GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
History of the Collection
The University of Missouri-Columbia owns about one hundred plaster casts of
sculpture, mainly Greek or Roman, but eleven represent later periods. In addition,
scale models of parts of three buildings are examples of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
orders. Four of the casts were the gift of the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in 1973, but
the bulk of the collection was personally selected for the University in 1895 and 1902 by
John Pickard (1858-1937), Professor of Classical Archaeology and founder, in 1892, of
the Department of Art History and Archaeology at the University of Missouri. The
records of the 1895 purchase show that the first fifty casts and the architectural models
were acquired from casting studios in Germany, France, and England. Apparently no
correspondence exists concerning the second acquisition in 1902, but the local
newspaper reported that thirty or forty casts were acquired.
Until 1940 the collection was displayed in a large gallery on the third floor of
Academic Hall, the campus administration building, now called Jesse Hall, but, for a
twenty-year period from 1940 to 1960, the casts were hidden from view, pushed aside to
provide space for art classes. In 1960, the Art Department moved, and the Department
of Art History and Archaeology was re-established. (In 1935 it had been split between
the departments of Art and Classics.) The casts were brought back out, cleaned, and
painted. In 1975 the collection was transferred to Pickard Hall where it is now housed,
most of it in a gallery on the first floor, but some in the lecture hall, hallways, offices,
and museum storage. Pickard Hall, the old Chemistry Building, was renovated in 197576 as the home of the Museum of Art and Archaeology and the Department of Art
History and Archaeology.
A tradition arose that the casts were exhibited at the Louisiana Purchase
Exposition held in St. Louis in 1904. The catalogue of the exposition makes no mention
of casts of Greek and Roman sculpture, however, and a search through The Columbia
Daily Tribune from August 29, 1903 to December 31, 1904 revealed no mention of an
exodus of casts from the museum in Academic Hall to St. Louis, nor of their return. The
university's exhibit at the exposition is mentioned, however, and Dr. Pickard is
described as having secured increased space for it. Although plaster casts of sculpture
are not included, a model in plaster of the university's grounds and buildings is listed
as part of the university's exhibit. Perhaps this and Dr. Pickard's involvement in the
exposition gave rise to the local tradition that the plaster casts of Greek and Roman
sculpture also went to the Fair. Casts were included in the exposition, but these were
acquired especially for it and were given to Southeast Missouri State Normal School
(now Southeast Missouri State University) by Mr. Louis Houck, who acquired them at
the exposition and presented them in 1904.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Funerary Monument (Cippus)
Rome, Italy
Roman, 2nd c.
Marble
Lent by the Cooper-Hewitt Museum,
New York (L709)
The inscription reads:
D(is) M(anibus)
Catiae
Helpidi
Q(uintus) Catius
Felix
To the shades of the departed,
for Catia Helpis
Quintus Catius Felix
(gave this)
The monument was found in the late 19th century with several others near an ancient
tomb located about three-quarters of a mile from the Via Appia, the principal ancient
road that led south from Rome. The inscribed monuments near the tomb identify it as
belonging to the family of the Catii.
The cippus has a jug and a libation bowl, or patera, carved in relief on the sides,
common motifs on such monuments. On the front face, two incised lines guided the
carving of the second line of the inscription. Part of the surface of this face appears to
have been recut in ancient times.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Cast Collection
Archaic Period
Kouros from Tenea, ca. 575-550 B.C., Munich, Glyptothek.
Athena, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, West Pediment, ca. 490 B.C.,
Munich, Glyptothek.
Fifth Century B.C.
Harmodios the Tyrannicide, Roman copy of a bronze from the group by Kritios and
Nesiotes, ca. 477-476 B.C., Naples, National Archaeological Museum.
Charioteer, bronze original, ca. 475-470 B.C., Delphi, Museum.
Diskobolos or Discus Thrower, Roman copy of a bronze original by Myron, ca. 460-450
B.C., Rome, Vatican Museums.
Apollo, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, West Pediment, ca. 465-457 B.C., Olympia,
Museum.
Head of Lapith Youth, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, West Pediment, ca. 465-457 B.C.,
Olympia, Museum.
Head of Lapith Woman, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, West Pediment, ca. 465-457 B.C.,
Olympia, Museum.
Head of Theseus, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, West Pediment, ca. 465-457 B.C.,
Olympia, Museum.
Head of Hippodameia, bride of the Lapith king Peirithoos, Temple of Zeus at Olympia,
West Pediment, ca. 465-457 B.C., Olympia, Museum.
Herakles and Atlas, Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Metope, ca. 465-457 B.C., Olympia,
Museum.
Ludovisi Throne, three-sided relief, ca. 460 B.C., Rome, National Museum.
Athena Lemnia (?), Roman copy of a bronze original by Phidias, ca. 450-440 B.C., head
in Bologna, Museo Civico and body in Dresden, Albertinum.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Two Goddesses, The Parthenon, East Pediment, ca. 437-432 B.C., London, British
Museum.
Centaur and Lapith, The Parthenon, Metope, ca. 447-443 B.C., London, British Museum.
Panathenaic Procession; Rider, The Parthenon, West Frieze, ca. 442-438 B.C., Athens.
Panathenaic Procession; Marshal, The Parthenon, East Frieze, ca. 442-438 B.C., original
missing.
Head of the Diadoumenos, or Fillet Binder, Roman copy of bronze original by
Polykleitos, ca. 440-430 B.C., Naples, National Museum.
Doryphoros, or Spear Bearer, Roman copy of a bronze original by Polykleitos, ca. 450440 B.C., Naples, National Museum.
Nike, by Paionios, ca. 425-420 B.C., Olympia, Museum.
Battle of Greeks and Amazons, relief from the frieze of the Temple of Apollo at
Phigaleia (Bassai), late 5th c. B.C., London, British Museum.
Athena Velletri, Roman copy of a Greek work, perhaps by Kresilas, ca. 420 B.C., Paris,
Louvre Museum.
Karyatid, the Erechtheion, Athens, ca. 421-406 B.C., London, British Museum.
Nike, Temple of Athena Nike, ca. 410-400 B.C., Athens, Acropolis Museum.
Athlete, Roman copy of a Greek original, ca. 450-440 B.C. Munich, Glyptothek
Fourth Century B.C.
Battle of Greeks and Amazons, the Mausoleion at Halikarnassos, ca. 360-340 B.C.,
London, British Museum.
Hermes and Dionysos, by Praxiteles, ca. 350-330 B.C., Olympia, Museum.
Torso of Satyr, attributed to Praxiteles, ca. 370-355 B.C., Paris, Louvre Museum.
Artemis from Gabii, Roman copy of a statue attributed to Praxiteles, ca. 360-330 B.C.,
Paris, Louvre Museum.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Head of the Demeter of Knidos, ca. 350 B.C., London, British Museum.
Head of Euripides, Roman copy of a Greek original, ca. 350-325 B.C., Rome, Vatican
Museums.
Woman from Herculaneum, Roman copy of a Greek original, ca. 340-330 B.C., Dresden,
Albertinum.
Head, Temple of Athena Alea, Tegea, Pediment, perhaps by Skopas, ca. 350 B.C.,
Athens, National Museum.
Apoxyomenos, or Youth Scraping Himself, Roman copy of a bronze original by
Lysippos, ca. 340-325 B.C., Rome, Vatican Museums.
Alexander: the Azara Bust, Roman copy of an original perhaps Lysippos, ca. 330-323
B.C., Paris, Louvre Museum.
Dancing Woman, Roman copy of a flute girl by Lysippos, ca. 320 B.C., Berlin, Staatliche
Museum.
Sophokles, Roman copy of a Greek original, ca. 340-330 B.C., Rome, Vatican Museums.
Hellenistic Period
Nike of Samothrace, ca. 200 B.C., Paris, Louvre Museum.
Medici Aphrodite (Venus de Medici), type of Knidian Aphrodite, early 3rd c. B.C.,
Florence, Uffizi Gallery.
Apollo Belevdere, Roman copy of a Greek original, ca. 200-150 B.C., Rome, Vatican
Museums.
Zeus Battling the Giants, from the frieze of the Altar of Zeus and Athena, Pergamon,
ca. 180 B.C., Berlin Museum.
Borghese Warrior, signed by Agasias, ca. 100 B.C., Paris, Louvre Museum.
Aphrodite (Venus Genetrix), Roman copy of a Greek original by Arkesilaos, ca. 50 B.C.,
Paris, Louvre Museum.
Aphrodite of Melos (Venus de Milo), ca. 150-100 B.C., Paris, Louvre Museum.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Homer, Roman copy of Late Hellenistic work, ca. 150 B.C., Boston, Museum of Fine
Arts.
Laokoon and his Sons, by Hagesandros, Polydorus and Athanodoros, late 1st c. B.C.early 1st c. A.D., Rome, Vatican Museums.
Roman Period
Head of Roman Matron, ca. 200 A.D., Naples, National Museum.
Ludovisi Hera, Roman work in the Greek manner of 4th c. B.C., Rome, National
Museum.
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ENTRANCE HALLWAY (FIRST FLOOR)
Cast Collection
Panathenaic Procession; Ritual Handing over of the Peplos, The Parthenon, East
Frieze, 442-438 B.C., London, British Museum.
Tympanum, Chartres Cathedral, West Facade, ca. 1145-1155, France.
Jamb Figures (King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba), Collegiate Church, Notre
Dame, ca. 1140-1150, Corbeil, France.
Bronze Flagpole Base, 1501-1505, Alessandro Leopardi, Venetian, - ca. 1522, Piazza San
Marco, Venice.
Ceres, 1921, Sherry Fry, American, 1876-1966, plaster model for bronze figure on the
Capitol dome, Jefferson City.
CORRIDOR (FIRST FLOOR)
Cast Collection
Bust of Perikles, Roman copy, original perhaps by Kresilas, ca. 440-425 B.C., London,
British Museum.
Head of a Young Girl, grave relief at Eretria, ca. 360 B.C., Berlin.
Dionysos, (Priapos?), bronze bust ca. A.D. 50, Roman copy of early 5th c.
Greek original, Naples, National Archaeological Museum.
Portrait of Sophokles, Roman copy of a Greek original, ca. 340-330 B.C., Rome, Vatican
Museums.
Head of Hygeia, 4th c. B.C., Rome, National Museum.
Boy Removing a Thorn from his Foot (Spinario), Roman copy of a Hellenistic bronze
original, late 3rd early 2nd c. B.C., Rome, Capitoline Museum.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
A History of Greek Sculpture Based on the Cast Collection
The following account incorporates excerpts from William R. Biers, The Archaeology of
Greece, An Introduction, 2nd edition (Cornell University Press 1996), by kind permission
of the author.
Problems of Identification and Interpretation of Greek Sculpture
The Romans were great collectors, and works of what was for them already
ancient Greek art were especially prized. Statues were carried off by the shipload from
Greek lands both as war loot and as "collectibles." The source was soon exhausted,
however, so the practice of making copies of works of famous artists of the past became
a thriving business. With the loss of the original statues, we must depend mainly on
Roman copies for an idea of the style of the famous artists of Greece. Unfortunately,
there are serious drawbacks to our enforced reliance on copies made for the Roman
market. Copies of Greek originals were made in many ways by artists of widely varying
abilities. A statue could be copied more or less freehand or by means of a "pointing
machine" that gave almost exact reproductions. Further problems arise in the ease with
which a given type--for instance, a young athlete--could be changed into another type,
such as Hermes, by the simple addition of an attribute by the copyist. Depending as we
do on ancient authors' relatively vague references to particular works, we are often
reduced to trying to pick out a likely reproduction of a famous statue from among a
host of copies of varying quality. Further, once it is thought that a known work of a
famous artist can be identified, one can never be certain how faithful the copy is to the
original, or, when faced with varying treatments of such details as hair, which example
is likely to have belonged to the original statue. These problems make the definite
identification of the works of a particular sculptor and analysis of his style tricky at best,
though this difficulty has not deterred the publication of numerous learned studies of
individual artists. The knowledge that can be gained from meager evidence is
incredible, but it is well to remember the problems involved. (Biers, p. 215)
The cast collection at the University of Missouri contains casts of original Greek
works and of Roman copies of Greek works. The kouros from Tenea, the Athena from
Aegina, sculptures from Olympia and from the Parthenon, for example, are casts of
original Greek works in marble. The charioteer from Delphi is a cast of a bronze
original. The Diskobolos, the Doryphoros, and the Apoxyomenos, on the other hand,
are casts of Roman marble copies of Greek works originally made in bronze. The
inclusion of a support for the figure is a clue to the original material of the Greek work.
Bronze sculptures stand without support, whereas copies in heavy marble cannot stand
alone. The collection contains few examples of casts of original Roman works. The head
of a matron, dating to ca. A.D. 200, is an example of a cast of a Roman work in marble.
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Archaic Period, Introduction
At the very end of the seventh century large-scale standing marble statues
appeared as dedications in sanctuaries and as funeral monuments. In these works one
can clearly see stylistic changes as sculptors worked out the realistic representation of
the human body standing at rest. These figures are given conventional names: Kouroi
for the nude males (singular, kouros) and korai (singular, kore) for the draped females.
(Biers, p. 165)
These sculptural forms are generally believed to have been derived from eastern
prototypes, the kouros from Egyptian sources and the kore from elsewhere in the Near
East. Although the extent and even the existence of the debt of early Greek sculptors to
Egypt is debated, it is hard to deny it completely when one looks at a contemporary
Egyptian standing male. The basic form, a stiff, upright figure with one extended leg
and fixed frontal glare, remains the same throughout the century while the details of
musculature and the rendition of the human body become increasingly realistic. (Biers,
p. 166)
A parallel development [to the kouroi] can be seen in the korai, the standing
female figures...[but] since Greek society and artistic convention did not accept a nude
female figure in this period, the korai are shown fully draped, the contrasting patterns
and fabrics of their garments providing a rich field for the sculptors to mine. The
earliest garment, the peplos, was a heavy one-piece tunic, generally of wool, which was
frequently worn with an overfold and a shawl in the seventh century. Considered a
typically Dorian or mainland dress, it hung from neck to feet and was fastened at the
shoulder by a pin or fibula. Often a lighter garment of linen, called the chiton, was worn
beneath it. (Biers, pp. 168-69)
Then, as now, fashions underwent periodic changes. During the sixth century the
peplos was discarded and a sleeved chiton was worn alone or with a mantle. The
mantle, or himation, became the standard dress of the korai, draped obliquely from the
right shoulder to below the left armpit. The folds and decoration of this garment and its
contrast with the lighter chiton beneath encouraged decorative renderings, and the
korai of the latter part of the century reach great heights of elaborate ornamentation.
(Biers, p. 169)
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Kouros from Tenea, ca. 575-550 B.C.
This figure represents the kouros as it had evolved by the second quarter of the
sixth century B.C. (The earliest stage is represented in the U.S.A. by a figure in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.) Its stance looks Egyptian, but there are
important differences, the most obvious being that the figure is nude. This is unknown
in formal Egyptian sculpture. The Tenea kouros still retains a block-like appearance, but
the arms are separated from the body from below the armpit to above the wrist, and
there is no back support as in Egyptian figures. Furthermore, the weight of the body is
distributed evenly on both legs, unlike the Egyptian figures where the weight rests on
the back leg.
That the Tenea kouros belongs to a more developed stage than the earliest of the
series is shown by certain details of the body which are modelled rather than being
carved as linear patterns.
Athena, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina, West Pediment, ca. 490 B.C
The Athena from the West pediment displays features typical of Archaic korai.
She is shown in frontal stance, wearing the himation and chiton, which retain the
decorative patterned effect of the Archaic period. The symmetrical folds at the edges of
her garments are typical of the late Archaic period. Her mouth is carved in the so-called
Archaic smile. As a warrior goddess, she is armed, carrying a shield and wearing a
helmet. On her breast and falling down her back is her aegis, the goatskin mantle given
her by her father Zeus. Holes on the breast were for attachment of a Gorgon's head, and
holes along the edges once held bronze snakes' heads.
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Fifth Century B.C., Introduction
The art of the first half of the fifth century is somewhat less uniform stylistically
than that of the second half and has been interpreted less uniformly as well. For some it
is a transitional period in which lingering Archaic forms exist beside more advanced
Classical renderings. For others it is an experimental period or an early stage of the
High Classical Style of the second half of the century. The period has all these
characteristics. For convenience the term "Severe style" has been applied to the art of
this period, encompassing the meanings of both transitional and Early Classical. The
style is characterized by (1) a simplification of forms, (2) a return to the plain Dorian
garments with a resulting simplification of treatment of drapery, and (3) new subjects
often shown in motion or expressing emotion, with varying degrees of success. Often
the moment just before or after an event or a moment of rest within a complex
movement will be shown rather than the action itself. These last two characteristics are
typical of Classical art in general, but they were new in the first half of the century.
(Biers, pp. 195-96)
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Temple of Zeus, Olympia
"the most famous and at the same time the most important of the religious
buildings of the first half of the fifth century..." (Biers, p. 196)
Apollo, Heads of Lapith Youth and Woman, Head of Hippodameia, Head of Theseus,
sculpture from the west pediment, ca. 465-457 B.C.
The sculptures...sum up the nature of the Severe style of the first half of the 5th
century...The west pediment contains a scene of action...A large central figure
dominates, this time Apollo. The subject is the battle between the human Lapiths and
the bestial centaurs at a wedding feast of the Lapith king. From the great central figure
of Apollo, one of the most imposing figures to come down to us, who stretches out his
hand to calm the uproar, great two- and three-figure groups of struggling bodies sink
down toward each angle of the pediment. (Biers p. 218)
The human figures, despite being engaged in a fierce struggle "appear calm; only
the centaurs snarl and rage, contorting their features. Such idealization probably
symbolizes here the superiority of civilized beings, in contrast to the uncivilized forces
of nature; yet some of the humans, too, display natural emotions in occasional open
mouths, pinched features, and lined foreheads." (Biers, p. 219)
Herakles and Atlas, metope, Temple of Zeus, Olympia, ca. 465-457 B.C.
The metopes of the temple of Zeus represent for the first time the twelve
canonical labors of Herakles, six at each end of the building...A simple composition of
three verticals makes up the scene of the labor of the Apples of the Hesperides. Atlas
had returned with the apples in his hand, and Herakles, who earlier took the world
from the giant's shoulders, considers how to reverse their positions. Athena is present,
helping to support the burden with one hand, and Herakles has arranged a cushion to
help ease the weight. These three dignified figures are shown in monumental
simplicity. The Athena is especially handsome, wearing a plain peplos that falls in
straight vertical folds broken slightly by the right leg to suggest the body beneath. As
the daughter of Zeus, she is able to support the world with one hand. This is an oldfashioned composition, with its three vertical figures, but the unusual character of the
scene and the monumentality of the figures go well beyond earlier conceptions. (Biers,
pp. 220, 222)
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GALLERY OF GREEK AND ROMAN CASTS
Diskobolos, or Discus Thrower, by Myron, ca. 460-450 B.C.
An extended pose is seen "in one of the most famous statues of antiquity, the
Diskobolos (Discus Thrower) of Myron. The works of Myron, who worked in the
middle years of the 5th century, display Severe as well as High Classical characteristics.
His innovations in pose and composition were not paralleled until Hellenistic times.
Unfortunately, his work is known only through Roman copies, and only one or two
statues are securely attributed to him." (Biers, p. 216)
The Diskobolos, originally in bronze...[has] an openness of form and a static
anatomy in which the tension of the various parts of the body are hardly reflected. This
figure...is meant to be viewed from only one angle; from the rear it appears impossibly
balanced, and it is extremely flat. The human body cannot flatten itself to the extent
shown here as numerous athletes can attest. The simplification of features, here
idealized without individuality or emotion, is particularly striking. The head could
easily be taken from the body and set up as a bust, so divorced is it from the action of
the body below it. In general, the figure forms a beautiful, clear pattern--a legacy of
earlier times but with idealized musculature and features. (Biers, p. 217)
Charioteer, Delphi, ca. 475-470 B.C.
One of few surviving fifth-century Greek bronze originals, this statue was found
in the excavations at Delphi, where it had stood as part of a dedication of a chariot
group by the tyrant Polyzalos of Gela in Sicily in commemoration of victory in a chariot
race. The base with dedicatory inscription has survived, as well as parts of the horses,
and the arm of one of the attendant figures. The statue was made by the lost-wax
method and was cast in several sections: arms, lower legs with feet, skirt, upper body,
head and neck, upper part of head above fillet, ends of fillet, and curls. The fully
preserved eyes are inlaid with white paste; irises are brown and pupils in black onyx.
The eyes are rimmed by bronze lashes. The charioteer wears a long chiton which falls in
regular folds held by diagonal straps that are drawn tightly under the arms and then by
the belt around the waist. The pose is quiet, perhaps representing the moment when the
charioteer has pulled his horses to a stop.
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Second Half of Fifth Century B.C., Introduction
In the second half of the century, or more specifically in the period of Periklean
supremacy (460-429), a very strong and potent style developed. In this High Classical
style, which had its roots in much of the sculpture of the earlier part of the century, the
human form was idealized. Individual traits were suppressed, as were extremes of
youth and old age; almost the only subjects were perfect men and women in their
prime. A certain homogeneity was achieved; it has been said that all High Classical
statues look alike, with their straight noses, down-turned mouths, vacant stares, and
simplified musculature. This powerful style has been seen as the creation of Perikles'
circle, especially of his chief artist, Phidias... (Biers, p. 196)
Doryphoros, by Polykleitos, ca. 450-440 B.C.
Polykleitos was a Peloponnesian sculptor who was known for his idealized
humans. The most famous of his works, the Doryphoros or Spear Bearer, known from a
number of copies, was highly praised in antiquity and has exercised great influence
ever since. The figure is shown striding forward, holding a spear, now missing, over his
shoulder. The original, doubtless made of bronze, would have had no need for the
supporting tree trunk that has necessarily been included in the marble copy. The closeknit musculature, with the major divisions of the body clearly marked, and the
idealized head with close-cropped hair are typical, as is the stance. The man rests his
weight on his right leg while the left is pulled back and to one side, with the foot resting
lightly on its toes. This suggestion of shifted weight is reflected in the makeup of the
whole, in which a rhythm of tension and relaxation is achieved. Thus the right arm
hangs straight and free while the opposite left leg is bent without tension. The left arm
and the right leg similarly oppose each other. The head is inclined slightly toward the
engaged leg. The whole composition produces a freedom and sense of movement not
achieved before. The stance is often described by the Italian word contrapposto
(counterpoise) and is from this time on a constantly recurring pose in art. (Biers, pp.
222-23)
The Doryphoros is said to embody "the canon of Polykleitos," the sculptor's ideal
of human proportions, and attempts to explain this canon by observations and theories
have been a favorite pursuit of scholars. The lack of any originals and the ambiguous
nature of the literary evidence have made the problem fiendishly complicated. Most
scholars feel that the canon rests on mathematical or geometrical relationships of
proportions. Others, noting the lack of success in deriving any system from a study of
various copies, have suggested that the sculptor wilfully deviated from an ideally
proportioned body in order to give the figure the illusion of life; the parts of the human
body, after all, bear no precise mathematical relationship to each other. (Biers, p. 224)
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Sculptures from the Parthenon
The sculptures of the Parthenon hold the same high place as representatives of
their age as do the sculptures of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. The great building...not
only had sculptures in all the metopes and both pediments but also had a sculptured
frieze on the outside of the cella wall within the colonnade. This frieze, almost 160
meters long, ran all the way around the building at the top of the wall. Phidias was in
overall charge of the Periklean program on the Acropolis and of course made the cult
statue for the building. Although his hand cannot be detected among the surviving
sculptures, the elaborate and carefully planned program of decoration needed a single
author, and one is probably right in seeing the sculptor's influence throughout. (Biers, p.
225)
Metope: Centaur and Lapith, ca. 447-443 B.C.
Most of the Parthenon's metopes have been destroyed; those that have survived
are mainly from a series depicting Lapiths and centaurs in battle. [The museum's
metope] shows a successful composition and an advanced treatment of anatomy. The
Lapith has seized the centaur with his left hand, and with feet braced and breath sucked
in stretches his right arm back to deliver the final blow. The Lapith's cloak, draped from
both arms, hangs behind him, forming a background originally painted blue, against
which the body stood out. The cloak serves as a device to emphasize the thrusting
bodies and provide unity and balance for the diverging movements. The audacity of the
composition and the powerful treatment of the bodies make one easily overlook the fact
that the centaur's tail merges with one of the folds of the cloak. (Biers, p. 226)
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Sculptures from the Parthenon
Frieze: Rider, Marshall, and Ritual Handing Over of the Peplos, ca. 442-438 B.C.
Probably the most original and debated portion of the Parthenon's sculptural
decoration is the frieze. Beginning at the west end, a procession moves along both the
north and south sides of the building to the east front, where a ritual appears to be
taking place. Most scholars agree that the procession on the frieze relates to the
Panathenaic procession, the most important ceremony of Athens, in which a new peplos
was solemnly carried up to the Acropolis in Periklean times to drape the old olivewood statue of Athena in a building on a site later occupied by the Erechtheion.
Whether the procession that is shown on the Parthenon frieze represents a specific
occasion or is intended to be a general, idealized representation of all such processions,
the people taking part in it are unmistakably citizens of Athens. The representation of
human activity, no matter how solemn and idealized, on a religious building instead of
a mythological scene is unparalleled in Greek art up to this time, and must surely reflect
the attitude of Perikles and his circle; no doubt it was seen as arrogance and sacrilege by
many others. (Biers, p. 226)
The problem of interpretation is most acute on the east frieze, where two figures,
a larger and a smaller, handle what appears to be a large square of cloth. The cloth is
usually taken to be Athena's peplos, but whether it is the new one brought by the
procession or the old one and just what is happening to it are debatable....seated
Olympian gods are shown flanking the central scene, as if waiting for the procession to
arrive. The gods are evenly arranged on either side of the peplos scene, but with their
backs turned to it. They appear to be talking to one another...Granted that the gods may
be understood to be gathered somewhere removed from the principal scene, their large
size and placement still seem peculiar; one expects something better in view of the
masterful handling of the procession. The very placement of the Greek gods in the same
scene with the people of Athens may have been considered enough of a departure from
tradition, and conservatism, or perhaps political considerations, may have dictated the
obvious attempt to separate god and mortal while still indicating a special relationship.
(Biers, p. 227)
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Sculptures from the Parthenon
East Pediment, Two Goddesses, ca. 437-432 B.C.
The pediments, the last of the sculptural decoration to be completed,...have
unfortunately survived in extremely fragmentary condition...The subject [of the east
pediment] is the birth of Athena, but without the central sculpture we cannot be certain
how it was shown...Heaviness and opulence can be seen in the seated and reclining
figures [the two figures in the cast collection]...the heavy forms are scarcely obscured by
the elegant drapery, which is molded around them. The sculptor has finally learned to
dig deeply into the marble, and the resulting heavy folds and play of shadow suggest
volume and modelling. The folds are still consciously arranged for decorative effect and
the garments retain their own character, though they have become more transparent.
The pediment figures are worked fully in the round, with a wealth of detail that could
never have been seen from the ground. The overall carving is incredibly high, in fitting
with the overall conception of the building. (Biers, p. 234)
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Fifth Century, 425-400 B.C.
The last quarter of the century saw a loosening of the Phidian style in the
direction of elaboration and sophistication of treatment of details, especially drapery.
This change can be clearly seen in the sculptures of the Nike Parapet... (Biers, p. 196)
Nike, Temple of Athena Nike, ca. 410-400 B.C.
The representation of clinging transparent drapery, the so-called wet-drapery
style, was current at the end of the fifth century, and its most famous examples are
found in Athens, on a parapet that surrounded the little Ionic temple of Athena Nike
erected on the Acropolis in the last decade of the century. The relief depicts Victories
(Nikai) erecting trophies or bringing sacrificial animals to Athena, and their elaborate
draperies appear to have been the artist's main interest. When the fabric is pressed close
to the body, its transparency is emphasized by shallow ridges; elsewhere it is deeply
drilled to produce billowing folds independent of the anatomy beneath it. The emphasis
on beautiful decoration is a departure from the style of the Parthenon sculptures, which
show neither highly transparent draperies nor elegance and mannered gracefulness.
(Biers, p. 236)
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Fourth Century B.C., Introduction
In one way the sculpture of the fourth century was a logical extension of that of
the fifth: stylistically, many of its characteristics were direct continuations of previous
practice. A change is noted in the treatment of subjects, however: sculptors moved away
from the uniformity of High Classical art to depict emotional states...The names of a
number of fourth-century sculptors have come down to us from comments in the works
of ancient authors and from inscribed statue bases. Three represent distinct styles:
Praxiteles, Skopas, and Lysippos. (Biers, pp. 263, 264)
Hermes and Dionysos, by Praxiteles, ca. 350-330 B.C.
Praxiteles (the "sculptor of grace"), whose career is usually given as stretching
from about 370 to about 330, was one of the most famous Greek sculptors... (Biers, p.
264)
A statue of Hermes carrying the baby Dionysos was found in the Temple of Hera
at Olympia by German excavators in A.D. 1877. The statue was immediately connected
to Pausanias' statement that a marble statue of Hermes and Dionysos by Praxiteles was
in the temple when he visited it. Subsequent technical studies, however, have thrown
doubt on it as a work of the master, and most scholars no longer believe it to be an
original. Several suggestions have been offered: that it is a copy of a fourth-century
original made at a later date, or an original by another sculptor, or an original work by
Praxiteles that was altered and reworked in Roman times. Whatever the answer, the
statue is an outstanding work of sculpture that awakens in the viewer a strong
subjective reaction that can easily cloud judgment of its intrinsic merits. Although the
right arm, the left leg below the knee, and the right leg between knee and ankle are
missing (the legs have been restored), the statue is well preserved, especially the head.
The god is shown leaning on a tree trunk over which he has slung his cloak, holding the
baby Dionysos in the crook of his left arm, which is supported by the tree trunk. His
right arm is extended; he probably held a bunch of grapes, for which the baby wine god
stretches out his chubby hand. [The museum's cast restores the right arm and the bunch
of grapes.] The figure, with the flexed left leg and outthrust right hip, describes an Scurve, the so-called Praxitelean curve. Hermes' musculature is very softly treated: the
various muscles and parts of the body flow into one another with few distinct divisions.
A comparison with the sharply defined musculature of the Doryphoros reveals a strong
contrast in treatment. The softness is apparent in the head, whose features appear to be
almost veiled. The god stares out into space with a dreamy expression, not looking at
the child. The hair which is worked in tufts, contrasts with the heavy brow, straight
nose, and thick lips, but the contrast is not at all jarring. (Biers, p. 265)
In the Hermes of Praxiteles the gods have shed their Olympian grandeur and
become soft and languid human beings. This almost effeminate figure is clearly far
different from the gods of earlier Greek art. (Biers, p. 265)
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Head, Temple of Athena Alea, Tegea, perhaps by Skopas, ca. 350 B.C.
A contemporary of Praxiteles was Skopas of Paros, whose style is marked by
contorted poses and strong emotions. Apart from a few literary references that seem to
indicate these elements of style among others in his repertoire, we are dependent on a
rather thin thread of reasoning in assembling possible examples of his work...Skopas is
known to have been the architect of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea. In the course of
excavations, fragments of the pedimental sculpture were found, including a few
extremely battered heads that show traces of a sturdy individual style that seems to fit
the artist. One head [the museum's cast] exhibits a sharply turned square shape and
distinctive deep-set eyes...If we may judge from what little is known of Skopas' style, he
seems to owe something to the Polykleitan tradition while also introducing active,
twisted poses and representations of emotion. (Biers, pp. 267-68)
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Apoxyomenos, by Lysippos, ca. 340-325 B.C.
The third great sculptor of the fourth century was Lysippos, a native of Sicyon in
the Peloponnesos. He seems to have been working before the middle of the century, but
the greater part of his career falls within the second half of the century. Alexander, who
was born in 355, was one of his subjects while he was still a child, and in later years he
appointed the artist court sculptor. (Biers, p. 268)
An extremely prolific sculptor, said to have produced 1,500 works, Lysippos
belongs more to the coming Hellenistic period than to the Classical past. He was the
first to introduce three-dimensionality to sculpture, with open forms that can be viewed
from more than one vantage point. One of his greatest innovations was his departure
from the Polykleitan canon of proportions. Unfortunately our knowledge of his works
must depend on Roman copies that do not reproduce one of the qualities that made him
famous--his treatment of surface and details. (Biers, pp. 268-69)
One of Lysippos' most famous works was a bronze Apoxyomenos, or Young
Man Scraping Himself, which was especially prized by the Roman emperor Tiberius. A
marble copy of it exists in the Vatican. A comparison of this statue with the Doryphoros
clearly shows the change in proportions. Lysippos' youth appears taller and thinner,
with a smaller head and longer legs than we find in the solid and close-knit
Doryphoros. The young man is an athlete in the act of scraping oil and dust from his
right arm with a metal instrument called a strigil which is missing from the copy. His
pose recalls the Polykleitan stance, but there is no alteration of tense and relaxed
muscles in the body. The body is caught at the moment of overall action. The right arm
is thrust out into space while the left crosses in front of the chest, thus partially
obscuring it. This breaking of the frontal plane by the outthrust right arm is an
important departure that foreshadows the more completely three-dimensional works of
the Hellenistic period. Lysippos is quoted as saying that he portrayed men as they
appeared to the eye, and the momentary quality of the Apoxyomenos shows this drive
for naturalism. (Biers, p. 269)
Alexander: the Azara Bust, perhaps by Lysippos, ca. 330-323 B.C.
Portraits of Alexander exist in such profusion that it is difficult to identify one
that might be attributed to Lysippos. Features said to be typical of Lysippos' portraits, a
turning of the head and distinctive hair, are to be seen in a bust inscribed with the king's
name. It dates from Roman imperial times and is poorly preserved, but it may have
been modeled on one of Lysippos' works. The reflection of personality in portrait was
more fully developed in the Hellenistic period than in earlier years, but Lysippos may
well have been an innovator in this area as well. (Biers, p. 269)
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Hellenistic Period, Introduction
Sculpture in the Hellenistic age presents a wealth of examples and an abundance
of problems. The new cities demanded sculpture in great quantities and of many kinds,
giving unprecedented opportunities to working artists. Many of their works have been
preserved, and more are known from Roman copies...One characteristic that runs
through the works of the period, continuing from the fourth century, is the realistic
reproduction of nature. The interest in realism can be seen in uncompromising fidelity
to natural models in dramatic, emotional works. (Biers, p. 295)
Zeus Battling the Giants, Altar of Zeus and Athena, Pergamon, ca. 180 B.C.
The greatest monument of the Hellenistic age is the Pergamon Altar erected
about 180 as a memorial to the victories of Attalos I (241-197) and dedicated to Zeus and
Athena. The high platform to hold the altar was erected on a terrace of the acropolis. A
giant central staircase, 20 meters wide, was framed on three sides by a podium bearing
an Ionic colonnade. The podium was decorated with a great sculptured frieze some 2.3
meters high depicting the battle of gods and giants. The theme, an old one that had
appeared in the sixth century on the frieze of the Siphnian Treasury of Delphi, was
appropriate for a war memorial and also suggested a parallel between the triumph of
the gods and the victories of the Greeks--both the defeat of the Persians by the
Athenians and the defeat of the Gauls by the Pergamenes, who viewed themselves as
the champions of Hellenism. Fully seventy-five gods and their adversaries are shown in
the frieze...The giants are shown mainly in human form, but often winged or with
snakes for legs. (Biers, p. 299)
[The slab in the museum's cast collection shows Zeus fighting with three giants,
one collapsing with a thunderbolt through his thigh. On the altar Athena is grouped
with him, both figures in strong diagonal poses. Their movements]...clearly were
inspired by the pediment sculpture of the Parthenon, and it is thought that the Athena
probably resembled the lost Athena from the east pediment. Similar visual references to
earlier works are to be found throughout the frieze. (Biers, p. 299)
As can be seen...the old rules no longer apply in this new world. The large
figures use up all available space and on the side adjacent to the steps actually writhe
out of the frieze, putting an arm or a leg on the staircase. All is action, with a multitude
of details and dramatic incidents. The deep-set eyes and agonized expressions on the
giants' faces show depths of emotion not seen before, and perhaps just bordering on
exaggeration. The massive anatomy of the Zeus is typical of this style; muscles and
veins stand out as if pumped up with air. (Biers, p. 299)
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Nike of Samothrace, ca. 200 B.C.
The Nike or Victory of Samothrace in the Louvre is one of the most famous
statues of antiquity. Originally part of a dramatic composition that included a reflecting
pool and the prow of a ship, on which Victory was alighting, she was erected to
celebrate a naval victory; exactly which one is debated. Excavation evidence has
provided a date around 200 for the erection of the base, and it is generally agreed that
the work was made by a Rhodian sculptor. The large figure (2.45 meters high) is shown
sweeping through the air with her drapery blown back against her body, imparting a
strong sense of motion. The treatment of the folds is reminiscent of some of the figures
on the Pergamene frieze, on which we know Rhodian sculptors were engaged. This
mighty Victory indicates that the Hellenistic age could render traditional subjects in
original ways. (Biers, p. 307)
Aphrodite of Melos (Venus de Milo), ca. 150-100 B.C.
The Aphrodite of Melos was found on that island in A.D. 1820 and is accepted
today as the personification of feminine beauty, at least for the ancient world. The
larger-than-life-sized figure (2.04 meters in height) probably leaned on a pillar
originally, a presumption that would account for the almost Praxitelean S-curve of the
heavy torso. The drapery wound around the hips appears unstable, and there is a
marked discrepancy between the fleshy, matronly body and the head, which is coldly
classical. These features have been cleverly joined together, however, and the curved
leaning pose imparts a freshness to the figure that perhaps accounts for its fame. But it
must be recognized that the figure incorporates a number of features derived from
various periods. (Biers, p. 307)
Homer, ca. 150 B.C.
The realism of the late Hellenistic period is well expressed by this powerful
portrait of the poet Homer. This Roman copy is one of more than twenty that have
survived from antiquity, all based on a Greek original of ca. 150 B.C. The Greek portrait,
an imaginary one of the poet who may have lived in the 8th century B.C., is a
masterpiece of carving that expresses the unknown sculptor's concept of the poet. Often
called the blind Homer, the portrait reveals an individual whose mind is turned inward
to his own visionary world. The deep carving of the features of the face produces a
wonderful play of shadows that enhances the sculptor's concept.
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Laokoon and his Sons, by Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athanadoros, late 1st c. B.C. to
early 1st c. A.D.
The great group known as the Laokoon, found in Rome in A.D. 1506 with
Michelangelo in attendance, has had great influence on Western art. Although it has
seemed at first glance to be the group mentioned by an ancient source as made by three
Rhodian artists, Hagesandros, Athanadoros, and Polydoros, modern scholars have
moved its date up and down from the second century B.C. to the first century of the
Christian era, and have even moved the elements of the composition about. Most
recently they have settled for a date late in the first century B.C. or early in the first
century A.D...Fully 1.84 meters in height, the work depicts the death of the Trojan priest
Laocoon and one of his sons as a result of his advice to the Trojans not to bring the
Trojan Horse within the walls of their city. Laocoon and his two sons were attacked by
giant snakes, and their struggles are graphically presented. Laocoon struggles against
the enveloping coils, reacting to a savage bite with a distorted despairing face. The
heavy musculature and distorted features remind one of the Pergamon frieze...To his
right, Laocoon's younger son already collapses in death while to his left the older is
extricating himself from the coils but looks back in horror at the other two. The
composition can be easily taken in from a frontal vantage point, a characteristic of late
groups, and can be interpreted as presenting a series of contrasts: man versus beast,
maturity versus youth, life versus death. (Biers, pp. 313-14)
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Greek Architectural Orders
The Doric and Ionic orders are the two major styles of Greek architecture. Both
rely on a post-and-lintel system, but the Doric style is the plainer of the two. Its
principal characteristics are a simple column shaft with twenty flutes and sharp
divisions between (arrises), a capital with cushion-like lower part (the echinus) topped
by a block-shaped slab (the abacus), and a triglyph-and-metope frieze above.
The Ionic order is lighter and more slender than the Doric and more highly
decorative. The Ionic column rests on an elaborately carved base. More slender that the
Doric column, it has twenty-four flutes separated by flattened arrises rather than the
sharp ones of the Doric order. The capital consists of two volutes with an ornamental
area between. The frieze is continuous and either carved in relief or plain.
The Corinthian order developed in the later years of the 5th century B.C. This
order is a variant of the Ionic, differing from it mainly in its capital which is bell-shaped
and decorated with spirals and carved leaves of acanthus, a plant with prickly leaves
native to the Mediterranean area.
The orders thus contain standard parts that relate to one another in a
circumscribed system. Rules of proportion were formulated so that the appropriate size
for each element could be derived from a dimension already decided.
Rome's conquest of the Greek world in the second and first centuries B.C. opened
Roman culture to Hellenic influences. The Greek architectural Orders were adopted,
especially Corinthian, but functioned mainly as decorative elements. The use of
concrete for walls and vaults freed Roman architects from the post-and-lintel
construction employed by the Greeks, although Roman temples were often built in the
traditional way.
The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, 447-438 B.C.
The Parthenon, the most famous example of Doric architecture, is justly regarded
as the high point of the style. Constructed of Pentelic marble, it was built to house the
gold-and-ivory statue of the Athena Parthenos made by Phidias. Sculptured pediments
and metopes decorated the exterior, and a continuous frieze adorned the outside of the
cella wall.
Temple of Athena Nike, Athens, Greece, ca. 427 B.C.
Built entirely of white marble, the little Ionic temple of Athena Nike on the
Acropolis was richly decorated with sculpture. The frieze reliefs have survived as have
the relief slabs from a parapet surrounding part of the building.
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Lysikrates Monument, Athens, Greece, ca. 334 B.C.
The Lysikrates Monument, so-called because it was commissioned by Lysikrates,
was built to commemorate a victory won by a theater chorus in 334 B.C. A bronze
tripod, the triple-footed cauldron awarded as the prize in the contest, stood on the top.
The circular monument is the earliest surviving example of the use of the Corinthian
order on the exterior of a building.
Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens, Greece, 2nd c. B.C. and early 2nd c. A.D.
This temple is notable for its Corinthian capitals. They may have had a strong
effect on the Roman Corinthian order, for after the sack of Athens in 86 B.C. by the
Roman general Sulla, some of the capitals were taken to Rome. In these capitals the bell
is almost covered by acanthus leaves. Unfinished in the 2nd c. B.C., the building was
finally completed under the Roman emperor Hadrian.
Captions
Plaster Models
The Parthenon: Column, Capital and Part of the Entablature from a corner
Capital from the Lysikrates Monument
Temple of Athena Nike: Column, Capital, and Entablature from a Corner.
Photographs
The East Facade of the Parthenon today
Temple of Olympian Zeus
Corinthian Capital from the Temple of Olympian Zeus
Lysikrates Monument
The East Facade of the Temple of Athena Nike today
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