fragmentation at the upper levels.
The following results use the Kingsley Cave data from excavation unit A-5,
C-5, and C-10. For the purpose of this study each unit is analyzed separately. While the
original excavation was performed using 6-inch levels, this analysis combines levels into
12 inch increments. This allows for an increase in the samples being analyzed and
provides more substantial results. Excavated materials have been grouped into four
separate levels for each excavation unit. Twelve-inch levels represent the first thirty-six
inches, while levels below thirty-six inches (regardless of total depth) have been
combined. Total depth and level separation for each excavation unit can be observed in
the following tables. Based on the majority of historic artifacts occurring in the top 12
inches of the assemblage, this top level is assumed to represent post Euroamerican
settlement.
70
Diet Breadth and Prey Choice
Artiodactyl Index
As previously mentioned, Mule Deer resources likely provided the largest
calorie-package animal within the region of study. This being so, as a means for testing
the prey choice model, the Artiodactyl Index (Bayham 1979) measures an archaeological
assemblage’s presence of small game in relation to large game. Multiple researchers have
explored the use of abundance indices as a means to measure changes in the abundance
of large game and observe resource intensification by the increased addition of small
animals in the diet (Broughton 1994a, 1994b, 1999; Broughton et al 2011; Cannon 2003;
Nagaoka 2001, 2002).
For the purpose of this study, the Artiodactyl Index is calculated by dividing
the number of identified specimens (NISP) representing artiodactyl bone elements by the
combined NISP representing both artiodactyl and small game. Due to the extremely small
NISP of one specific small game animal, small mammal NISP used in the calculation of
the artiodactyl index includes rabbit, squirrel, bobcat, and coyote. The following tables
present the data and results of the Artiodactyl Index for each of the analyzed Kingsley
Cave excavation units. Table 10 presents the Artiodactyl Index for each level of A-5.
Table 10. A-5 Artiodactyl Index by Level.
Level (inches)
0-12
12-24
24-36
36-66
Artiodactyla
55
32
52
60
Small Mammal
3
4
1
2
Total
58
36
53
62
Artiodactyl Index
0.95
0.88
0.98
0.96
71
Moving across the table, the frequency of Artiodactyl, small mammal, and
total specimens are shown for each level. The right hand column shows the calculated
Artiodactyl Index for each level. As observed, the Artiodactyl Index for each level
remains relatively high with little change at any time. This shows no fluctuation in the
presence of small mammals at any level.
Table 11 shows the Artiodactyl Index by level for unit C-5. Displaying the
same set up as the previous table, C-5 also shows a relatively high Artiodactyl Index with
no strong addition of small mammals at any given level. Table 12 gives the Artiodactyl
Index by level for unit C-10. In the same fashion as the previous excavation units, C-10
Table 11. C-5 Artiodactyl Index by Level.
Level (inches)
0-12
12-24
24-36
36-54
Artiodactyla
65
68
56
31
Small Mammal
0
0
6
4
Total
65
68
62
36
Artiodactyl Index
1
1
0.88
0.86
Table 12. C-10 Artiodactyl Index.
Level (inches)
0-12
12-24
24-36
36-48
Artiodactyla
59
39
35
33
Small Mammal
1
1
1
1
Total
60
40
36
34
Artiodactyl Index
0.98
0.98
0.97
0.97
72
also displays a relatively high and consistent Artiodactyl Index with no striking additions
of small mammals. Overall, none of the analyzed excavation units displayed an increase
in the addition of small mammals at any given level.
Skeletal Representation, Food Utility,
and Density Mediated Attrition
Through his ethnoarchaeological research with the Nunamiut, Binford (1978)
established meat utility values for specific elements in the animal skeleton. Expanding on
this idea of assigning food values to animal bones, Metcalfe and Jones (1988) further
enhanced the value criteria and established the Food Utility Index (FUI). Since their
establishment, food utility indices have been used to evaluate and interpret numerous
archaeological assemblages (Metcalfe and Jones 1988). Here it is used to test predictions
of the central place foraging model.
Broughton (2002) used the FUI to show a change in representation of
artiodactyl skeletal element representation at the Emeryville Shellmound. Calculating the
average FUI for each level, Broughton showed a diachronic increase in higher-indexed
bone elements being represented in the assemblage. Under the logic of central place
foraging, the increase in high-utility bone elements being transported to the site support
the prediction of increased travel distances to and from a central place. For Broughton,
this supported the increased use of distant deer patches around the Emeryville
Shellmound (Broughton 2002).
The importance of bone density as a factor in skeletal element analysis has
been the subject of much research (Lyman 1993, 1994a). In order for bone element
representation to provide meaningful FUI data, the relationship between a bone’s density
73
and frequency in the assemblage must be evaluated. This is accomplished by a statistical
correlation test between bone element densities and frequencies (Broughton 1999, 2000;
Ugan 2005). Samples that show a significant correlation suggest that density mediated
attrition is a factor at the site. Under these conditions, the use of bone element
frequencies to analyze food utility indices may not provide realistic data.
Food Utility and Density Mediated Attrition
In order to test for density mediated attrition a Pearson’s r correlation was
conducted for each excavation unit as an entire sample. Bone element densities are based
on Lyman (1994a) with specific scan sites for each bone element averaged and used for
the bone as a whole. Upon initial analysis, no sample showed a significant correlation
between a bone element’s represented frequency and its density (Table 13). However,
scatter plotting these data showed two consistent outliers being present in each sample;
carpals and ribs (Figures 8, 9, 10). In these figures, the Y-axis shows the frequency of
each Artiodactyl skeletal elements, while the X-axis shows the corresponding densities of
each skeletal element. Each point on the graph then represents a specific skeletal element
and its corresponding density and frequency. Only carpals and ribs are labeled as they fall
far outside the expected trend.
Carpals possessing relatively high bone densities (0.77) consistently showed
low representation, while ribs possessing relatively low bone densities (0.26) consistently
showed abundant representation. Removing these outliers, a Pearson’s r test for each
sample then shows a strong and significant correlation between bone element density and
frequency (Table 14).
74
Table 13. Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency and Density Correlation.
Excavation Unit
A-5
C-5
C-10
Correlation Coefficient (n=20)
r = .174
r = .251
r = .147
Significance (2-tailed)
p = .462
p = .285
p = .536
Figure 8. A-5 scatter plot of artiodactyl bone element frequency vs. density.
Figure 9. C-5 Scatter plot of artiodactyl bone element frequency vs. density.
75
Figure 10. C-10 scatter plot of artiodactyl bone element density vs. frequency.
Table 14. Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency and Density Correlation Without
Outliers.
Excavation Unit
A-5
C-5
C-10
Correlation Coefficient (n=18)
r = .603
r = .668
r = .650
Significance (2-tailed)
p = .008
p = .002
p = .003
Figure 11, 12, and 13 show the mean FUI of four consecutive levels for each
of the excavation units. Figure 11 depicts the average food utility of all represented
artiodactyl bone elements in A-5. The Y-axis shows the average food utility index with
each level shown along the X-axis. The upper most level is shown at the left with
progressively deeper levels in time moving to the right. As observed, little to no change
in the average FUI occurs at any level.
Figure 12 shows the mean food utility of all represented artiodactyl bone
elements in C-5. Here again very little change is shown if the average food utility index
76
Figure 11. A-5 mean FUI of artiodactyl bone elements by level.
Figure 12. C-5 mean FUI of artiodactyl bone elements by level.
throughout any level in the excavation unit. Figure 13 continues this same trend in food
utility for C-10. Overall, each of the excavation units show a uniform average in food
utility indices throughout each level. This shows little change or increase in higher utility
skeletal elements occurring in the upper level or at any given time.
77
Figure 13. Mean FUI of artiodactyl bone elements by level.
While the food utility results show little to no changes, these results should
taken under caution. The density mediated attrition findings suggest that the densities of
the various bone elements play a role in their representation in the assemblage. This
being so, the results of skeletal element analysis such as food utility indices could be
skewed and are not strongly reliable. Findings concerning the density mediated attrition
correlations will be discussed further in the next chapter.
To further analyze aspects of food utility a correlation can be tested between
bone element frequency and food utility value (Bar-Oz and Munro 2004; Munro and BarOz 2005). Munro and Bar-Oz (2005) used this approach as a means for evaluating how
differential transportation may have played a role in assemblage formation. For this thesis
a Pearson’s r correlation was performed for each excavation unit as an entire sample.
Samples tested the correlation between the frequency of each bone element and its FUI
value (Metcalfe and Jones 1988); results (Table 15) show no significant correlation
78
Table 15. Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency vs. Food Utility Correlation (FUI).
Excavation Unit
A-5
C-5
C-10
Correlation Coefficient (n=19)
r = .292
r = .033
r = -.014
Significance (2-tailed)
p = .225
p = .894
p = .954
between bone element utility and representation at the site. Here again, these results may
be skewed by density mediated attrition and should be taken under caution.
Fragmentation
The fragmented nature of many faunal assemblages has led researches to
establish means for evaluating bones in such contexts. Pivotal work by Binford with the
Nunamiut explored aspects of animal bone fragmentation in archeological contexts.
Being one of the first to suggest that patterns in faunal bone breakage and fragmentation
could indicate intensification; Binford detailed processes of bone marrow and grease
extraction in ethnoarchaeological contexts (Binford 1978; Lupo 2007). More recently
researchers have continued to develop methods for understanding patterns of bone
fragmentation (Bar-Oz and Munro 2004; Lyman 1994a, 1994b; Munro and Bar-Oz 2005;
Outram 2001, 2002, 2005; Potter 1995).
The underlying assumption in these labors holds that fragmentation provides a
gauge of processing effort (Lupo 2007) and that increases therein represent
intensification in the use of animal carcass resources. Under the logic of the patch choice
model, as resources become depressed foragers will increases time spent processing prey
items. It is here that measures of fragmentation can be used to test the patch choice
model. The research conducted in this thesis measures fragmentation by calculating the
79
average fragment weight at each level for the three excavation units. Only long bone
shaft fragments of Medium/Large size mammal are used for this calculation. As
expressed through the patch choice model, the expectation at Kingsley Cave is for an
observed increase in fragmentation at the upper most, post-contact level. This translates
to an expectation of smaller average fragment weights in the 0-12 inch level.
Mammal Bone Fragmentation
Results of fragmentation analysis are shown in Figures 14, 15, and 16 along
with the representative raw data in Tables 16, 17, and 18. Indeterminate size mammal
fragments are noted in order to provide further comparison between levels. These
fragments represent mammal bone fragments too small for assignment to a size category.
Figure 14 depicts the average weight of M/L Mammal fragments per level in A-5. The Yaxis shows average fragment weight with each level given along the X-axis.
Figure 14. A-5 average fragment weight by level.
80
Table 16 presents the raw data for fragmentation in A-5. The far left column
shows each level with the most recent, post-contact, level on top. The older, deeper
Table 16. A-5 Medium/Large Mammal Fragmentation Data.
Level
0-12”
12-24”
24-36”
36-66”
Total Fragments
46
39
55
72
Total Weight
147g
111g
168.7g
283.6g
(g)/Fragment
3.19g
2.84g
3.06g
3.93g
# Indeterminate Fragments
22
22
38
18
excavation levels correspond downward within the column. Moving across the table, data
for total fragments, total weight, average weight, and total indeterminate size fragments
are given for each level. As seen for A-5, average fragment weights do not decrease in
the upper most level to any strong degree.
Figure 15 shows the average weight of M/L Mammal fragments per level in
C-5, while Table 17 gives the fragmentation data for C-5. A strong difference is observed
Figure 15. C-5 average fragment weight by level.
81
Table 17. C-5 Medium/Large Mammal Fragmentation Data.
Level
0-12”
12-24”
24-36”
36-54”
Total Fragments
146
136
109
51
Total Weight
129.2g
287.g
224
174.6
(g)/Fragment
0.89g
2.1g
2.05g
3.4g
# Indeterminate Fragments
143
88
33
1
for C-5. The upper most level shows a drop in average fragment weight as is anticipated
by the model expectations. Figure 16 and Table 18 are set up in the same fashion as the
previous, showing the average weight of M/L Mammal fragments by level in C-10.
While not as dramatic as unit C-5, C-10 also shows a drop in average fragment weight in
the uppermost level. Overall, excavation unit C-5 and C-10 show an observable decrease
in average fragment weight at the upper, post-contact level, while A-5 does not.
Figure 16. C-10 average fragment weight by level.
82
Table 18. C-10 Medium/Large Mammal Fragmentation Data.
Level
0-12”
12-24”
24-36”
36-48”
Total Fragments
43
37
34
31
Total Weight
86.8g
95.4g
114g
103.5g
(g)/Fragment
2.01g
2.57g
3.35g
3.33g
# Indeterminate Fragments
10
9
8
11
Chapter Summary
This chapter expressed the methodology and results of the specific faunal
bone analysis conducted from the Kingsley Cave assemblage. The Artiodactyl Index
remained relatively rich in artiodactyls for all levels in all samples. Food utility and
skeletal element representation remained relatively uniform, however, density mediated
attrition may be a factor at the site. Fragmentation showed fluctuation at various levels,
with excavation unit C-5 and C-10 exhibiting observable decreases in average fragment
size. An expanded discussion of these results is related in chapter VII. Before this
however, the next chapter will provide a comparative regional perspective by analyzing
faunal samples from two relatively more recent excavations conducted within the area of
study.
CHAPTER VI
REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES
The previous chapter presented the results of faunal bone analysis from
Kingsley Cave. Aspects of diet breadth, food utility, and fragmentation were explored
through the predictions of three theoretical models. Under the diet breadth model, no
substantial addition of small mammals were added to the diet within the post-contact
excavation level. This did not support the model expectations. Using the central place
foraging model, no change in the average food utility of Artiodactyl skeletal elements
was observed at any level. While density mediated attrition likely skews these findings,
this did not support model expectations. Lastly, given the patch choice model, some
increases in M/L Mammal bone fragmentation was observed in the post-contact levels.
This supports model expectations.
In order to provide some measure of comparison, this same analysis was
performed on two other sites located along Mill and Antelope Creeks in the Lassen
National Forest (LNF). This chapter will present an overview and excavation
methodology of Forest Service sites 050651-110 (FS-110) and 050651-701 (FS-701).
Further, this chapter will present data for the two Forest Service sites in the same fashion
as the Kingsley Cave data. Working within the same model predictions, the results of this
comparative faunal analysis are given.
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84
Overview of FS-110 and FS-701
Sites FS-110 and FS-701 are both located in the Yana ethnographic boundary.
Of the two sites, FS-110 is nearest to Kingsley Cave at a distance of 2.4 miles and is
considered within the ethnographic Yahi subgroup territory. Site FS-701 is 5.4 miles to
the north on the Antelope Creek drainage and is considered to be located in the territory
of the Southern Yana subgroup. The location of these sites in relation to Kingsley Cave is
shown in Figure 17.
Both sites were excavated using 1x1 meter (3.28x3.28 feet) units in 10centimeter (3.93x3.93 inches) levels. This analysis combines levels in order to increase
sample size and provide a comparison roughly equal to depths of the analyzed levels of
the Kingsley Cave excavation. Excavation levels from FS-110 were combined into 30centimeter (11.8 inches) increments for three levels. Levels from FS-701 were combined
into 30-centimeter increments for the top three levels, with the fourth level combining the
lowest 70-centimeters.
Site FS-110
Site FS-110 sits at 1680 ft. elevation along Mill Creek at the confluence with
Rancheria Creek. It is an open-air site containing a large midden deposit on two distinct
terraces with the presence of multiple house pit depressions. The Lassen National Forest
excavated the site in 1998 (Dugas et al. 2001). While the lower terrace portion of the site
has been affected by erosional flood events, the upper terrace deposit possessed
substantial integrity. One excavation unit (EU3) from this upper terrace was used for
analysis in this thesis. Excavation Unit 3 was excavated to a total depth of 90 centimeters
85
Figure 17. Site Locations in relation to Kingsley Cave. Not to scale.
in 10-centimeter level increments with the soil being sifted using a 1/4th inch mesh
screen.
Site FS-701
Site FS-701 sits at 1600 ft. elevation along Antelope Creek. It is an open-air
site containing a deep midden deposit with multiple house pit depressions. The Lassen
National Forest excavated the site in 1989. While the site has been affected by looting
and vandalism much of the excavated deposit appeared to posses stratigraphic integrity.
Excavation Unit 2 (EU2) was used for this research analysis due to it relative abundance
of faunal material and excavation depth comparable to that of Kingsley Cave. Excavation
Unit 2 was excavated to a total depth of 160 centimeters in 10 centimeter level
increments with the soil being sifted using a 1/4th inch mesh screen.
86
Faunal Data Sets for Forest Service Sites
The following tables present the data associated with FS-110 and FS-701.
Figure 18 presents a compiled taxonomic list of animals identified within both site’s
excavation units. Tables 19 and 20 show the frequency of identified and unidentified
Class
Order
Family
Order
Family
Family
Family
Order
Family
Family
Family
Order
Family
Mammalia
Lagomorpha
Leporidae
Lepus californicus
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Spermophilus beecheyi
Sciurus griseus
Geomyidae
Thomomys bottae
Erethizontidae
Erethizon dorsatum
Carnivora
Ursidae
Ursus americanus
Canidae
Felidae
Puma concolor
Artiodactyla
Cervidae
Odocoileus hemionus
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
California Ground Squirrel
Western Grey Squirrel
Botta’s Pocket Gopher
Common Porcupine
American Black Bear
Coyote, Wolf, Fox, Dog
Mountain Lion
Mule Deer
Figure 18. Taxonomic list for site FS-110 and FS-701.
bone specimens for each sample. While these tables are presented in the same manner as
those shown in previous chapters, their structure is briefly revisited. Table 19 shows the
bone specimen frequencies for each taxa and further includes unidentifiable categories
Table 19. Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation Unit Level for FS-110.
Level (cm)
Identifiable
Lagomorpha
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Artiodactyla
Odocoileus hemionus
Unidentifiable
Mammalia Lg
Mammalia Med/Lg
Mammalia Med
Mammalia Indeterminate
Total
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
Total
3
1
2
3
2
42
9
2
3
4
1
1
35
2
131
174
1
13
2
1
10
2
71
3
70
205
292
175
261
1
2
26
2
64
95
2
4
2
36
23
53
91
74
103
3
1
2
8
1
36
51
2
11
7
36
54
26
37
8
287
5
800
1158
87
88
for FS-110. Each identified taxa and unidentifiable category is shown in the left hand
column. Moving across the table the specimen frequencies for each excavation level are
shown with the overall totals given in the right hand column and bottom row.
Table 20 shows these bone specimens frequencies by taxa and level for FS701. Set in the same manner, both tables show similar frequencies. At FS-110 and FS701 Artiodactyl and Mule Deer show the highest frequencies for identified bone
specimens. Unidentified specimens also show similar frequencies between the two sites.
However, within this category both M/L Mammal and Indeterminate size mammal show
high frequencies.
Tables 21 and 22 provides the artiodactyl bone element representation for the
FS-110 and FS-701 samples. The left hand column of these tables show each of the
Artiodactyl skeletal elements. Moving across the table, the frequencies of bone
specimens are given for each of the excavated levels with overall totals given at the right
hand column and bottom row. While both sites show some degree of representation of
both appendicular and axial elements, there is a higher representation of limb elements.
Faunal Analysis for Forest Service Sites
The following sub-sections present the faunal analysis of FS-110 and FS-701.
The methodology used for the Kingsley Cave assemblage as presented in Chapter V is
also used here. Further, the table and figure set up used to present the Kingsley Cave
analysis data is also used here. As previously expressed, these analyses test the model
predictions of the prey choice, central place foraging, and patch choice models. The
89
Table 20. Bone Specimen Frequencies by Taxa and Excavation Unit Level for FS-701.
Level (cm)
Identifiable
Leporidae
Lepus californicus
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Sciurus griseus
Spermophilus beecheyi
Thomomys bottae
Erethizon dorsatum
Carnivora
Ursus americanus
Canidae
Puma concolor
Artiodactyla
Odocoileus hemionus
Unidentifiable
Mammalia Lg
Mammalia Med/Lg
Mammalia Med
Mammalia Indeterminate
Total
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
90-100
100-110
110-120
120-130
130-140
140-160
Total
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
5
1
2
2
122
32
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
14
2
15
2
1
12
4
4
131
10
169
4
151
355
1
127
6
139
291
143
295
10
2
76
54
143
1
14
1
4
69
4
48
141
10
2
1
20
4
3
68
136
55
140
141
302
1
5
1
10
5
6
3
120
3
115
244
2
121
3
128
272
3
115
4
112
244
5
5
86
4
75
176
1
1
28
36
67
14
4
20
39
7
5
9
17
8
14
28
1272
32
1234
2739
Table 21. Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element and Level for FS-110.
Level (cm)
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Vert Cervicle
Vert Thoracic
Vert Lumbar
Sacrum
Ribs
Sternum
Scapula
Innominate
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Tibia
Metacarpal
Metatarsal
Metapodial
Carpal
Tarsal
Phalanx
Total
0-10
10-20
20-30
1
1
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
1
3
1
2
2
4
1
1
1
2
10
3
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
6
4
3
3
2
5
10
7
12
1
1
51
1
1
2
1
1
1
5
Total
15
1
2
6
4
2
4
90
91
Table 22. Artiodactyl Specimen Frequencies by Skeletal Element and Level for FS-701.
Level (cm)
Cranium
Maxilla
Mandible
Vert Cervicle
Vert Thoracic
Vert Lumbar
Sacrum
Ribs
Sternum
Scapula
Innominate
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Tibia
Metacarpal
Metatarsal
Metapodial
Carpal
Tarsal
Phalanx
Total
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
1
1
2
2
1
1
50-60
60-70
70-80
2
1
80-90
1
1
1
1
90-100
100-110
110-120
120-130
130-140
140-160
2
1
4
2
2
2
4
2
2
5
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
6
1
1
4
4
1
2
4
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
1
2
1
17
16
12
15
22
3
3
1
1
1
2
16
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
4
6
1
1
12
24
Total
1
2
11
1
1
1
3
1
1
4
4
1
4
1
2
1
6
15
9
10
1
1
3
2
7
9
2
14
26
39
1
3
154
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following tables and figures will address aspects of diet breadth, food utility and density
mediated attrition, and M/L Mammal bone fragmentation.
Diet Breadth
Tables 23 and 24 present the diet breadth data as represented by the
Artiodactyl Index. The left hand column of these tables shows each of the excavated
levels. The uppermost level is given at the top of the column and moving down the
column the deeper levels are shown. Moving across these tables the specimen frequencies
for Artiodactyl, Small Mammal and their combined total are given. The calculated
Artiodactyl Index is given in the right hand column.
Table 23. FS-110 Artiodactyl Index.
Level (cm)
0-30
30-60
60-90
Artiodactyla
32
9
10
Small Mammal
2
0
2
Total
34
9
12
Artiodactyl Index
0.94
1
0.83
Table 24. FS-701 Artiodactyl Index.
Level (cm)
0-30
30-60
60-90
90-160
Artiodactyla
49
39
45
21
Small Mammal
1
2
1
1
Total
50
41
46
22
Artiodactyl Index
0.98
0.95
0.98
0.95
As shown in these tables, small, lesser ranked, prey items are not found to
increase within any level of the assemblage. In other words, it would appear that low
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ranking prey items are not being added to the diet in any observable fashion during the
post-contact, 0-30 centimeter, level. This does not meet with the prey choice model
expectations for this thesis.
Food Utility and Density Mediated
Attrition Results
Table 25 shows the bone density correlations between an Artiodactyl skeletal
element’s frequency and its density. This analysis showed no significant correlation
between these characteristics. However, scatter plots of these data reveal a similar trend
as observed at Kingsley Cave. Figure 19 and 20 are scatter plots of Artiodactyl skeletal
element frequency by density. In these figures, the Y-axis shows the frequency of each
Artiodactyl skeletal elements, while the X-axis shows the corresponding densities of each
skeletal element. Each point on the graph then represents a specific skeletal element and
its corresponding density and frequency. Only carpals and ribs are labeled as they fall far
outside the expected trend. Removing these outliers, a Pearson’s r test for each sample
then shows a strong and significant correlation between bone element density and
frequency (Table 26).
Table 25. Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency vs. Bone Density.
Site
FS-110
FS-701
Correlation Coefficient (n = 20)
r = .239
r = .367
Significance (2-tailed)
p = .310
p = .112
Figures 21 and 22 show the mean FUI of consecutive levels for each of the
analyzed samples from FS-110 and FS-701. In these figures, the Y-axis shows the
average food utility index, while the X-axis shows with each of the corresponding
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Figure 19. FS-110 scatter plot of artiodactyl bone element frequency vs. density.
Figure 20. FS-701 scatter plot of artiodactyl bone element frequency vs. density.
95
Table 26. Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Frequency vs. Bone Density (Outliers Removed).
Site
FS-110
FS-701
Correlation Coefficient ( n =18)
r = .663
r = .658
Significance (2-tailed)
p = .003
p = .003
Figure 21. FS-110 mean FUI of artiodactyl bone elements by level.
excavation levels. The upper most level is shown at the left with progressively deeper
levels in time moving to the right. As observed, very little change occurs in the average
FUI of skeletal elements at any given level. These results do not fulfill the expectations of
the central place foraging model put forth within this thesis.
In similar fashion as the Kingsley Cave results, food utility showed very little
change. Given the density mediated attrition findings, however, these results should be
taken under caution. As expressed in the previous chapter, when bone density likely plays
96
Figure 22. FS-701 mean FUI of artiodactyl bone elements by level.
a role in skeletal element representation, such skeletal element analysis could be skewed
and unreliable. This is further the case for Table 27, which shows the results of the
correlation between Artiodactyl skeletal element frequency and FUI. These results show
no correlation between a specific skeletal element’s food value rank and its representation
in the assemblage.
Table 27. Pearson’s r Artiodactyl Bone Element Frequency vs. FUI.
Site
FS-110
FS-701
Correlation Coefficient (n = 19)
r = -.126
r = -.229
Significance (2-tailed)
p = .608
p = .346
Mammal Bone Fragmentation
Figures 23 and 24 and Tables 28 and 29 provide the results of fragmentation
analysis for FS-110 and FS-701. Figures 23 and 24 depict the average weight of M/L
Mammal fragments per excavation level at FS-110 and FS-701 respectively. In these
97
Figure 23. FS-110 average fragment weight by level.
Figure 24. FS-701 average fragment weight by level.
98
Table 28. FS-110 Medium/Large Long Bone Mammal Fragmentation Data.
Level
0-30cm
30-60cm
60-90cm
Total LBN
Fragments
161
72
24
Total Weight
138.9g
82.2g
27g
(g)/Fragmen
t
0.86g
1.14g
1.1g
# Indeterminate
Fragments
511
191
98
Table 29. FS-701 Medium/Large Long Bone Mammal Fragmentation Data.
Level
0-30cm
30-60cm
60-90cm
90-160cm
Total LBN
Fragments
427
213
373
254
Total Weight (g)/Fragment
318g
197.6g
273.1g
190.1g
0.744g
0.92g
0.74g
0.75g
# Indeterminate
Fragments
433
157
362
243
figures, the Y-axis shows average fragment weight and the X-axis is the corresponding
excavation level. Tables 28 and 29 provide the raw data used in the fragmentation
analysis at FS-110 and FS-701. The far left column of these tables show each level with
the uppermost level on top and the deeper levels following down the column. Specific
data for total fragments, total weight, average weight, and total indeterminate size
fragments are given following across each row.
As observed at both FS-110 and FS-701, these sites do show a decrease in
average fragment weight in the uppermost level. However, the drop in fragment weight is
only slight with overall small fragment weight being observed at every level within both
assemblages. While the fragmentation results do correspond with the model predictions
99
of this thesis, the evidence for increased fragmentation not strong. This will be discussed
further in the following chapter.
Chapter Summary
This chapter provided data and results of faunal analysis for FS-110 and FS701, two sites located in the vicinity of Kingsley Cave. The analysis of these sites utilized
the same methodology as was used in the analysis for Kingsley Cave. Compared with
Kingsley Cave, results showed similar patterns in the Artiodactyl Index, average FUI,
and the presence of density mediated attrition. Neither of these analysis corresponded
with the predicted expectations of the prey choice or central place foraging models.
While the fragmentation analysis did adhere to the predicted expectations of the patch
choice model, these outcomes were less than convincing. Further, when compared with
Kingsley Cave, differences in fragmentation are observed. These data suggest an overall
greater degree in fragmentation at the Forest Service sites. Comparison of these two sites
with Kingsley Cave will be discussed further in the next chapter.
CHAPTER VII
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION
The previous two chapters presented the results of faunal bone analysis from
Kingsley Cave and sites FS-110 and FS-701, both located in the region of study. Using
predictions stemming from the prey choice, central place foraging, and patch choice
models, expectations were derived for the various analyses. These analyses focused on
aspects of diet breadth, Artiodactyl skeletal element representation and food utility, and
M/L Mammal bone fragmentation. Assuming the upper most excavation level of each
sample represents the post-contact period, each model predicts a specific expectation in
the faunal data.
Results of diet breadth and food utility were similar at both Kingsley Cave
and the Forest Service sites. Little to no change was observed in Artiodactyl Indices or
food utility at any given level in the samples. Further, density mediated attrition appears
to affect all samples. Fragmentation does appear to increase in certain samples of the
Kingsley Cave assemblage. The Forest Service sites also show this increased
fragmentation, albeit to a much lesser degree.
This chapter will first interpret and compare the findings of the faunal analysis
conducted for this thesis. Next, the overall findings as they relate to Kingsley Cave will
be discussed. Lastly, the results of this research will be considered as they pertain to the
Yana culture at large and the subsequent affects of Euroamerican settlement in the region.
100
101
Interpretation and Comparison of
Kingsley Cave Results
As described in Chapter III, the predictions and expectations of this thesis are
explored through the models of diet breadth, central place foraging, and patch choice.
The underlying premise for these predictions rests in the affects of Euroamerican
settlement on Yana territory and resources in the region. It was suggested that
Euroamerican encroachment served to constrict Yana territories and reduce resources, an
affect that restricted both availability and access of primarily deer. These conditions
would likely provide a setting for the intensification of resources and could thus be
investigated through the animal food remains at Kingsley Cave. Using these models, the
results of analyses are discussed below.
Diet Breadth/Prey Choice
Under the diet breadth model, the addition of low-ranking prey items is
predicted in the diet as the availability of high-ranking prey items is reduced. The
expectation of this prediction would be an increase in the frequency of small mammal
bone specimens relative to Artiodactyl bone specimens. Under the post-contact
circumstance of this prediction, this increase in small mammals should occur most
readily in the upper (0-12 inch) level.
As evidenced through the Artiodactyl Index, there is no strong increase in the
addition of small mammals to the diet in the upper level or at any level in the Kingsley
Cave sample (Tables 10-12). In fact, the Artiodactyl Index remains relatively high
throughout every level. Thus the expectations of the diet breadth model are not met at
Kingsley Cave. Similar results were found at FS-110 and FS-701 (Tables 23 and 24). At
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these sites, little change in the Artiodactyl Index was observed in the upper, post-contact,
levels. These sites further showed an overall low representation of small mammals
relative to Artiodactyls at any given time.
Overall, the findings from both Kingsley Cave and the Forest Service sites
show no increase of low-ranking prey items being added to the diet at any point. These
findings do not support the expectations of the diet breadth model. This would further
indicate that resource intensification was not occurring through lower-ranked prey items
being added to the diet.
Central Place Foraging
Under the logic of the central place foraging model, as deer resources become
less available, foragers will travel further to obtains such game. Following this logic, the
model predicts that foragers will field process deer in a manner better able to transport
more high food-value elements back to camp. The expectation of this prediction would be
an increase in the average food utility value of bone elements in the upper level at
Kingsley Cave.
The calculation of average FUI for each unit level at Kingsley Cave shows
little to no change in food utility at any point, let alone the post-contact level (Figures 1113). These findings do not meet the expectations of the central place foraging model. This
would further suggest resource intensification was not occurring by means of transporting
higher food-value Artiodactyl elements to Kingsley Cave. These same calculations of
average FUI also showed little to no change for any level at sites FS-110 and FS-701
(Figures 21 and 22). Here again, the expectations of the central place foraging model
were not met.
103
Both Kingsley Cave and the Forest Service samples showed no change in the
representation of high food-value Artiodactyl bone elements. Overall, this analysis would
indicate that resource intensification was not occurring by transporting relatively more
amounts of high food-value bone elements. However, the analysis and interpretation of
skeletal elements within zooarchaeological assemblages can be greatly affected by the
presence of density mediated attrition. Results of the correlation between bone element
density and representation suggests that density mediated attrition has some degree of
affect on the sample from both Kingsley Cave and the Forest Service sites (Tables 14 and
26). The results of food utility analyses in this thesis are thus unreliable. However, the
presence of density-mediated attrition holds value in interpretation of the studied samples
and will be discussed later in this chapter.
Patch Choice
Under the patch choice model, increased processing of deer bone would be
predicted as time in a patch increases and resources become depressed. The expectation
of this prediction would be an observable decrease in average deer bone fragment size in
the upper level of Kingsley Cave (Figures 14-16). Excavation unit A-5 displayed some
overall fluctuation in fragment size, but showed an increase in the upper level. The
expectation of this model is not met in unit A-5. Unit C-5 and C-10 both show observable
decreases in fragment size in the upper level. The expectation of this model is met in unit
C-5 and C-10.
Samples from FS-110 and FS-701 show some decrease in fragment size in the
upper level (Figures 23 and 24). However, these decreases are much smaller with a closer
uniformity in fragment size throughout the sampled levels. Additionally, average
104
fragment size ranges of these two samples (1.1-0.74g) are smaller overall than any of the
Kingsley Cave samples (3.9-0.89g). This marked difference may allude more to
excavation methodology than to differential processing between the sites.
Further obfuscation occurs in the degree of fragmentation between the
Kingsley Cave samples. Unit C-5 displayed overall smaller average fragment size and
much higher degrees of small indeterminate fragments. While this occurrence could be
the result of excavation unit placement in the densest portion of the assemblage, it may
again allude to excavation methodology and not an actual difference in samples.
Discussion
Overall, data from Kingsley Cave showed some promising results. Evidence
for resource intensification was lacking in the form of expanding diet breadth and
increases food utility. However, fragmentation analysis met the patch choice model
expectations and supports the occurrence of resource intensification. These results
observed increased fragmentation through the upper levels in two of the analyzed
samples from Kingsley Cave. The sample from excavation unit C-5 showed this
increased fragmentation most strongly. While this evidence is promising, it remains
tentative with further study needed to support these findings.
When compared with the other Kingsley Cave samples, C-5 shows higher
degrees of fragmentation (smaller average fragments) and overall higher amount of
fragments. Assuming this is not a product of differential screen use or screen size, it is
either a bias in collection practice or a difference in the actual density of the assemblage
at unit C-5. The latter is suggested by Sheilagh Thompson-Brooks (ca. 1955) in “An
105
Analysis of the Mammal Bone from a Rock Shelter Excavation in Tehama County
California,” a Kingsley Cave faunal report housed at the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of
Anthropology. While no date is given in this report, it appears to be contemporary with
the excavation time frame and is housed with the other Kingsley Cave excavation
documents (Thompson-Brooks ca. 1955).
Perhaps the most informative analysis come from the density mediated
attrition findings. Analyzing each excavation unit sample as a whole, these analyses
perform a correlation between a skeletal element’s density and its representation in the
assemblage. This allows for problems of stratigraphic integrity to be neutralized to some
degree. Therefore, while these results allude to the overall practice of bone processing at
the site, they do not address changes during the post-contact period. Findings initially
found little correlation between bone element density and frequency (Table 13).
However, scatter plots of this analysis showed two striking outlier bone elements
(Figures 8-10). When ribs and carpals are removed, the subsequent correlations become
strong and significant for each sample (Table 14). This would suggest that density
mediated attrition affects the analyzed samples.
The two outlier bone elements of ribs and carpals can be further explored. The
high amount of ribs relative to other bone elements in the artiodactyl skeleton explain
their high occurring frequency compared with their low density. When adjusted for
corrected frequency, rib elements fall within the scatter plot trend. Carpals, assigned a
relatively high density value, remain unexplained in their relative underrepresentation.
That carpals are little represented in each sample from Kingsley Cave and the other
analyzed sites suggests this may be a product of analysis or the relatively high density
106
value assigned by Lyman (1994a). Further, their small size and unique shapes may render
them difficult to identify and even more so after undergoing only slight attrition.
In general, all bone elements appear to be represented to some degree at
Kingsley Cave. These representations occur throughout the various levels and suggest
that entire artiodactyl carcasses were being processed at the site. While not entirely
explained, carpals are nevertheless underrepresented given their high density. Were the
density mediated affects a product of only natural processes, there is a reasonable
expectation that high density carpals would occur to a much higher degree. The density
mediated attrition occurring at Kingsley Cave would appear to be a product of human
processing.
The Yana and Euroamerican Contact
Contact with Euroamericans in the region of study forced Yana groups to
inhabit marginal, less productive, and smaller territorial ranges. At the same time,
increased Euroamerican populations depleted valuable resources, mainly deer. This
would have provided a setting for resource intensification. Analysis of deer remains at
Kingsley Cave indicated some evidence of intensification in the post contact period. This
indication only occurring from increased fragmentation in two of the samples. However,
these tentative indications should be taken under caution as they may be affected by
excavation methodology and collection processes.
Given the setting facing the post contact Yana, the lack of strong evidence
supporting resource intensification is likely the result of dramatic declines in their
population. If Cook’s (1943:97) population estimates are realistic, Yana populations
declined from 1,900 in 1848 to 35 in 1884. That is a 98% reduction of the Yana
107
population in 36 years. This would have undeniably lessened the observable impact of
resource intensification in post-contact archaeological assemblages.
While only slight evidence of resource intensification was observed in the
Kingsley Cave samples, some interesting findings still occurred. Human processing of
less dense artiodactyl bone elements appears likely. This sort of processing is often
associated with various degrees of marrow and bone grease extraction (Munro and BarOz 2005). Taking the FUI analysis under caution, it would seem that differential
transportation based on element food value was not occurring. Further, it appears that
entire artiodactyl carcasses were being returned to the Kingsley Cave site. This would
suggest that Kingsley Cave was more than a logistical hunting camp used for partial
carcass processing and eventual transport to a separate location.
Conclusion
The impact of European expansion and colonization in the Americas after the
15th century were astoundingly large. The repercussions not only devastated indigenous
and native populations at the time, but their affects are still apparent today. It is within
this perspective that the current research provides a snapshot of expanding Euroamerican
populations in northeastern California at the onset of the Gold Rush. Given the context of
expanding Euroamerican populations in the region of study, the ensuing post-contact
affects offered a setting for resource intensification by the Yana. The faunal remains from
Kingsley Cave provide an irreplaceable window into the lives and subsistence practices
of Yana groups during this time.
108
The results of the faunal analysis gave only a small indication of resource
intensification, this coming by way of the patch choice model and increased bone
fragmentation. Analysis using the prey choice and central place foraging models showed
no indication of resource intensification. This may allude to the inability of these models
and their methods to address intensification given the severe population decreases
suffered by the Yana after contact. Equally, the tentative results of bone fragmentation
may suggest an avenue for observing intensification under such conditions. The ability to
address post-contact impacts upon the Yana is further complicated by the lack of
archaeological sites definitive of use during this period.
While strong evidence for resource intensification was lacking in this
research, the results of density mediated attrition analyses suggest that the Yana were
intensively processing faunal bone at the site. This further bolsters the fragmentation
findings and again indicates the usefulness of this analytical approach. Future research
concerning the fragmentation of specific bone elements would offer a means for
supporting this thesis’ findings.
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