3
Andragogy
Effective learning for adults’
educational development
Hello, how are you?
We, from AFFERO LAB are moved daily
by the challenge of providing an efficient
and innovative adult learning. Our
experience in corporate education shows
us that the principles of Andragogy are
extremely effective, so it has been a
great driver on how we think and do
our work.
This is the reason why we publish
for the first time in Brazil, the classic
work Andragogy: Learning Outcomes,
by Malcolm Knowles*. In this third
pocketbook from our collection, we bring
you the summarized version of the main
concepts covered in the book, simply
and directly.
This is information that helps you
understand how and why adults should
be jointly responsible for their learning
process. Moreover, this reading
will provide new perspectives for
the education process within the
companies.
Enjoy yourself!
Adult
learning
Although, for centuries, adult
education was an important
issue, a few researches have been
conducted in the area until
recently. This is a
curious fact, since
adult education has
been a concern to
humanity for a long
time.
This is surprising
considering that all
the great masters
of ancient times –
Confucius and Lao Tzu
in China; the Hebrew
prophets and Jesus in biblical times;
Aristotle, Socrates and Plato in
ancient Greece; Cicero, Quintilian
and Evelidio in ancient Rome - were
teachers of adults, not children.
The experiences of these masters
were held with adults, therefore they
developed a very different concept
about the teaching/learning process,
than the one that would end up
dominating the formal education.
These outstanding masters believed
that learning was a process of mental
research, not the passive reception
of transmitted content. By this
criterion, they developed techniques
to get learners involved with the
intellectual research.
Ancient Chinese and Hebrews had
created the so-called case study, in
which the apprentice or a member
of the group describes a situation,
usually in a form of parable, and with
the group explores its characteristics
and possible solutions.
Greeks had created the Socratic
dialogue, in which the leader or a
member of the group proposes a
question or dilemma and the group
members gather their ideas and
experience in search of an answer
or solution. Apprentices were
more confronted by the Romans:
challenges were imposed to them in
order to declare their position and
then defend it.
In Europe, during the 7th century,
schools were organized for the
education of children, primarily
to prepare young boys for the
priesthood. For this reason, they
came to be known as cathedrals
and monastic schools. As the main
task of these teachers were preach
students about belief, faith and
rituals of the church, they developed
a set of assumptions about learning
and teaching strategies that led to
formal education.
This model of education had
persisted until the 20th century.
Shortly after the end of the First
World War, began to emerge, both
in the U.S. and in Europe, a growing
body of ideas about the distinctive
characteristics of adult learners.
However, it was only in recent
decades that these ideas evolved
and formed an integrated model of
adult learning.
The Andragogy
THEORY
In the 20th century, ideas about
some particular characteristics
of adult learners began to be
systematized by scholars. Besides
the pioneers, Edward Thorndike and
Eduard Lindeman, other renowned
psychologists such as Freud, Jung,
Erikson, Maslow and Rogers made
important contributions to adult
learning study. Freud pointed out
the influence of the unconscious
on behavior; Jung introduced the
idea that human consciousness
has four functions: sensation,
thought, emotion and intuition;
Erikson contributed to “the eight
ages of man”; Maslow stressed the
importance of security; and Rogers
conceptualized the approach of
learner-centered education based on
five “basic assumptions”.
In the study of adult learning, there
were two distinct streams of research:
the scientific and the artistic.
The scientific research, initiated by
Thorndike in the publication of his
Adult Learning in 1928, seeks to
discover new knowledge through
rigorous research. His studies
showed that adults could actually
learn, which was important because
it provided a scientific basis for a
field that was previously based only
on pure belief that adults could learn.
The artistic movement however,
founded by Lindeman in The
Meaning of Adult Education
(1926), uses the experience of
intuition and analysis to discover
new information.
Lindeman was concerned with how
adults learn. He created a foundation
for a systematic theory of adult
education and identified the basic
assumptions about adult learners.
For Lindeman, “one of the main
distinctions between formal and
adult education is found in the
learning process itself. In a class
of adults, the experience of the
student counts as much as the
teacher’s knowledge. Both are
interchangeable. In some of the
best classes of adult students, it
is sometimes hard to tell who is
learning more, the teacher or the
students. This two-way learning is
also reflected in shared authority.
In formal education, the students
adapt to the curriculum offered,
but in adult education students
help to prepare the curriculum
and schedules. Under democratic
conditions, authority belongs to
the group”.
Based on his
investigations, Lindeman
identified several basic
assumptions about adult
learners:
“
Adult learning is a process by
which the adult becomes aware
of his experience and evaluates
it. To do this he/she can not start
studying “subjects” hoping that
some day this information will be
useful. Instead, he starts paying
attention to situations where he/
she is, and to the problems that
represent obstacles to his/her
self accomplishment. Facts and
information from various spheres
of knowledge are used, not for
purposes of accumulation, but for
the need to solve problems.
”
Eduard Lindeman
1926
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Adults are motivated to learn
as they experience needs
and interests which learning
will satisfy; so these are the
appropriate starting points
for organizing adult learning
activities.
The orientation of adult
learning is focused on life;
so the appropriate units for
organizing adult learning are
life situations, not subjects.
Experience is the richest
resource for adult learning;
so the core methodology
of adult education is the
experiments analysis.
Adults have a strong need
for self-direction; so the
teacher’s role is to engage in
a process of mutual inquiry
with them rather than convey
his knowledge to them and,
after this, to evaluate their
degree of conformity with
what has been transmitted.
Individual differences among
people increase with age, so,
the adult education should
foresee style differences
in time, place and pace of
learning.
Adults learn best
when their needs
and interests,
life situations,
experiences,
self-concepts
and individual
differences are
taken into account.
what ?
andra-
Psychologically, adults are
responsible for their own life.
Playing adult roles, people take
more responsibilities for their own
decisions. In relation to learning,
this is crucial.
with real life situations;
• Adults are life centered in
their orientation to learning;
• Adults are more responsive to
internal motivators than the
outside ones.
Therefore, in the Andragogical
model, the adult learning is based
on the following principles:
• Adults need to know why they
need to learn something;
• Adults are responsible for
their own decisions and for
their own life;
• Adults start the educational
activity with greater volume
and variety of experiences
than children;
• Adults are prompt to learn things
they need to know to better deal
Malcolm Knowles,
author of Learning
Results, classic on
Andragogy, organized
his ideas around the
notion that adults
learn best in informal,
comfortable, flexible
and without threats
environments.
the six principles of
Andragogy
The Andragogical model is based on the following assumptions:
1
A Need
to know
Why are you teaching me
this?
Adults need to know why they
need to learn something before
starting to learn it. So, the first
facilitator/teacher assignment
is to help learners become
aware of the “need to know.”
Some tools to increase the level
of awareness or the need to
know are the real or simulated
experiences in which learners
discover for themselves their
gaps*. Personnel evaluation
systems, job rotation, contact
with models and performance
assessments are examples of
these tools.
* Gap is a term that means the space between
what is expected of someone professionally,
and the points to be developed.
Why
What
How
2
The learner
self-concept
How can I be independent
and student?
Adults have a self-concept of
being responsible for their own
decisions, for their own lives.
Thus, they develop a deep
psychological need to be seen
and treated by others as capable
of self-direction. They resent
and resist situations where they
perceive that others are imposing
their wills on them.
This brings a serious problem for
adult education because when
he/she participates in some
educational or training activity, he/
she regresses to the condition of
their previous school experiences,
behaving as simple subordinates,
crossing his/her arms, leaning
back in his/her chair and saying
“teach me”.
This assumption of the need for
dependence, coupled with the
treatment of adults as children
by the facilitator/teacher, creates
a conflict within the adult in
his/her belief that the learner
is a dependent being and his
psychological need for self-direction.
Autonomous
Self-directed
3
The role of learner’s
Experiences
My experiences are the
foundation of my learning
Adults engage themselves in
an educational activity with a
greater volume of different quality
experiences in relation to younger
people. Simply because they
lived longer, they accumulated
more experience, which has
consequences for adult education.
If we understand that any group
of adults has a greater range
of individual differences, being
more heterogeneous in terms of
training, learning style, motivation,
needs, interests and goals than a
group of young people, we know
that the richest resources for each
learning type are, in fact, in the
adult learner.
Thus, techniques that utilize
the experience of adult learners
- such as group discussions,
simulation exercises, problemsolving activities, case studies
and laboratory methods - will
be more effective than the
transmission techniques.
On the other hand,
the negative effects
of this accumulation
of experiences may
be a tendency to
develop mental
habits, prejudices and
presuppositions that
tend to close the mind
to new ideas, insights
and alternative ideas.
Resources
Mental
models
4
Readiness
to learn
Which problem will I solve with
this you want me to learn?
Adults are predisposed to learn
what they should and need
to know to become able to
cope with real life situations.
Particularly rich sources of
“readiness to learn” are the tasks
associated with the passage from
one stage of development to the
next. So, learning experiences
must be synchronized with those
developmental tasks. Thus,
when the occasion requires
some type of learning related
to what should be executed,
the adult acquires a readiness
to learn. Moreover, readiness
can be induced by exposure to
simulation exercises and other
techniques.
Related to life
Developmental
tasks
5
Learning
orientation
Am I learning subjects or
gaining tools?
Compared to the learning
orientation of children and young
people, focussed on the theme
(at least in elementary and high
school), adults are life centered (or
task/problem centered) about their
learning orientation. Adults are
motivated to learn as they perceive
that learning will help them perform
tasks or deal with problems they
experience in their life.
Moreover, they assimilate new
knowledge, perceptions, skills,
values and attitudes most
effectively when they are
presented to application contexts
to real life situations.
Focused on
the problem
Contextual
6
Motivation
So what if it will be on the
test...
Adults respond to external
motivational factors (better jobs,
promotions, and higher salaries),
however the most powerful
motivational factors are internal
pressures (the desire for greater
job satisfaction, self-esteem,
quality of life). Researches
have found that normal adults
are motivated to continue to
grow and improve themselves.
However, this motivation can
be blocked by barriers such as
negative self-concept as a student,
lack of access to opportunities or
resources, time constraints and
programs that violate principles of
adult learning.
Intrinsic value
Personal
Reward
When
to apply the
andragogical
approach
In corporate education, we must consider
when Andragogy might be applied,
depending on circumstances
The idea that Andragogy is
applicable only in adults may limit
the learning process, depending on
circumstances.
Children and young people, in
several situations, can learn
better when some features of the
Andragogical model are applied.
Similarly, several coaches and
teachers of adults have described
situations in which the Andragogical
model did not achieve any results.
In practice this means that Human
Resources professionals responsible
for people development and
educators have a responsibility
to check what is applicable in
every situation.
When formal education is appropriate
for a particular learner, in relation to
a specific learning objective, so, this
strategy will be adequate, at least as
a starting point.
Examples:
The conventional
teacher insists that
learners remain
dependent on
the teacher.
• When learners are actually
dependent - when they come
into in an unknown area of
knowledge, without any
previous experience;
• When they do not understand
the relevance of some area
of study for their life tasks
and problems;
• When they need to
accumulate certain amount
of specialized knowledge to
achieve a required performance;
• When they do not feel the
inner need to learn the content.
Formal
Education
Content
Education
Knowledge
X
The Andragogy
help learners to
assume increasing
responsibility
for their own
learning.
X
When the andragogical approach
is desirable, learners must be
stimulated to get involved in the
learning process.
Some of the ways to do this are:
• Create an atmosphere in which
learners feel more respected,
trustworthy, free from threats
and care;
• Expose them the need to know
before you instruct them;
• Giving them some responsibility
in choosing methods and;
Andragogy
Methodology
Learning
Growth
• Involve them with the
responsibility to assess
their learning.
Andragogy
In Practice
andragogy
differences
basic principles
of adult learning
goals
among
individuals
and
situations
and purposes for
learning
Andragogy in practice has
three dimensions that interact,
allowing a more comprehensive
understanding of the situations for
adult learning.
The three dimensions of
Andragogy in practice are:
1. Andragogy, basic principles
of adult learning; 2. Goals
and purposes for learning; 3.
Differences among individuals
and situations.
The approach of Andragogy in
practice recognizes the lack of
homogeneity between learners
and learning situations, illustrating
that the process of learning
is a multifaceted activity. For
this reason, educators and
Human Resources professionals
responsible for people development
should incorporate analysis of
context when they are developing
programs for adult education.
Goals and purposes for
learning
The goals and purposes for
learning are described as
development results. These
objectives are used to shape and
mold the learning experience.
The goals and purposes for adult
learning can fit into three general
categories: individual, institutional
or social.
Individual
Traditional view of adult learning
focuses exclusively on individual
growth. At first glance, the
Andragogy seems to fit better
with the individual goals of
development due to the focus on
the learner. Thus, the approach to
individual development programs
for adult learning fits perfectly in
the workplace.
Institutional
Adult learning is equally powerful
in the development of better
institutions and better individuals.
The area of Human Resources
Development, for instance, considers
the organizational performance
one of its core objectives. The
Andragogical structure in the
HR area is well suited to adult
learning, since the subject
adjustments have been made in
accordance with the objectives.
Social
Goals and social purposes may
be associated with the learning
experience of adults as a social
transformation, in which education is
a process of creative consciousness.
In this sense, the goal of education
is to assist participants to put
knowledge into practice as the
result of education for social
transformation. The objectives and
purposes contained in this learning
environment are guided to both
social and individual improvement.
Again, these processes fit into the
Andragogical structure, although
doing so with some adjustments.
The dimensions of Andragogy in
practice show that learning occurs
for various reasons, have results
that go beyond the individual and
is supported by or is embedded in
organizational or social contexts.
Therefore, it is important that the
goals and objectives are reviewed
together with the principles of
Andragogy, considering how they
adapt to each situation.
Differences between
individuals and situations
Differences between individuals and
situations are variables that impact
on adult learning and act as filters
that shape the Andragogy practice.
These variables are grouped into
categories of Issue differences,
situational differences and individual
learner differences.
Issue Differences
Different issues may require different
learning strategies. For example,
people are less likely to learn on
their own issues of great technical
complexity. Similarly, introduction of
an unknown subject to the learner
requires a different strategy of
teaching and learning. Basically, not
all subjects can be taught or learned
at the same way.
Situational differences
Different situations may dictate
different strategies of teaching and
learning. For instance, learners in
distant places may be forced to be
more, or perhaps less, self-directed.
Also, learning in large groups can
mean that learning activities are less
tailored to specific life circumstances.
Summing up, specific social, cultural
and situational differences can
modify the learning.
Individual differences
The many differences between
individuals affect the learning
process, so there is no reason to
expect that all adults behave in
the same way. To understand that
individuals vary in approaches,
strategies and preferences for their
learning activities help to shape and
adapt the Andragogical approach to
fit it into the singularity of learners.
Somehow, simply being sensitive to
these differences should significantly
improve learning.
This understanding of individual
differences helps Andragogy to
be more efficient in practice, to
customize learning experiences of
adults in several ways:
• To customize how the principles
can be applied so as to adapt
them to cognitive abilities and
preferences, styles of adult
learners;
• To know which are the more
evident principles for a specific
learners’ group;
• To expand the goals of learning
experiences to improve an ability
for future learning.
The flexible
approach of
Andragogy
explains why it is
applied in many
different ways.
Andragogy
applied in development
programs
Elements of the
Andragogy Process
A great part of corporate learning
actions uses the conventional
approach, based on the classical
pedagogical principles, which
prioritizes the choice of
content and format of one-way
transmission of knowledge.
However, we must consider that
experience is the richest source for
adult learning. Adults are motivated
to learn as they experience needs
and interests that learning will satisfy
in their lives.
Therefore, those responsible for
development programs should
be aware of that and create
Andragogical learning experiences, in
which the responsibility for learning
is shared with those who participate,
to ensure greater relevance of
content to the participants and a
higher level of effectiveness of
the program.
1
Prepare apprentices/
learners
2
Atmosphere
3
Planning
4
Diagnostic
of needs
5
Goals definition
6
Learning
plans design
7
Learning
activities
8
Evaluation
Below is the comparison between the approaches and
Andragogical procedures that help to involve learners:
Minimum.
Oriented to authority.
Formal.
Competitive.
X
Andragogical
approach
Provide information.
Preparing for the participation.
Help to develop realistic expectations.
Start thinking about content.
Calm, confident.
Mutual respect.
Informal, warm.
Collaborative, supportive.
Openness and authenticity.
Humanity.
By teacher
Mutual planning mechanism by learners
and facilitator.
By teacher.
Through mutual evaluation
By teacher.
Through negotiation.
Coherence of the subject .
Content units.
Transmission techniques.
By teacher.
Sequenced according to the readiness
Problems units.
Experiential techniques (research)).
New mutual needs diagnostic.
Mutual program measurement.
Source: “Aprendizagem de Resultados”, tabela 6-1, pág. 122.
Conventional
approach
“
We perceive
the Andragogy
as an enduring
model for
understanding
certain aspects
of adult learning.
It does not give
the complete
picture, nor is
it a panacea for
fixing practices
of adult learning.
Instead, it is part
of the rich mosaic
of adult learning.
”
Sharan B. Merriam e Rosemary S. Caffarella.
Bibliography
KNOWLES, M. S.; HOLTON, E. S. &
SWANSON, R. A. The Adult Learner.
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005.
MERRIAM, S. B.; CAFFARELLA, R. S.
& BAUMGARTNER, L. M. Learning in
Adulthood: a comprehensive guide.
Jossey-Bass: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
2006.
WLODKOWSKI, R. J. Enhancing
Adult Motivation to Learn: a
comprehensive guide for teaching
all adults. Jossey-Bass: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2008.
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