Physiology Experiments
An audit of current physiology experiments used in
Universities, Science Centres and Museums
Report commissioned by the Wellcome Trust
Prepared by Drs Valerie Gladwell, Kate Reed, & Gavin
Sandercock at the University of Essex, in conjunction with
The Physiological Society
Contents
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................6
List of abbreviations...................................................................................................................7
SECTION 1: UNDERGRADUATE PHYSIOLOGY EXPERIMENTS ..................................................................8
1.1 Physiology sub-section: BLOOD .....................................................................................................10
Predicting VO2 max using the 20m shuttle run (Bleep Test) (BL 01) .......................................12
Predicting VO2 max using the Forestry Step test (BL 02) .........................................................12
Predicting VO2 max using the Harvard Step test (BL 03)..........................................................12
Coopers 12 min run test, a prediction test (BL 04)..................................................................13
Ratings of perceived exertion and the intensity of exercise (BL 05) .......................................13
Taking blood pressure using a manual cuff and a stethoscope (BL 06)...................................14
Using a stethoscope to identify heart sounds (BL 07) .............................................................14
Taking blood pressure using automatic and manual methods; rest and exercise (BL 08) ......15
Predicting VO2 max using the YMCA protocol for cycling (BL 09)............................................15
Assessing haemoglobin content in blood (BL 10) ....................................................................16
Taking an electro cardiogram at rest and during activity (BL 11) ............................................16
The Diving Reflex (BL 12) .........................................................................................................16
Effects of exercise on ECG (BL 13) ...........................................................................................17
Predicting VO2 max using Astrand-Rhyming Nomogram (BL 14).............................................18
Observing the effects of temperature on CV and respiratory parameters (BL 15) .................18
Determining maximal oxygen uptake using (treadmill) (BL 16) ..............................................19
Determining maximal oxygen uptake (Bruce Protocol) (BL 17)...............................................20
Summary of popular treadmill tests ........................................................................................20
Determining maximal oxygen uptake (cycle) (BL 18) ..............................................................21
Heart rate deflection point (Conconi Test) (BL 19)..................................................................21
The effects of exercise on the human body (BL 20) ................................................................22
Exercise pressor response (BL 21) ...........................................................................................22
Skin blood flow response to reactive hyperaemia and exercise (BL 22) .................................23
Acute effects of exercise on cardiovascular function (BL 23)..................................................23
The effects of endurance and strength exercise on CV response (BL 24) ...............................24
Blood lactate sampling at rest and during exercise (BL 25).....................................................24
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Determining onset of blood lactate accumulation and lactate threshold (BL 26) ..................25
Analysing the components of blood (BL 27) ............................................................................25
Elastic recoil in arteries and veins (BL 28)................................................................................27
The structure of the heart (BL 29) ...........................................................................................28
1.2 Physiology sub-section: BREATH.....................................................................................................29
Effects of breath holding (BRE 01) ...........................................................................................30
Effects of exercise on carbon dioxide output (BRE 02)............................................................30
Assessment of resting lung volumes (BRE 03) .........................................................................31
Using a spirometer to assess lung function (BRE 04)...............................................................31
Observing the effects of exercise on respiratory rate and minute volumes (BRE 05).............32
Assessment of ventilation change during exercise (BRE 06) ...................................................33
Effects of load carriage on economy of walking (BRE 07) .......................................................33
Assessing muscular efficiency (BRE 08) ...................................................................................33
Ventilation: Normal volumes and observing the effects of acute exercise (BRE 09) ..............34
The structure of the lungs (BRE 10) .........................................................................................34
Determining the ventilatory threshold (BRE 11) .....................................................................35
Oxygen kinetics during exercise (BRE 12) ................................................................................35
Estimating maximal oxygen uptake using gas analysis (BRE 13) .............................................36
Maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) (BRE 14) .........................................................37
Simulated altitude during exercise (BRE 15)............................................................................37
1.3 Physiology sub-section BRAIN.........................................................................................................39
The stretch reflex (BRA 01) ......................................................................................................40
The stroop test (BRA 02)..........................................................................................................40
Music and performance (BRA 03) ............................................................................................40
The effective of practice on skill acquisition (BRA 04).............................................................41
The effect of imagery on skill (BRA 05)....................................................................................41
The effect of caffeine on reaction time (BRA 06) ....................................................................42
Reaction time study series 1-5 (BRA 07)..................................................................................43
Reaction time of race start (BRA 08) .......................................................................................45
Ulnar Nerve Conduction (BRA 09) ...........................................................................................45
1.4 Physiology sub-section: BRAWN ....................................................................................................47
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Isometric handgrip strength test (BRW 01) .............................................................................48
Simple muscle fatigue (BRW 02)..............................................................................................48
Relationship between muscle size and strength (BRW 03) .....................................................48
Estimation of muscle mass and regional muscularity (BRW 04) .............................................49
Force-power relationships in muscle contraction (BRW 05) ...................................................49
Estimation of fat free mass using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) (BRW 06) ..............50
Field tests for power (BRW 07) ................................................................................................50
Anaerobic step test (BRW 08)..................................................................................................51
Sprint tests (BRW 09) ...............................................................................................................51
Strength testing with goniometry: effect of joint position on strength (BRW 10) ..................52
The Borg cycling strength test with constant load (BRW 11) ..................................................53
Power 170 Test (BRW 12) ........................................................................................................ 53
Using a flywheel dynamometer to estimate velocity / power relationships (BRW 13) ..........54
Muscle strength: 1 Repetition max and fatigue (BRW 14) ......................................................55
Optimisation of Human Power output (BRW 15) ....................................................................55
Maximal Anaerobic Running Test (BRW 16) ............................................................................56
The Wingate Test: A measure of power (BRW 17) ..................................................................57
Basic EMG activity (BRW 18).................................................................................................... 57
Muscle fatigue and EMG (BRW 19)..........................................................................................58
Assessment of muscle flexion during isokinetic knee flexion and extension (BRW 20)..........58
Assessment of isometric force-joint position relationship (BRW 21)......................................59
Assessment of electromechanical delay (EMD) of the knee flexors associated with static
maximal voluntary muscle actions (BRW 22) ..........................................................................59
Assessment of electromyographic signal amplitude and force of the knee flexors associated
with static voluntary muscle action (BRW 23).........................................................................60
1.5 Physiology sub-section: BONE ........................................................................................................61
Measuring joint angles (BO 01)................................................................................................62
Finger length and sport ability (BO 02)....................................................................................62
Bones , joints and the skeleton (BO 03)...................................................................................63
Estimation of skeletal mass (BO 04) ........................................................................................63
Structure of a synovial joint (BO 05)........................................................................................64
Summary Table .....................................................................................................................................66
SECTION 2: SCIENCE CENTRES...............................................................................................................70
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Ontario Science Centre, Canada ..............................................................................................70
Science Museum (London) ......................................................................................................71
Natural History Museum (London) ..........................................................................................71
Glasgow Science Centre...........................................................................................................71
Birmingham Science Centre ‘ThinkTank’ .................................................................................74
SECTION 3: SCIENCE FESTIVALS ............................................................................................................76
Edinburgh Science Festival.......................................................................................................76
The Big Bang Science Festival .................................................................................................. 76
British Science Festival.............................................................................................................76
SECTION 4: SCIENCE OUTREACH...........................................................................................................77
Science Live ..............................................................................................................................77
The Inspire Discovery Centre (Norwich) ..................................................................................77
The Science Museum (London)................................................................................................77
The Discovery Zone at Leeds University ..................................................................................78
University of Bristol: Physiology Teaching Lorry......................................................................78
The Human Performance Unit, University of Essex.................................................................78
Science and Engineering week.................................................................................................79
Wellcome Trust Moving Bodies Event .....................................................................................79
Appendices............................................................................................................................................81
1.
Commonly used equipment..................................................................................................81
2.
Pictures from the Science Centres ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Acknowledgments
Thanks to colleagues from the Physiological Society, particularly Dr Christabel Stokes. Thanks also to
colleagues who sent practical outlines from: University College Chichester, University of Cardiff,
University of Essex, University of Nottingham, University of Leicester, University of Leeds, University
of Portsmouth, University of Swansea, & University of Strathclyde. We also would like to thank
ADInstruments for their assistance
The following books were of particular help:
Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual, 1990, (2nd Edition) Gene M Adams, publishers; Brown &
Benchmark, Wisconsin, US
Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual: Tests , Procedures and Data, Volume 1:
Anthropometry, 2001, (2nd Edition) Roger Eston and Thomas Reilly, publishers; Routledge, London
Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual: Tests , Procedures and Data, Volume 2:
Exercise Physiology, 2001, (2nd Edition) Roger Eston and Thomas Reilly, publishers; Routledge,
London
All internet sites were accessed between June 14th and July 13th 2010.
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List of abbreviations
1RM: 1 repetition maximum
ATPS: atmospheric temperature and pressure saturated
bpm: beats per minute
BP: blood pressure (mmHg)
CO2: carbon dioxide
CV: cardiovascular
EMG: Electro myogram
EPOC: Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption
FEV1. Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (L)
FVC: forced vital capacity (L)
HRM: heart rate monitor
iRMS: Root mean squared (current)
MAOD: maximum accumulated oxygen deficit
mph: miles per hour
MVC: Maximal voluntary contraction
OBLA: onset of blood lactate accumulation
O2: oxygen
ROM: Range of motion
RPE: Rate of perceived exertion
RPM: Revolutions per minute
RMR: Resting metabolic rate
STPD: standard temperature and pressure dry
TEE: total energy expenditure
VE: volume of air expired (L)
VO2 : volume of oxygen used at any given time
VO2 max: maximum volume of oxygen used at any given time
W: Watts
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SECTION 1: UNDERGRADUATE PHYSIOLOGY EXPERIMENTS
Experiments in this section have been placed into one of the five categories (Blood, Breath, Brain,
Brawn and Bone) according to their primary purpose. Where an experiment may cross into other
categories is highlighted in the summary table at the end of section 1.
Each experiment is ranked in terms of difficulty level: Low/Moderate/High
Low: Easy for young children to understand the protocol and to take part in the measurements.
Moderate: requires a greater level of skill to understand and carry out the measurements. Pupils
would be able to join in as participants and assist in data collection.
High: difficult to carry out the experiments and may be suitable only for demonstration purposes in
most schools
Each experiment is also ranked in terms of equipment required to carry out the full protocol:
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate/advanced
Basic: readily available in schools or easy to transport to schools and be used by teachers
Intermediate: may require some specialist equipment and a limited amount of technical knowledge.
Pupils would be able to join in as participants and assist in data collection
Advanced: requires both technical knowledge and equipment. Likely only for demonstration
purposes in most schools
As much as possible, within each physiological subsection, the experiments are ordered with the low
difficulty level protocols coming first, and the high difficulty protocols coming later.
Factors affecting the experiments:
All of the tests can be manipulated to make exciting and fun experiments, especially as the
participants find more about themselves and fellow class-mates. They could also compare
themselves against others nationally or even worldwide (for example the Human Performance Unit
at University of Essex holds data of high school pupils from various fitness tests- (see Section 4 and
www.humanperformanceunit.co.uk ).
During activity the whole body is working in unison: the heart, the lungs, the muscles, the brain and
nerves, and the bones. Although the tests listed here are in sections, it is important to remember
that no one physiological system works in isolation.
Exercise brings about short-term changes in breathing (the lungs), the cardiovascular system (the
heart and blood vessels) and the muscular skeletal system, with messages from the brain playing a
role. These changes can be measured during and after exercise and the results recorded and
compared to before exercise.
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Different factors affect the response to exercise, and therefore the results of any test:
1. Altering the exercise itself
a. Duration
b. Intensity
c. Type of exercise
d. The use of a different body parts
2. Altering the environment
a. Temperature/humidity
b. Within a laboratory setting / in the ‘field’
3. Individual responses
a. Gender
b. Age
c. Fitness
d. Muscle strength and endurance
e. Flexibility
f.
Body fat
g. Hydration status
h. Ability to get rid of excess heat
i.
Genetics (important in determining some of the above)
Normal values for some tests have been included where relevant. However, as normal values are
often dependent on age, weight, gender and height not all values have been given.
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1.1 Physiology sub-section: BLOOD
The blood is vital for carrying oxygen (in the haemoglobin) to the muscles to produce energy and for
carrying carbon dioxide back to the lungs. By measuring heart rate and oxygen levels, it is easy to
determine how hard the body is working.
Heart rate (how fast the heart is beating) can be measured by counting the pulse at the wrist or
neck, or can be measured by a heart rate monitor (which fits around the chest). For more detailed
information about the heart, an ECG (electrocardiogram) can be taken. This provides information
about the electrical activity in the heart. The picture below shows a healthy ECG trace. The trace is
labelled (P, QRS, and T), relating to electrical activity in different chambers of the heart, namely the
atria and the ventricles.
A stethoscope can be used to listen to the different heart sounds: contraction (systole) when the
blood is pushed out of the heart; and when it is relaxed (diastole). Blood pressure can be measured
by using various blood pressure monitors (manual, including stethoscope and sphygmomanometer,
or digital). Two numbers are usually given: systolic (the highest pressure) and diastolic (the lowest
pressure) i.e. 120/80mmHg (which is normal blood pressure in adults. Children’s blood pressure is
usually lower and is dependent on height as well as age). During rhythmic exercise (such as walking
or cycling) the systolic pressure usually increases whilst the diastolic pressure stays at a similar level.
During strenuous exercise, such as weight lifting, both the systolic and diastolic values increase.
Exercise capacity is a commonly measured variable in human physiology. To carry out long duration
exercise, the body needs lots of oxygen. The amount of oxygen that a person uses can be easily
measured, by collecting the air they breathe out and comparing it with the air they breathe in. The
maximum amount of oxygen a person can use is called their VO2 max. In general, fitter people have a
higher VO2 max. The average is around 35-40 ml kg-1 min-1, but this can get up as high as 90 ml kg-1
min-1 in very fit individuals.
Measuring VO2 max can be done via various methods:
1. within a laboratory (treadmill, bike) or field methods (Bleep test, step test, Coopers run)
2. direct methods (using gas analysis) or indirect /predicted i.e. measure heart rate and
workloads and calculate using nomograms or equations. A nomogram is a visual
representation of an equation. The user finds their relevant values (e.g. heart rate and
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power output) on a chart, and determines their VO2 max by drawing a straight line between
them. Equations such as the Haldane transformation or the YMCA equation allow the
individual to enter their own values from the test, and determine a VO2 max.
3. using maximal exertion tests or sub-maximal tests (i.e. not to maximal effort)
Fitness is commonly defined by what is known as maximal oxygen uptake (usually written as VO2
max). This is how well the person can use oxygen (O2) to produce energy.
This is dependent on:
a. Lungs: size, blood supply, ability to get air in
b. Heart: size, strength, rate
c. Blood: volume and oxygen carrying capacity (haemoglobin)
d. Blood vessels: from large (arteries) to the very smallest (capillaries) at the muscle
e. Muscle: efficiency of extracting oxygen, size of muscle
The body’s response to exercise depends on the exact nature of the exercise. Low to moderate
intensity rhythmic exercise (such as cycling or jogging) results in increased heart rate, increase in
oxygen uptake, increase carbon dioxide production, increased systolic blood pressure and stable
diastolic blood pressure. There is unlikely to be a large increase in lactate levels. Conversely, short
duration but high intensity exercise (such as 100m sprint) uses up little oxygen but produces lactate.
Lactate in the blood can be measured with just a small pinprick at the finger. Fit individuals can
work at a higher intensity of exercise before the lactate levels in their blood start rising. The body
‘re-cycles’ lactate quite well at low levels, but once there is more than about 4mmol lactate present,
it starts to accumulate at a rapid rate if exercise continues.
Also see the section on ‘breath’ for details of energy production and the use of oxygen.
…………………………………………………..
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Predicting VO2 max using the 20m shuttle run (Bleep Test) (BL 01)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment level: Basic (20m shuttle CD and player)
Aim: Predict maximum oxygen uptake from a maximal field test
Brief summary of methods:
Participants run a 20m course in time with audible ‘beeps’. Every minute, the speed required to
maintain the correct pace increases. Participants continue until they can no longer maintain the
required speed. Final shuttle number is converted to VO2 max using the prediction equation.
…………………………………………………..
Predicting VO2 max using the Forestry Step test (BL 02)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment level: Basic (Steps/platform of appropriate height (40cm for males and 33 cm for
females), metronome)
Aim: To predict maximal oxygen uptake from a sub-maximal field test
Brief summary of methods: Record body weight measurement in the clothing to be used for the
test. The metronome is set at 90 beats per minute, to indicate the stepping rate of 22.5 steps per
minute. The participant steps up and down on the step, leading with either leg. Males are to use a
higher step than females. After five minutes of stepping, the participant sits down and a heart rate
measurement is taken. Count the number of heart beats, starting from 15 seconds after completing
the test, and stop counting 15 seconds later at 30 seconds post-exercise. You can count heart beats
manually or use a HRM. Estimate VO2 max from set tables.
…………………………………………………..
Predicting VO2 max using the Harvard Step test (BL 03)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Step, stopwatch)
Aim: To estimate aerobic fitness via heart rate recovery
Brief summary of methods:
1. Sit quietly for 3 minutes
2. Measure baseline heart rate (HR) (manually or using HRM)
3. Step test - 3 minutes, step on and off the steps
Left foot up, right foot up, left foot down, right foot down
Using the rhythm of the metronome begin stepping at 24 step cycles/minute, a total of 72 steps
4. Measure HR each minute for 3 mins immediately after the step test
5. Circle your heart rate level in the chart below :
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Heart rate at 1 minute post exercise (HR1)
Male
Excellent
<79
Good
79-89
Above Average
90-99
Average
100-105
Below Average
>106
Female
<85
85-98
99-108
109-117
>118
Fitness levels can be calculated using the following formula
Result = 30000 ÷ (HR1 + HR2 + HR3)
Excellent
Male >90
Female >86
Above Average
80-90
76-86
Average
65-79
61-75
Below Average
55-64
50-60
Poor
<55
<50
…………………………………………………..
Coopers 12 min run test, a prediction test (BL 04)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (measuring device, stopwatch, lots of space or an outdoor track)
Aim: To predict (from running distance) maximum oxygen uptake
Brief summary of methods:
An outdoor track is required (400m track ideal) or a marked course around a school field. Distance
covered in 12 minutes of maximal effort running is measured to the nearest 10m. Distance is
commonly converted to miles where 1 mile = 1609m. VO2 max (ml kg-1 min-1) is calculated as:
(distance in miles -0.3138)/0.0278
…………………………………………………..
Ratings of perceived exertion and the intensity of exercise (BL 05)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Handbook
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (stationary bike, HRM, RPE chart)
Aim: To determine the relationship between heart rate, RPE and power output
Brief summary of methods: Participant cycles for 4 minutes at 50W. In the last 15 sec of each 2 min
period the HR and RPE are recorded. After the 4 min, the intensity is increased by 25W. The above
measures and timings are repeated.
This continues (increasing by 25W each 4 min) until the participant reaches 85% of maximum heart
rate (220-age).
Plot a graph to show heart rate, RPE and power output. Are the relationships linear?
…………………………………………………..
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Taking blood pressure using a manual cuff and a stethoscope (BL 06)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Stethoscope, blood pressure monitor)
Aim: To measure blood pressure manually.
Brief summary of methods:
1. With you participant’s palm facing upward, feel across the elbow joint for the brachial artery. It
should be just inside the biceps tendon at the elbow. You may wish to put a mark on it using a pen!
2. Place the BP cuff around the participant’s arm so the bladder is centered on the artery. There
should be no clothing in the way and nothing that impinges blood flow through the arm (i.e. don’t
roll the sleeve up to clear the arm and leave it so tight it stops blood flow!). The cuff needs
positioning 2.5 cm above the crease of the elbow. Secure the BP cuff snugly
3. Position the arm so the cuff is approximately level with the heart and lightly supported, normally
the elbow is slightly bent. The participant should be comfortable in this position.
4. Check you can clearly see the mercury scale and you are in line with the scale, that your
stethoscope is placed firmly in your ears and that you have the bell of the stethoscope active where
a reversible head is used
5. Firmly place the bell of the stethoscope over the brachial artery and hold in place.
6. Rapidly inflate the cuff to approximately 20 mmHg above the estimated systolic blood pressure or
30 mmHg above the pressure required to make the radial pulse disappear.
7. Deflate the cuff slowly (2-5 mmHg per second) by lightly turning the valve. Any faster and you
may underestimate pressures. Listen carefully.
8. As soon as you hear blood passing the cuff it is phase 1, remember this systolic blood pressure!
9. Carry on deflating at the same rate and see if you can distinguish phases 4 and 5 (muffled sound
and no sound). In each case, try to note the pressure.
10. Carry on listening for a further 10 mmHg below where you think phase 5 was just to check but
then rapidly deflate the cuff.
11. Note down the pressures (always round off upwards to the nearest even number e.g. 139
becomes 140).
…………………………………………………..
Using a stethoscope to identify heart sounds (BL 07)
Source: http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/heart_activities.php
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic (Stethoscope)
Aim: To identify when the heart is contracting (pushing out blood) and relaxing.
Brief summary of methods: The bell of the stethoscope should be placed on the participant’s chest.
The individual using the stethoscope should listen carefully for sounds of the heart. The first sound
(which represents ventricular systole) should be identified and the interval between the first and
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second sound (ventricular diastole) should be measured. The interval between the second sound
and the next first sound should also be measured and this process repeated five times. This will
allow the average time that the heart is in systole (contracting) and diastole (relaxing) in one minute
to be calculated.
…………………………………………………..
Taking blood pressure using automatic and manual methods; rest and
exercise (BL 08)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (Stethoscope, manual BP monitor and automatic BP
monitor, stationary bike)
Aim: To monitor the effects of position and different intensities of exercise on blood pressure
Brief summary of methods:
1. Testers measure blood pressure using manual and automatic PM monitors at rest in seated
position. Comparisons between the two methods could be made.
2. Participants then change position; to lying or standing, or head down tilt if possible. Changes in
blood pressure are monitored. Participants can also move their arm to various positions (above
head, hanging by side etc) and observe the way this influences blood pressure recordings.
3. Participant then participates in moderate and heavy exercise on a stationary bike, whilst blood
pressure is measured at 2 minute intervals.
4. Participant then maintains a static (isometric) contraction e.g. a wall squat, and blood pressure is
again measured.
…………………………………………………..
Predicting VO2 max using the YMCA protocol for cycling (BL 09)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (stationary bike, heart rate monitor (HRM))
Aim: To predict maximum oxygen uptake (aerobic capacity) from a submaximal cycle protocol, using
heart rate as a prediction tool.
Brief summary of methods:
1. Fit a heart rate monitor (HRM) to the participant and begin recording
2. Cycle at level 1 (Table would be provided) for 3-minutes, maintain a constant speed throughout
the test (50 RPM), record manually the HR at the end of the 3-minute period and use table
(provided) to determine power level .
3. Cycle at level 2 for 3-minutes, record manually the HR at the end of the 3-minute period and use
table to determine power level 3.
4. Cycle at level 3 for 3-minutes, record manually the HR at the end of the 3-minute
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5. Record power and heart rate data
Determine the predicted VO2 using the YMCA equation. There is an online calculator to do this easily
http://www.exrx.net/Calculators/YMCACycle.html
…………………………………………………..
Assessing haemoglobin content in blood (BL 10)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Lancet, cuvette, haemoglobin analyser)
Aim: To measure the content of haemoglobin in human blood. Comparisons can then be made
between male and female participants. Usual values for females are 13mg dl-1 and for males, 14 mg
dl-1
Brief summary of methods: Using a ‘softclix’ or similar model lancet, each participant produces a
droplet of blood from a finger end and transfer it into a ‘haemacue’ or similar model cuvette.
Determine the haemoglobin concentration using the automatic analyser.
…………………………………………………..
Taking an electro cardiogram at rest and during activity (BL 11)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (3-lead ECG recording device, electrodes.)
Aim: To observe the electrical activity of the heart at rest and during different activities.
Brief summary of methods: Tester applies the electrodes to the participant. The leads are then
connected to the ECG recorder and the electrical activity of the heart is monitored at rest.
1. Students are required to match the changes in electrical activity (P wave, QRS complex, T wave)
to the contraction patterns of the heart (atrial and ventricular depolarisation and re-polarisation).
2. The participants are encouraged to try a variety of activities to observe their effects on the ECG.
Activities include: alterations in breathing rate and depth, changes in posture, static and dynamic
exercise.
…………………………………………………..
The Diving Reflex (BL 12)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (3-lead ECG recording device or HRM, snorkel, bowls of
water at 9°C, 21°C 37°C).
Aim: To investigate the ‘diving reflex’ (what happens to heart rate when the face is submerged in
water) and to investigate how breath holding alters the responses
Brief summary of methods: Resting HR values taken. Participant them submerges face into a bowl of
water either holding breath or using snorkel. Monitor HR continuously for 30 seconds. Allow
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participant to recover for 2-3 min. Repeat using different temperatures of water and using a snorkel
or breath-holding until all 6 conditions have been met.
Which factors affect heart rate most – breath holding or temperature change, and WHY? Do other
mammals (sea mammals in particular) exhibit this trait?
…………………………………………………..
Effects of exercise on ECG (BL 13)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (3-lead ECG recording device, electrodes, blood pressure
device)
Aim: To observe the electrical activity of the cardiac (heart) cycle and blood pressure at rest and
during exercise
Brief summary of methods
1. Lay the participant on the measuring bed and attach the ECG machine as described. Allow 5
minutes for habituation.
2. Before taking the ECG measure the ‘resting’ blood pressure and heart rate.
3. Record a three lead ECG for 30 seconds choosing a suitable paper speed.
4. Remove the ECG leads, leaving the electrodes on. Re-attach the blood pressure cuff to the
participant.
5. Get the participant to stand.
6. Quickly measure the blood pressure and heart rate. Remove the cuff. Record these values.
7. Get the participant to perform 50 star jumps record the maximum heart rate – end of the exercise
period.
8. Lay the participant down and repeat the ECG measurement. Record recovery for 2 minutes.
Record the blood pressure immediately and the heart rate every 20 seconds.
9. Remove the ECG leads, leaving the electrodes on.
10. Get the participant to perform 100 (ish) star jumps.
11. Lay the participant down and repeat the ECG measurement. Record recovery for 2 minutes.
Record the blood pressure immediately and the heart rate every 20 seconds.
…………………………………………………..
17
Predicting VO2 max using Astrand-Rhyming Nomogram (BL 14)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (Cycle ergometer, HRM (optional) Nomogram)
Aim: To predict (from submaximal heart rate) maximum oxygen uptake
Brief summary of methods: A single stage test lasting 6 minutes that predicts VO2 from heart rate
(HR). To do this accurately, HR must be between 125 and 170 bpm during the test. Fit your
participant with a HRM.
1. Participant begins cycling at 50rpm. Initial resistance is 100-125 W for females and 100-150W for
males. Start the 6 min now. Measure HR after 2 min. Adjust the resistance so that the participant
has a heart rate between 125 to 170 bpm. Give time for the participant to adjust to the new
resistance before checking HR.
2. Continue cycling for the remainder of the 6 minutes. Record HR every minute and workload at the
end of the 6 min. Calculate workload in kg.m.min-1 by multiplying the final power output (W) by
distance travelled in m per minute, then use the Astrand-Rhyming Nomogram to estimate VO2 max.
This is available online at http://www.brianmac.co.uk/astrandnom.pdf
…………………………………………………..
Observing the effects of temperature on CV and respiratory parameters (BL
15)
Source: University College Chichester
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate /Advanced (stationary bike, HRM, Douglas Bags and gas
analysis equipment or online analyser, plastic sweat suit or environmental chamber)
Aim: To monitor changes in CV system and the respiratory system in heat. Heat and hydration levels
have large effects on the CV system in humans.
Brief summary of methods:
Participant may exercise in an environmental chamber at an increased temperature and humidity or
wear a plastic exercise suit.
1. Fit HRM to participant and set up respiratory monitoring equipment.
2. Participant performs an incremental exercise test. Begin at 75/100W, increasing the intensity by
25 or 50W each 3 minute stage (initial W and increments depend on participant’s fitness level).
During the final minute of each stage collect expired gases. Note HR each minute. Ask participant to
state their RPE during the final minute of each stage.
3. Participant continues until exhaustion, aim for at least 4 stages.
4. Ideally, the participant will complete the same test in normal conditions (STPD) the following day.
Randomise test order between participants.
Compare final power output, HR, VE, VO2, and PRE between conditions. It may be interesting to
weigh participants before and after in each condition to determine water lost through sweat.
18
Determining maximal oxygen uptake using (treadmill) (BL 16)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Treadmill, HRM (optional), Douglas Bags and gas analysis
equipment or online analyser)
Aim: To estimate maximum oxygen uptake from an incremental treadmill protocol
Brief summary of methods:
1. Place a HRM transmitter belt around the participant’s chest. Moisten the electrodes with a little
water in order to ensure good conductivity between the skin and the electrodes. Check that a signal
is being transmitted to the receiver watch. The heart rate response should be monitored carefully
throughout the test and during recovery until the participant’s heart rate has decreased to
approximately 125 beats·min-1.
2. Fit the participant with the mouthpiece and nose-clip and ask him/her to breathe normally for a
period of 2 minutes whilst standing relaxed on the treadmill. After this initial familiarisation period,
open the Douglas bag valve and collect a resting expired air sample for 2 minutes.
3. Analyse the resting expired air sample.
4. Ask the participant to warm-up on the treadmill by gradually increasing the treadmill speed over
1-2 minutes until the participant is running at a comfortable pace. Use the heart rate response at
this pace to help you to choose a test speed which should be hard but comfortable, and one which
the participant will be able to continue until exhaustion in 8-12 minutes, despite an increase in
gradient of the treadmill. The appropriate speed will typically elicit a heart rate of approximately 150
bpm.
5. To start the test, gradually increase the speed to the chosen test speed. Once this speed has been
reached, start the stopwatch and follow the protocol shown below
6. Record the participant’s heart rate in the data collection sheet at the end of every stage, and note
the maximum value attained during the test. Expired air should be collected during the second
minute of each stage of the test.
7. The participant should have been instructed to dismount the treadmill once he/she has reached
exhaustion and can no longer continue. Determine VO2 max using the Haldane transformation.
Stage
Duration
Speed
1
2 min
0
2
2 min
2.5
3
2 min
5
4
2 min
7.5
5
2 min
10
6
2 min
12.5
…………………………………………………..
19
Gradient
Determining maximal oxygen uptake (Bruce Protocol) (BL 17)
Source: Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Stationary bike, HRM, Douglas Bags and gas analysis
equipment or online analyser))
Aim: To determine maximum aerobic capacity using a stationary bike test
Brief summary of methods
This consists of seven 3 minute stages, with initial stages completed by walking.
1. Attach the gas analysis equipment to the participant.
2. Follow the protocol in the table below, with a participant exercising to exhaustion.
3. The participant should be instructed to dismount the treadmill once he/she has reached
exhaustion and can no longer continue. Determine VO2 max using the Haldane
transformation.
Time (min)
Stage
Speed
gradient
mph
Km/h
%
0-3
1
1.7
2.7
5
3-6
2
2.5
4.0
7
6-9
3
3.4
5.5
10
9-12
4
4.2
6.8
13
12-15
5
5.0
8.0
16
15-18
6
5.5
8.8
19
…………………………………………………..
Summary of popular treadmill tests
There are many popular treadmill tests designed to elicit a VO2 max response. The most commonly
used are summarised below.
Balke: There are various modifications of the original test (Balke 1959). This continuous protocol has
a prescribed walking speed of 3.3mph starting at 0% slope for the first 2 min then increasing by 1%
for each minute thereafter.
Bruce: This continuous prototcol has a 3 minute stages beginning at 10% slope and 1.7 mph.
Subsequent stages increase by 2% with speeds (mph) at 2.5, 3.4, 4.2, 5.5 and 6.0.
Ellestead: This continuous protocol alternates between 2 and 3 minutes stages for its 6 stages. The
first four stages are at 10% slope but the fifth stage is at 15%.
Naughton: This continuous protocol was designed originally to be adjusted according to the type of
person and the purpose of the test. Its modification consists of a max of 7 stages with 3 min intervals
starting at 0% and increasing by 3.5% and 1 MET each stage.
20
Taylor: This discontinuous protocol has 3-min stages at a constant speed and at a grade that
increases by 2.5%. The choice initial grade and speed is dependent on the participant’s fitness.
Ramp: This continuous protocol does not have distinct stages. The gradient increases continuously,
at a rate of 2/25% per min. Walking speeds exist until a 9% slope. If the participants heart rate is
<70% of max HR, the slope is returned to 0% and the speed is increased.
…………………………………………………..
Determining maximal oxygen uptake (cycle) (BL 18)
Source: Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Stationary bike, HRM, Douglas Bags and gas analysis
equipment or online analyser))
Aim: To indirectly determine maximum oxygen uptake using HR and work output
Brief summary of methods: Values for estimated VO2 less than 3 L min-1 (A) or VO2 more than 3 L
min-1
1. Attach HRM and gas analysis equipment to participant. Allow a 3-4 minute warm up, then a
short rest period
2. Follow the protocol in the table below, with participant exercising to exhaustion
3. Collect expired for the 2nd minute of each stage (or continually if using online analysis).
4. Analyse expired gases to determine maximum oxygen uptake. Determine VO2 max using the
Haldane transformation, or basically as VE (L min-1) x (21.09 – percent oxygen expired).
Time (min)
Watts (A)
Watts (B)
0-2
100
175
2-4
125
200
4-6
150
225
6-8
175
250
8-10
200
275
10-12
225
300
12-14
250
325
…………………………………………………..
Heart rate deflection point (Conconi Test) (BL 19)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Treadmill, HRM)
Aim: To note the point of heart rate deflection (i.e. a non linear increase in HR). At high levels of
exercise the heart rate increases rapidly in an attempt to oxygenate the muscles. Very soon after this
deflection the subject reaches exhaustion.
21
Brief summary of methods: Participant warms up for 3 min, then completes an incremental exercise
to exhaustion protocol (such as the Bruce Protocol). Treadmill velocity is increased by 0.5 km h-1
every 200m. Heart rate is recorded continuously (set at 5 second epochs). Participant presses
electronic marker at end of each 200m stage. Plot HR at end of each 200m stage against running
speed. Heart rate deflection point is identified as the running speed at which linearity is lost in the
HR-speed relationship (i.e. a sudden upwards inflection).
…………………………………………………..
The effects of exercise on the human body (BL 20)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/intermediate/control-and-communication/controlof-heart-rate/observing-the-effects-of-exercise-on-the-human-bodyted ,75,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (HRM, pulse oximeter (measures how saturated with
oxygen the blood is via a finger clip), stopwatch and step)
Aims:
1. To examine the effect of exercise on HR and O2 saturation. Blood is normally around 98%
saturated with oxygen. This saturation stays high even with intense exercise in healthy subjects
2. To examine the effects of different exercise intensities on HR and O2 saturation. Can high
intensity exercise result in reduced saturation levels ?
Brief summary of methods: The participant has their heart rate and O2 saturation measured after a
period of rest and immediately prior to participation in physical activity (to observe the anticipatory
rise in heart rate). The participant then takes part in a set period of exercise involving stepping on
and off a bench. Heart rate and O2 saturation are measured at the end of this exercise and every
minute until the levels return to normal. This process should be repeated for a different intensity of
exercise (increase in time or step rate) and the heart rate measurements plotted on a graph and
compared.
…………………………………………………..
Exercise pressor response (BL 21)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (blood pressure monitor, stethoscope, hand grip
dynamomter)
Aim: To demonstrate the importance of peripheral chemoreceptor action in cardiovascular
regulation. Chemoreceptors are cells in the body that monitor CO2 and O2 levels, and assist in
changing heart rate according to need.
Basic summary of methods:
1. Measure resting blood pressure (BP). Establish maximum voluntary contraction (MVC).
Participant performs rhythmical dynamic handgrips at 50% MVC for 2 min. BP is measured in the
contra-lateral (opposite side) limb during the last minute and at 2 minute intervals during a recovery
period of 6 minutes.
22
2. When BP is normal, the activity is repeated but with blood in the exercising limb occluded using a
second BP cuff (supra-systolic pressures of around 220mmHg) immediately prior to the exercise and
for the duration of recovery. Repeat BP measures on contra-lateral limb.
…………………………………………………..
Skin blood flow response to reactive hyperaemia and exercise (BL 22)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate/advanced (BP monitor, stethoscope, pressure cuff, laser
Doppler flow meter, stationary bike)
Aim: To measure maximal skin blood flow and express skin blood flow measured after exercise in
different environmental conditions as a percentage of this maximum
Brief summary of methods:
Participant lies supine (face up) as laser Doppler is placed on the anterior surface of the forearm.
Resting skin blood flow and blood pressure are measured. Participant cycles at 70% maximum heart
rate for 20 min. Immediately on cessation of exercise, participant adopts supine position and skin
blood flow and blood pressure are monitored for 10 min. Following recovery blood flow to the
forearm is occluded by inflating the cuff to supra-systolic (i.e. higher than subjects normal systolic
pressure) pressure for 5 min. The cuff is released and maximum reactive hyperaemic skin blood flow
measured (i.e. increased blood flow).
…………………………………………………..
Acute effects of exercise on cardiovascular function (BL 23)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (BP monitor, stethoscope, gas analysis system, hand grip
dynamomter, stationary bike)
Aim: To assess the effects of body position and dynamic and static exercise on heart rate, blood
pressure, myocardial oxygen demand, cardiac output, and oxygen uptake (measured using standard
formulae).
Brief summary of methods:
1. Record heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen uptake, whilst lying down for 2-3min, sitting for 2-3
min, standing for 2-3 min.
2. Repeat the measures whilst maintaining a handgrip at 50% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC)
held for 1 minute. Measure BP on the contra-lateral (opposite) arm.
3. Dynamic measures, with and without static measures: participant exercises for 4 min at 50, 100
and 150W. Measure VO2 and blood pressure. Participant then exercises as above, but during the 4th
minute simultaneously performs a 50% MVC. Measure parameters as above.
…………………………………………………..
23
The effects of endurance and strength exercise on CV response (BL 24)
Source: http://www.the-aps.org/education/k12curric/activities/pdfs/menzel.pdf
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Step, HRM, BP monitor, stopwatch)
Aim: To observe the effects of different types of activity on blood pressure and heart rate
Brief summary of methods :
1. Resting heart rate and blood pressure measurements should be taken for each participant.
2. The participant should then take part in endurance exercise and strength exercise. The endurance
exercise consists of a step test and the strength exercise consists of push-ups. Heart Rate and blood
pressure should be measured at regular intervals throughout the exercise. The participants can also
examine the effects of different types of strength training and determine whether a rest period
between sets of resistance exercise can alter the blood pressure and heart rate measurements.
…………………………………………………..
Blood lactate sampling at rest and during exercise (BL 25)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Treadmill or Stationary bike, Lancets, lactate analyser)
Aim: 1) To determine accuracy of blood lactate sampling and 2) To measure blood lactate
concentration during an incremental exercise test. We would expect lactate to increase after
exercise gets beyond a ‘moderate’ level.
Brief summary of methods:
1. Participant rests in the supine position for 5 minutes before the testing commences. A blood
lactate sample will be drawn from the participant every minute for 3 minutes. Record results for 3
participants. Discuss the reliability of your samples.
2. Participant exercises on a treadmill at a moderate exercise intensity .The participant should start
exercising at an appropriate speed/power on the stationary bike or treadmill depending on their
fitness level. For the treadmill a discontinuous protocol will be followed. The participant will run for
two-minutes and rest for 1-minute, during the rest period a blood sample will be taken. For the
stationary bike a continuous protocol will be followed. The participant will cycle for three-minutes
between 2:45 and 3:00 minutes a blood sample should be taken. Continue until 3 samples have been
collected.
…………………………………………………..
24
Determining onset of blood lactate accumulation and lactate threshold (BL
26)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Treadmill or Stationary bike, Lancets, lactate
analyser, gas analysis system)
Aim: To determine the lactate threshold and onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). At what
exercise intensity does the body lose the ability to keep re-cycling lactate, and start accumulating it
in the blood instead?
Brief summary of methods: Participant warms up for 5 min then completes an incremental test of
five x 4 min stages. Oxygen is measured over the final minute of each stage. A blood sample is taken
at end of each stage and lactate determined. Plot blood lactate levels against workload. Note when
blood lactate exceeds 4 mmol (this is the value generally seen as the lactate threshold, after which
point the accumulation of lactate rapidly increases).
…………………………………………………..
Analysing the components of blood (BL 27)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/advanced/cells-to-systems/cell-structures/a-closerlook-at-blood,79,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate /advanced (Lancets, sodium cholride, buffered distilled
water, Leishmans stain, microscope and slides, ethanol, buffered saline)
Aim: To identify the variety of cells that make up blood
Brief summary of methods: The participant should clean their chosen finger with an ethanol swab
and then use a sterile lancet to collect a droplet of blood. The droplet of blood should then be placed
onto a sterile slide and any hazardous materials disposed of. A second slide should be held at a 45o
angle to the first and moved backwards so that it slightly touches the droplet of blood (diagram a).
The slide should then be pushed away from the blood droplet so that droplet is pulled behind it and
spread out on the surface of the slide (diagram b). The smear should extend almost the full length of
the slide and be left to dry (diagram c).
25
Ethanol is then poured onto the dry smear and left for 2 minutes; the ethanol will fix the blood cells
in position. Once the ethanol is removed 5 drops of Leishman’s stain should be poured onto the
smear and left for one minute. 5 drops of distilled water (PH 6.6-6.8) should then be added and left
for five minutes. The slide can then be washed in 50ml of buffered distilled water, to which a few
drops of Leishman’s stain have been added, until the film becomes pink. Press lightly with filter
paper to remove water and wave in the air to dry. Place a cover slip over the forked end of the
smear.
The slide should then be examined under low and high power. Leishman’s stain will identify the
blood components as the following:
•
Red blood cells- red to yellowish red; Neutrophils- dark purple nuclei, pale pink cytoplasm,
red-lilac small granules; Eosinophils- blue nuclei, pale pink cytoplasm, red-orange large
granules; Basophils- purple-dark blue nucleus, purple-black large granules; Lymphocytesdark purple-deep blue nuclei, blue cytoplasm; Platelets- purple granules
The participants should identify each and use an eyepiece graticule to measure the size of the red
blood cells.
…………………………………………………..
26
Elastic recoil in arteries and veins (BL 28)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/advanced/cells-to-systems/structure-and-functionof-tissues/elastic-recoil-in-arteries-and-veins,39,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (cut from the aorta and a vein, hooks made from
paperclips, virkon solution, mass carrier, 10g and 50g masses, ruler, eye protection, cloths, soap,
graph paper and a calculator)
Aim: To consider how the elastic properties suit the functions of the artery and vein in the
circulatory system.
Brief summary of methods: The apparatus should be set up by a technician, as seen below.
The students should take a close look at the artery and vein material and make notes on their
appearance and how they feel to touch. A ring of blood vessel should then be suspended from a
paperclip hook on the clamp stand and a mass carrier attached to the bottom end of the ring. The
students should then measure the length of the ring of blood vessel with the mass carrier attached
(this is termed the original length). This process should be repeated with weights of 10, 20, 30, 40
and 50g attached to the mass carrier. The remaining vessel should then be put through the same
procedures.
Students can calculate the percentage change in length using the following equation:
…………………………………………………..
27
The structure of the heart (BL 29)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/intermediate/cells-to-systems/structure-of-aheart/looking-at-a-heart,76,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Animal Heart, tray, scalpel, dissecting scissors,
ruler, gloves and warm water and soap)
Aim: To examine the structure of a heart
Brief summary of methods:
Investigation 1: Looking at the outside of the heart.
The students should firstly measure the size and mass of the heart and estimate its external volume.
They should also identify the vessels entering and leaving the heart (arteries have thick, rubbery
walls and veins have much thinner walls) and feel inside them to identify the texture and strength of
each. If any of the arteries and veins has structures attached to their walls these should be
identified and how they work should be determined. The atria and ventricles should then be
identified, with particular reference to the differences in wall structure. The students should then
identify the left and right side of the heart and explain how they came to this conclusion. The surface
of the heart should also be examined for blood vessels and the colour and texture of the different
parts of the heart noted.
Investigation 2: The internal structure of the heart
The students should be given a diagram of the heart. They should then make a long cut through the
aorta and left ventricle to the apex of the heart and identify the coronary artery that supplies the
heart muscle with blood. The students should then examine the inside of the ventricle and aorta and
any structures attached to their walls. A cut should be made into the left atrium and the thickness of
the walls of the atria and ventricles measured. The right side of the heart should then be examined
in the same way.
The students should then look at the areas where the atria and the ventricles join and examine the
valves which separate the two chambers. There are flaps of thin tissue, with tough ‘threads’
attached to the base of the flaps. The students should count the number of threads on each side of
the heart and think about how these valves work.
…………………………………………………..
28
1.2 Physiology sub-section: BREATH
Oxygen is vital for functioning of the human body. It is used by all cells to create energy, in particular
muscle cells. As the intensity of exercise increases, the use of oxygen increases, until it has reached
its maximum level (VO2 max). The amount of oxygen used during exercise or at rest can be measured
by either collecting air breathed out (which is stored in Douglas bags and analysing afterwards for
volume and oxygen content) or by analysing each individual breath using sophisticated equipment.
These methods are used to determine VO2 as described in the previous section.
When high levels of CO2 (the end product of O2 use) are detected in the blood, signals are sent to the
brain to increase respiratory rate and depth, in order to restore normal levels. Holding your breath
increases levels of CO2 in the blood. Hyperventilating decreases levels of CO2 in the blood. Both
these activities temporarily alter subsequent respiratory rate.
During maximum exercise the body tries to extract as much oxygen as possible in order to allow the
muscles to create energy. However, sometimes the oxygen demand (by the muscles) is more than
the oxygen supply (by the lungs and the blood). In this situation there is an oxygen deficit, known as
the maximal accumulated oxygen deficit, or MAOD. At the end of the exercise, this debt needs to be
repaid. If oxygen uptake is monitored post exercise it is clear that levels are above normal resting
values for some time – this is known as excess post exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).
To measure lung function and volumes, a spirometer is used. This piece of equipment is commonly
used for health screening. Spirometry gives an indication of volume and rate of breathing during
either a forced breath or normal breathing. Common measures are tidal volume (TV, a normal sized
breath, around 500ml in an adult), inspiratory reserve volume, IRV (the extra amount you can
breathe in after a normal breath), expiratory reserve volume, ERV (the extra amount you can
breathe out after a normal breath out), vital capacity (VC, the amount you can breathe out after a
maximal breath in (usually between 3 and 6 litres in an adult, depending on height) and FEV1 which
is the amount you breath out in the first second (this an indication of how open your airways are.
This is often low in asthmatics). The picture below shows some of these components, plus total lung
volume (TLV). Normal values for children are dependent on both age and height.
29
Effects of breath holding (BRE 01)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Paper bag, nose clip, stairs/skipping rope)
Aim : Observing the duration of breath holding under different conditions
Brief summary of methods:
Using a nose clip or pinching your nose, hold your breath for as long as possible under
conditions 1-4 (see below). Rest for two or three minutes between each condition. Sit on a
chair during these observations and work in pairs. Time how long you can hold your breath for
each condition.
Conditions for breath holding:
1. After a period of quiet breathing.
2. After hyperventilating (rapid deep breaths) for 2 minutes. Note any changes in colour of the
extremities and lips. Note any other physical sensations. Compare to quiet breathing.
OBSERVE EFFECTS
3. Repeat, except hyperventilate into a paper bag. Compare to quiet breathing and into paper
bag
OBSERVE EFFECTS
4. After running up and down the stairs five times/ skipping etc for 1 minute.
OBSERVE EFFECTS
…………………………………………………..
Effects of exercise on carbon dioxide output (BRE 02)
Source: http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_ideas/Zoo_p013.shtml
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Freshwater aquarium pH test kit, four clear pint-sized
plastic bottles, water, respirometer (homemade or otherwise), aeration set-up for de-acidifying PH
indicator solution, stopwatch.)
Aim : To assess the changes in carbon dioxide exhalation during exercise
Brief summary of methods:
1. The students should fill one of the clear plastic bottles to the top with water (pH<7), add 10-15
drops of the pH test solution, cap the bottle and mix. The solution should turn green or blue. 1/3 of
the respirometer should then be filled with the pH test solution and the level of the solution marked
on the bottle. A second bottle should then be filled ¼ full with the pH test solution and set aside as a
colour control.
2. The inlet and outlet tubes of the respirometer should then be set up (diagram available online).
The student participating in the test should indicate when they are ready so that the stopwatch can
be started. The student should maintain their current breathing rate (inhaling through the nose and
30
exhaling through the mouth) and exhale into the respirometer observing any changes in colour.
When the solution has turned yellow (pH of around 6) the time should be noted.
3. The aquarium aeration pump should then be used to turn the solution back to its original colour
(compare to control). Once this is achieved the student should repeat the process of exhaling into
the respirometer to achieve three resting time measurements.
4. The student should then exercise moderately (walk) or briskly (run) for 2-3 minutes and determine
how long the colour of the solution takes to change in comparison to rest. Three repeats are again
required, with aeration taking place after each attempt. The quicker the colour of the solution
changes, the more carbon dioxide is being exhaled. The students can also breathe in and out of a
paper bag and examine how this affects the colour of the solution.
…………………………………………………..
Assessment of resting lung volumes (BRE 03)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Spirometry equipment)
Aim : To assess 1) static and dynamic lung volumes 2) to determine relationships between lung
volumes and anthropometric variables 3) effects of posture on lung function
Brief summary of methods:
Record participant height, weight, chest circumference, arm span.
Measure, using the spirograph (nose clip on participant); tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume,
expiratory reserve volume, forced vital capacity.
Measure ; forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1)
Calculate dead space, maximal voluntary ventilation, total lung capacity and functional residual
capacity using normal procedures.
Assess lung volumes in relation to the anthropometric variables measured.
…………………………………………………..
Using a spirometer to assess lung function (BRE 04)
Source: http ://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/advanced/cells-to-systems/ventilationsystems/using-a-spirometer-to-investigate-human-lung-function,94,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (Spirometer, step, stopwatch)
Aim : To measure changes in lung volumes with exercise
Brief summary of methods:
1. The participant should be rested and sitting down with a nose clip in place. The participant should
then be connected to the spirometer and be told to breathe normally for a minute.
2. After the minute has elapsed the participant should breathe in as deeply as possible for a few
breaths, then return to normal breathing and also breathe out as far out as possible (followed by
normal breathing).
31
3. The participant should then be disconnected from the spirometer and asked to exercise for five
minutes; this can be walking up and down stairs or stepping on and off a low bench.
4. After the five minutes have elapsed the participant should be reconnected to the spirometer and
their breathing recorded.
The spirometer provides an output for each measurement period. The depth of breathing is
determined by measuring the vertical motion of the pen from one peak to the next trough and
comparing this with the initial volume calibration. The rate of breathing is determined with
reference to the time scale (the x axis of the spirometer output). Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve
volume and expiratory reserve volume can also be measured from the output of the spirometer. The
breathing measurements should be compared for rest and exercise.
…………………………………………………..
Observing the effects of exercise on respiratory rate and minute volumes
(BRE 05)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic/Intermediate (Douglas bags, stop watch, dry gas volume analyser,
stationary bike)
Aim : To measure changes in rate and minute volume with exercise. Minute volume is the amount of
air moved in one minute which is calculated as tidal volume x respiratory rate.
Brief summary of methods:
1. Once seated comfortably on a bike, the participant should put on a nose clip, then breathe
through the mouthpiece with the three-way tap open to the atmosphere for a short period for
acclimatisation
2. The tap should then be opened to the Douglas bag for five minutes during which time one
observer measures the respiration rate using a stop watch.
3. At the end of the 5 minute period the three-way tap is closed and the Douglas bag emptied
through a gas meter to measure the volume of its contents.
4. Use the stationary bike provided, the participant should exercise for five minutes. NB; this should
be light exercise only.
5. During the last minute the expired air should be collected in a Douglas bag and respiration rate
measured. Calculate and compare tidal and minute volumes between conditions. Discuss what is
happening in the body to cause the increase in minute volume.
…………………………………………………..
32
Assessment of ventilation change during exercise (BRE 06)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Spirometry equipment, gas analyser, arm crank ergometer,
stationary bike)
Aim: To assess the effects of arm and leg exercise on pulmonary ventilation. Students can predict
which type of exercise will have the greatest effect on ventilation change – consider muscle mass
and energy demand.
Brief summary of methods:
1. Measure height and weight of participant. Take baseline measures of lung volumes at rest (1
min)(tidal volume, breathing frequency) and record baseline oxygen and carbon dioxide measures.
2. Participant exercises at 25W on arm ergometer with increments of 25W every 3 min until
exhaustion. Collect expired air final minute of each 3 min segment.
3. Rest 10 min, then repeat using stationary bike, starting at 25W, but increasing resistance by 50W
each 3 min. Collect expired air final minute of each 3 min segment.
…………………………………………………..
Effects of load carriage on economy of walking (BRE 07)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (treadmill, gas analysis system) – optional addition of heart
rate monitoring.
Aim: To assess the effects of loading on oxygen uptake during walking.
Brief summary of methods: Participant walks at speed of 3km h-1 for 3 min at each selected gradient
(downhill and uphill, of around 5, 10, 15 and 25%). Participant wears a rucksack (with an appropriate
load in) for each walk, and repeats the walk with no load. Collect expired gas throughout the
experiment.
…………………………………………………..
Assessing muscular efficiency (BRE 08)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (electronically braked bike, gas analysis system) – optional
addition of heart rate monitoring.
Aim: To examine the efficiency of various cycling cadences, i.e. is it harder to cycle slower at a higher
resistance, or faster at a lower resistance?
Brief summary of methods: Electronically braked bike maintains work rate (power output)
independent of changes in pedal cadence (rate), i.e. even if you change pedalling rate your actual
work output remains the same as the bike automatically increases resistance. Work rate is fixed at
120W.
33
1. Measure participants VO2 at rest. Participant then cycles for 20min at 120W with a pedal cadence
of 50 rpm. Measure VO2 in the final 2 minutes.
2. Rest 10min.
3. Then repeat at cadences of 70rpm and 100rpm. Compare VO2 for the same workload at different
pedalling frequencies.
…………………………………………………..
Ventilation: Normal volumes and observing the effects of acute exercise
(BRE 09)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Powerlab or similar device to record spirometry trace,
mouth pieces and nose clips, Douglas Bags )
Aim: To measure lung volume parameters and to investigate the regulation of ventilation.
Brief summary of methods:
Use the spirometry pod on the "Powerlab" to produce a spirometry trace sitting quietly at rest. After
a few cycles of quiet breathing inspire maximally then make a complete maximal forced expiration
before returning to quiet resting ventilation. Repeat if necessary to obtain a good trace.
Record tidal volume, IRV, ERV and so on. Compare these between class mates of different sizes
(height in particular is a good indicator of lung volume).
Next, collect expired air in Douglas bags to observe the effects of exercise on ventialtion.
1. Evacuate the Douglas bags in preparation for collection
2. Adjust the stationary bike for the participants height
3. Rest for 1 min during which time collect the expired air in the Douglas bag
4. Cycle at 100W (counting ventilation rate for each minute) for 3 min
5. During the 3rd minute of exercise at 100W collect expired air.
6. As soon as possible after gas collection, measure VE (ATPS) using the gas meter
and %O2 (ATPS) using the TEEM metabolic analyser or Powerlab analysers.
This could be repeated with subjects exercising at 200W. Does respiratory rate and minute volume
double too ?
…………………………………………………..
The structure of the lungs (BRE 10)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/intermediate/cells-to-systems/ventilationsystems/dissecting-lungs,114,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Intermediate
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Animal lung, scalpel, dissecting scissors, ruler,
gloves and soap and water)
Aim: To assess the structure of a lung and observe how structure relates to function
Brief summary of methods: The students should identify the following parts of the respiratory
system:
34
Trachea; Cartilaginous hoops in the trachea- these are horseshoe shaped and keep the trachea
open for air but allow the tube to bend and flex easily; Bronchi; The first bronchioles; Any vessels
linking the lungs to the heart- The participants should feel inside these vessels and describe what
they feel; The pleural membrane- thin layer of connective tissue covering the lungs; The
pericardium- the layer of tissue surrounding the heart.
The students should then inflate the lungs using rubber tubing and a foot pump and observe how
they respond. If the larynx is still attached to the lungs the participants should try forcing air
through whilst squeezing it tight. As air moves past the skin and cords in the larynx it will make a
noise. The students should discuss how similar this is to the noise that animals make in real life.
Students should then cut a small piece of spongy lung tissue and examine it more closely. They
should drop it into a beaker of water and observe that it floats- indicating that even at complete rest
the lung tissue still holds and large volume of air.
…………………………………………………..
Determining the ventilatory threshold (BRE 11)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Treadmill or Stationary bike, gas analysis
system)
Aim: To determine the ventilatory threshold. When exercise exceeds a certain intensity, the
relationship between power output and ventilation stops being linear. This is because respiration
increases in an effort to counteract increases in blood acidity, which are detrimental to
performance. We would expect to see ventilator threshold at a higher point in fit individuals.
Brief summary of methods: Use a ramp protocol increasing by 20W min-1 or 1 km h-1 or an
incremental protocol, such as the Bruce protocol (BL 17), with oxygen measured constantly (online)
or in 45 second periods using Douglas bags. Plot ventilation (VE) (in l min-1 STPD) against exercise
intensity. VT is determined as the point at which the linear relationship between VE and exercise
intensity is lost.
A more BASIC version of this could be done without gas analysis, by simply increasing resistance on a
stationary bike and counting respiratory rate.
…………………………………………………..
Oxygen kinetics during exercise (BRE 12)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Online gas analysis, exercise bike)
Aim : To demonstrate, using on-line respiratory gas analysis, the pattern of oxygen uptake at the
onset, and cessation, of steady state exercise (‘on’ and ‘off’ oxygen kinetics). The data provides the
opportunity to work out oxygen deficit, EPOC, and metabolic efficiency (the proportion of metabolic
energy consumption that appears as external work).
35
Brief summary of methods:
1. Participant wears a Polar HRM or transmitter belt compatible with the gas analyser then must lie
quietly in a supine position. Fit the mask to the participant.
2. Observe oxygen consumption until a resting steady state (equivalent to resting metabolic rate;
RMR) is achieved (or for 10 min; whichever comes first).
3. The participant should mount the bike and sit quietly in the ready position until oxygen
consumption stabilizes (or for 5 min, whichever comes first).
4. The participant should then commence cycling at 60 rpm (enter a marker simultaneously into the
Oxycon) and continue, keeping a steady cadence, for 10 min.
5. Immediately 10 min has elapsed, the participant should lie prone on the massage bench and
recording should continue until oxygen consumption returns to ‘RMR’ or for 10 min whichever
comes first.
6. Meanwhile increase the weight on the bike weight carriage to give a power output of 200W at 60
rpm.
7. When the participant’s oxygen consumption has stabilized, repeat steps 3-7
…………………………………………………..
Estimating maximal oxygen uptake using gas analysis (BRE 13)
(also see blood section)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Douglas Bags and gas analyser, HRM, stationary
bike)
Aim : To Predict peak aerobic power and VO2 max
Brief summary of methods:
Participant undertakes a sub-maximal incremental exercise test on the bike.
The test should employ 4 stages and each stage should last 3 min. Collect expired air for the final 1
min of each stage (i.e. 4 Douglas bags). Maintain cadence of 70 – 90 rpm. Note heart rate and
power at the end of each stage
Analyse the contents of your Douglas Bags for %O2, %CO2 and gas volumes and calculate the VO 2 for
each stage
Use VO 2, power and heart rate for each stage to determine the predicted VO2 max
Assume maximal heart rate is (220-age), and determine the power output at 125% of predicted VO2
max. From power output at 125% VO2 max calculate the weight which must be applied to the bike
during the MAOD test (below) using the participant’s selected rpm.
…………………………………………………..
36
Maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) (BRE 14)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Online gas analysis, exercise bike, lactate
analysing kit)
Aim : To determine the maximum accumulated oxygen deficit (This is the amount of oxygen your
body requires over and above that with which it can take up during the exercise. This oxygen need to
be ‘paid back’ after the exercise has finished – i.e. you create a debt)
Brief summary of methods:
1. Participant cycles at a power corresponding to 125%VO2 max until volitional fatigue (i.e. subject
can no longer continue). Immediately start to collect expired air in the 1st Douglas Bag. Every 30 s
move onto the next Douglas Bag.
2. If participant cycles for more than 90 s then collect all of the final expired air in the 4th Douglas
Bag.
3. Analyse the contents of your Douglas Bags for %O2, %CO2 and gas volume
4. Calculate the VO2 for each bag. Using the value of VO2 for 125%VO2 max & and time to exhaustion
calculate the predicted oxygen consumption if all the energy had been supplied by the aerobic
system. From the values calculated above determine MAOD as the difference between maximal
oxygen uptake and the theoretical amount of oxygen used during the 125% maximal oxygen uptake
trial.
…………………………………………………..
Simulated altitude during exercise (BRE 15)
Source: London Metropolitan University
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Intermediate/Advanced (Douglas Bags plus gas analysis, exercise bike,
compressed nitrogen, HRM)
Aim: To determine the effect of simulated altitude on exercise. How does the body deal with a
‘reduced’ oxygen environment ? What happens to respiratory rate, minute volume, rate of exertion
and so on when the body is ‘up a mountain’ ?
Brief summary of methods: Simulate altitude by adding nitrogen to room air in a Douglas Bag, at
desired ratios (more nitrogen for a higher altitude).
1. Set up participant so they are breathing in from the simulated altitude bag, and out into an empty
Douglas Bag. Attach HRM to participant
2. Begin an incremental exercise protocol, e.g. begin at 100W and increase W by 25-50 every 3
minutes.
3. Collect expired gas in last minute of each stage. Record HR continuously. Count respiratory rate
during the final minute. Ask participant to comment on rate of perceived exhaustion during the final
minute of each stage.
4. Continue until at least 4 stages have been completed.
37
5. Allow 10 minutes rest and HR to recover to near normal.
6. Repeat the above experiment, but this time participant breaths room air (randomise the order of
trials between participants).
Compare HR, VE, tidal volume etc between conditions
38
1.3 Physiology sub-section BRAIN
The brain and the nervous system are very important in controlling muscle activity, as well as
controlling the heart and the lungs (via the autonomic nervous system) both at rest and during
activity. Reaction time and accuracy are very important in sporting activities and may make the
difference between winning and losing. The brain is very important in this. Additionally, interference
(from crowds or distracting thoughts) can also alter performance and reaction time. Imagery is a
technique some athletes use to try and overcome this.
There are 3 basic types of reaction time test: In simple reaction time experiments, there is only one
stimulus and one response. For example 'reaction to sound' is a simple reaction time measure. In
recognition reaction time experiments, there are some stimuli that should be responded to (the
'memory set'), and others that should get no response (the 'distractor set'). There is still only one
correct response. 'Symbol recognition' and 'tone recognition' are both recognition experiments. In
choice reaction time experiments, the user must give a response that corresponds to the stimulus,
such as pressing a key corresponding to a letter if the letter appears on the screen.
Nerves carry electrical signals from the brain to muscles to cause contraction. A healthy nerve carries
messages quickly, but a diseased nerve or one that is adversely affected by cold temperatures or
some drugs in the body responds slowly. Speed of nerve conduction can be measured by electrically
stimulating a nerve supplying a muscle and measuring time that the muscle takes to respond. These
are fairly advanced experiments.
Simpler studies observing nerve action include simple tendon hammer activities, in which
participants elicit a stretch response. The typical patella tendon stretch reflex works by briefly
stretching the patella (knee cap) tendon, then watching the knee extend as a stretch reflex occurs
via pathways to and from the spinal cord. The stretch reflex serves to protect the muscle from a
sudden and damaging stretch, and only involves nerves as high as spinal level, i.e. signals do not go
all the way to the brain. The stretch reflex can also be performed at the elbow joint, although this is
more tricky.
…………………………………………………..
39
The stretch reflex (BRA 01)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Easy
Equipment required level: Basic (tendon hammer)
Aim : To elicit a simple stretch reflex at the patella tendon
Brief summary of methods:
1. Subject sits on a table with one leg crossed over the other. Make sure legs do not reach the
floor.
2. The tester palpates (feels) under the patella and feels for the patella tendon. It may be a
good idea to make a small pen mark on the subject’s leg about 2cm under the patella as a
target.
3. The tester gently taps the target with the tendon hammer and watches a reflex contraction
of the quadriceps (thigh) muscle. (NB this make take some practice!)
…………………………………………………..
The stroop test (BRA 02)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Easy
Equipment required level: Basic (pens, paper, bean bags)
Aim : Observing the effects of ‘confusing’ the brain on a simple word task and a catching task
Brief summary of methods:
1. Participants read aloud names of colours, written in the same colour ink as the word (i.e. RED
written in red ink), or in different colour words (i.e. RED written in green ink). Time how long it takes
to read 20 colours correctly in each condition.
2. Participants do the same as above, but this time attempting to catch a bean bag/ball thrown from
a partner. Record correct number of catches and errors/ time taken to correctly read 20 colours.
…………………………………………………..
Music and performance (BRA 03)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Easy
Equipment required level: Basic (any type of ergometer (bike/rower etc), music player e.g. MP3)
Aim : To determine whether work output can be effected by listening to music
Brief summary of methods:
Each participant, in random order, completes the following tasks:
Trial 1: Each participant should work as hard as they can on their allocated equipment for 3 minutes.
Heart rate, work output and cadence should be recorded every 30 sec
40
Trial 2: Each participant should work as hard as they can on their allocated equipment for 3 minutes.
Heart rate, work output and cadence should be recorded every 30 sec. In this trial music will be
played.
Trial 3: Each participant should work as hard as they can on their allocated equipment for 3 minutes.
Heart rate, work output and cadence should be recorded every 30 sec. In this trial different (to trial
2) music will be played.
…………………………………………………..
The effective of practice on skill acquisition (BRA 04)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Easy/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (pistol or similar target shooting apparatus)
Aim : To examine the effect of training on the acquisition of a skill. How does a ‘dry run’ help
performance? Do we activity templates in the brain to allow effective action?
Brief summary of methods:
Each person will be allocated 3 targets. Mark each one with your name and write “target 1” on one
target “target 2” on the second and “target 3” on the third.
1. Each of the participants should give their target to the demonstrator
2. The demonstrator will then hang up the target and load the pistol
3. On the command “ready” the participant will aim the gun at the target and fire off 5 rounds
The participant then returns the pistol to the holder
The demonstrator then retrieves and returns the target
Record the score on the sheet provided.
This procedure is followed for 3 trials
After this, participants will have one of the following sets of practice drills:
A: demonstrator will show you how to improve stance, grip aim etc. OR
B: demonstrator will show you how to improve stance, grip aim etc and give you an unloaded gun
with which to practice.
Repeat the target shooting and compare data between groups (A and B)
…………………………………………………..
The effect of imagery on skill (BRA 05)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Easy/Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Dart board and darts, Table tennis bat and ball, Radio
controlled car and course)
Aim : To test the notion that imagery can improve acquisition of a skill – does skill improve if the
participant imagines themselves successfully performing a task ?
41
Brief summary of methods:
Work in three groups –one per set of equipment.
Group 1: Trial 1
Each participant should throw 3 sets of darts and record their total score –try to get the highest
score you can!
Now perform imagery exercise (see below), Repeat the above as Trial 2
Group 2 : Trial 1
Each participant should hit the ball in to the air repeatedly as many times as they can in 2 minutes.
Please record their total number of “hits” –try to get the highest score you can!
Now perform the imagery exercise (see below), Repeat as Trial 2
Group 3: Trial 1
Each participant should “drive the car” around the track record the time taken and add 5 seconds for
every object you hit. Try to be as quick and clean as you can!
Now perform the imagery exercise (see below). Repeat as Trial 2
Imagery exercise: A few minutes before your next go sit quietly, close your eyes and breathe deeply
and slowly to reduce your heart rate. Then think about the task you are going to perform and run
through the components of it in your mind, in the correct order and at about the rate you would
expect to perform them. Do this at least 5 times, make sure you get the order right and make sure
you leave nothing out. Try to imagine the various feature of the skill, such as….
letting the dart go at the correct place and imagine it flying through the air,
or tapping the ball into the air and imagine it rising and then falling,
or the car moving forward and the controls making it move.
Also make sure that you are mentally rehearsing the task until just before you have your go.
Compare results between trials 1 and 2 for each task
…………………………………………………..
The effect of caffeine on reaction time (BRA 06)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/intermediate/control-and-communication/reflexactions/
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (fixed volumes of caffeine and caffeine free drinks, meter rule)
Aim: To examine the effects of caffeine on reaction time. It is thought that caffeine increases
concentration and decreases reaction time. This has been shown to happen fairly quickly after
consumption of caffeine. Around 70- 100mg should show a response – this is one moderately strong
cup of coffee.
Brief summary of methods: The participant should have their hand approximately one meter off the
floor. The investigator should place the zero of the ruler just above the participants’ hand and drop
42
the ruler when they are ready. The participant should try to catch the ruler as quickly as possible; the
distance at where the ruler is caught is noted. This should be repeated 2-3 times.
Participants should then be provided with two drinks, a caffeinated and decaffeinated drink. The
experiment is double-blind design, the participant is not aware of which drink is caffeinated and
which is not. The above process should be repeated after the consumption of each drink. The
content of the drinks can then be revealed and the results compared.
…………………………………………………..
Reaction time study series 1-5 (BRA 07)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Powerlab, with tendon hammer, light switch and EMG
attached)
Aim : To explore reflexes and reaction times. You will observe simple and complex reflexes in a
volunteer, and measure reaction times to harmless visual and auditory cues. You will also study the
time required for a planned voluntary response to a cue.
General methods
1. Ensure that the Powerlab is switched on and the tendon hammer, light switch and EMG leads
connected to the appropriate inputs.
Setting up the participant for EMG
2. Attach 2 EMG electrodes on the anterior mid-line of the participant’s right leg, with the centres i)
5cm and ii) 13cm above the proximal margin of the patella. Attach the EMG leads to the electrodes.
3. Place the earth strap around the participant’s wrist.
4. Press START on the Chart software, supplied by PowerLab. Instruct the participant to kick their leg
forward (ensuring nobody or anything is in its way!)
5. After several kicks press STOP.
NB. At least 3 students should be a participant for all exercises. It is important that each participant
completes exercises 1-5.
Exercise 1: The stretch (myotactic) reflex
Objective: To observe the effect of voluntary motor activity on the myotactic reflex.
Method
The participant should sit in a chair and cross the right leg over the left. Check that the right foot can
swing backwards and forwards freely.
Press START on the Chart software.
Firmly tap the right patellar tendon (just below the knee cap) with the tendon hammer and watch
the knee jerk.
REPEAT 3 times
43
Record the time difference between the tendon hammer spike and the start of the EMG trace.
Repeat this on the 3 occasions and then calculate the average time for the response (Table 1).
Ask the volunteer to cup and link the fingers of both hands in front of them, and then pull strongly
outwards across their chest (this is the ‘Jendrassik manoeuvre’). Repeat steps 1-4 while the
volunteer continues to do this. Note the result in Table 1.
Exercise 2: Reaction time to a visual cue
Objective: To measure reaction time to a visual cue.
Method
Instruct the participant to kick their leg when they see the light come on.
REPEAT steps 1-5 in exercise 1, but instead of tapping the knee tendon (step 3) press the light switch
(out of the participant’s view).
When the participant sees the light illuminate they should kick their leg.
Repeat 3 times
Record the time difference between the light-on signal and the start of the EMG trace in Table 1.
Exercise 3: Reaction time to visual cue with a distracting task
Objective: To measure the reaction time to a cue while the participant is doing mental arithmetic.
Method
REPEAT steps 1-5 in exercise 2, but ask the participant to count down, aloud, from 100, in sevens, i.e.
starting from 100 to subtract 7 repeatedly as quickly as possible i.e.100, 93, 86….
While the participant is doing mental arithmetic, illuminate the timing light.
When the participant sees the timing light illuminate they should kick their leg.
Keep the volunteer counting down and illuminate the light at ~10 second intervals for 3 occasions.
Record the time difference between the light-on signal and the start of the EMG trace in Table 1.
Exercise 4: Reaction time to an auditory cue
Objective: To measure the reaction time to an auditory cue.
Method
The participant should sit facing away from both the place where the hammer will be tapped and the
computer screen, but should be close enough to hear a vigorous tap of the hammer.
REPEAT steps 1-5 in exercise 1, but tap the tendon hammer on a table behind the participant.
When the participant hears the hammer hit the table they should kick their leg.
Repeat 3 times
Record the time difference between the tendon hammer spike and the start of the EMG trace in
Table 1.
Exercise 5: Reaction time to an auditory cue with a warning
Objective: To measure the reaction time to an auditory cue given immediately after a verbal prompt
(simulating the start of a race).
44
Method
REPEAT steps 1-5 in exercise 4, but give a verbal warning e.g. get set and then tap the hammer
behind the participant.
When the volunteer hears the tap they should kick their leg.
Repeat 3 times. Record the time difference between the tendon hammer spike and the start of the
EMG trace in Table 1.
…………………………………………………..
Reaction time of race start (BRA 08)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic /Intermediate (a stopwatch and an accurate timer or Timing gates)
Aim: To investigate how different stimuli affect the ability to respond- type, intensity, to investigate
if there is a learning effect: can you improve your reactions and to investigate if distracter’s can alter
response time.
Brief summary of methods: In this experiment “athletes” measure how quickly it takes to get to the
timing gate (5m from start) with no distraction and after listening to different audible and visual
stimuli (i.e. as in a crowd).
Ulnar Nerve Conduction (BRA 09)
Source: University of Swansea
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Advanced (Stimulating electrodes, recording electrodes, PC with
software)
Aim: Determination of the conduction velocity of motor fibres of human ulnar nerve, and to observe
the effects of temperature change on this conduction velocity.
Brief summary of methods:
1. Connection to the subject:
Expose the subject's arm. This should be supported comfortably on the bench with the subject
sitting, then attach the recording and earth electrodes.
a. Clean the wrist, little finger and hypothenar eminence (fleshy part on the palm under the little
finger) with a cotton wool swab soaked in alcohol.
b. Attach the wrist earth electrode to the outside of the wrist. Press the plaster and electrode close
to the skin to ensure a good contact.
c. Similarly attach the recording electrodes to the little finger (connect to red lead) and hypothenar
eminence (connect to blue lead).
2. Stimulation and Recording:
a. The ulnar nerve is stimulated at three points where it is close to the surface. The position of the
leading cathodal stimulating electrode is marked on each occasion. Use with a pulse width of 0.2ms
and a voltage which gives a good response but is not uncomfortable for the subject (start at 30V).
45
b. When the ulnar nerve is successfully stimulated a biphasic potential should appear on the
computer screen. The stimulus artefact is point A which represents the time the stimulus was
applied to the stimulating electrodes. The beginning of the recorded potential point B gives the
distance A-B which represents the time taken for the fastest nerve fibres to conduct from the point
of stimulation to the recording electrodes on the muscle.
c. Finally, repeat the measurements after the arm has been cooled using a bag of ice for 5 minutes
46
1.4 Physiology sub-section: BRAWN
Muscle strength and power are very important in sports performance and can be measured using
various devices for the whole body or part of the body. This includes:
a. lifting weights
b. using specialist resistance devices including handgrip, or a Smith press
c. flywheels
d. bike (including Wingate)
Strength and power (how fast you can move a weight over a distance) are dependent on which part
of the body being used and the type of muscle. In general, a large muscle mass results in a large
force production. Strength and power generally rely on anaerobic energy production (see the
introduction section for a reminder of this). Many tests are available to determine power output.
These can be sophisticated, such as a Wingate protocol, in which power is measured from resistance
and distance on a stationary bike, to simple jump tasks, where power is estimated. Handgrip
dynamometers are relatively inexpensive and give a good indication of overall body strength.
Normal values for a 10 year old are from 15 to 17kg, and for a 15 year old normal values range
between 27 and 39kg. Males usually have a slightly stronger grip than females. An isokinetic
dynamometer can measure power output at any joint in any direction. Not surprisingly, these are
expensive pieces of equipment.
The type of contraction is important: isotonic (normal contraction, with moving joints e.g. doing a
press up), isometric (no movement of joint e.g. carrying shopping bag doing a wall squat ).
Additionally, the angle of the joint can make a difference (e.g. saddle height on a bike, or angle of
the elbow during a static contraction). This is because of the way muscles contract. When a muscle
contracts, the filaments that comprise the muscle slide over one another, becoming more
overlapped as the contraction continues. The optimum point of strength is when the filaments are
in between not overlapped enough, and too overlapped.
Muscle strength can also be affected by temperature (cold inhibits muscle contraction), drugs
(caffeine) can temporarily increase muscle strength and endurance, whilst other drugs aid recovery
from exercise to enhance performance (e.g. steroids)
Electromyograms (EMG) allow investigators to look at the electrical activity of muscle. Surface
electrodes are placed on a muscle and connected to a PC (such as PowerLab), and the electrical
activity that results from a voluntary or involuntary muscle contraction can be seen. Various
experiments can be done to observe the effects of different variables, such as speed of contraction
or resistance, on EMG activity.
…………………………………………………..
47
Isometric handgrip strength test (BRW 01)
Source: Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (handgrip dynamometer)
Aim : To assess isometric grip strength.
Brief summary of methods:
Participant stands facing straight ahead. Adjust grip size so middle finger mid portion is at a right
angles when the dynamometer is held, so allowing optimum overlap of muscle filaments.
Participants forearm placed at any angel between 90 and 180°. Wrist should be at the mid prone
position (palm facing the leg when arm relaxed by side). Participant exerts maximal force. Perform 3
trials with each hand, with 30 seconds rest.
…………………………………………………..
Simple muscle fatigue (BRW 02)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (handweight)
Aim: To monitor the progression of fatigue during sequential isometric contractions
Brief summary of methods:
Participant stands with back to a wall. The arm is medially rotated into a supinated (facing the
ceiling) position, hold a dumbbell of an appropriate weight (almost maximal; try adding 5 kg to start
with) horizontally with the dominant arm. Time a sustained isometric contraction until ‘you can no
longer maintain the horizontal position’. Relax for 10 sec then repeat. Complete 5-10 cycles,
recording the time to failure for each trial.
…………………………………………………..
Relationship between muscle size and strength (BRW 03)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic/ Intermediate (Basic – hand grip dynamometer, Intermediate Myometer, a force transducer that measures muscle contraction strength)
Aim: To estimate the maximum force (tension) that your muscle tissue can produce. Is a larger cross
section of muscle associated with a greater ability to produce force ?
Brief Summary of Methods:
1. Estimate the cross sectional area of the belly of the participant's tensed biceps with their arm
flexed at 90° (specify any assumptions that you make about the geometry of the muscle).
2. Using the ‘myometer’, determine the maximum vertical force that your biceps can produce at an
elbow angle of 90° (or use the handgrip dynamometer)
3. Calculate the tension produced by each cm2 (see i) above) of biceps muscle tissue in an isometric
contraction at 90°.
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Estimation of muscle mass and regional muscularity (BRW 04)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment level: Basic (Tape measure, skinfold calipers)
Aim: To estimate total and regional muscle mass
Brief summary of methods:
Details and photographs of exact skinfold technique can be seen at
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/skinfold-sites.htm
Muscle (kg) = [(CDU + CDF + CDT + CDC) /8]2 x ht (cm) x 6.5 x 0.001
Muscle (%) = (Muscle (kg) /body mass) x 100
Where:
CDU = max upper arm girth/π – triceps skinfold (cm)
CDF = max forearm girth / π – forearm skinfold (cm)
CDT = midthigh girth /π – thigh skinfold (cm)
CDC = max calf girth /π – calf skinfold (cm)
…………………………………………………..
Force-power relationships in muscle contraction (BRW 05)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment level: Basic/Intermediate (Weights, Timing gates)
Aim: To determine the effect of increasing load on power output in muscle contraction. Is there a
point at which the speed at which you can complete the contractions becomes suddenly slower?
What mechanisms may be responsible for this drop in power ?
Brief summary of methods:
Determine your 1RM on the bench press (laying supine hold a weight bar with both hands, at chest
level , elbows bent. Push the bar up, extending the elbows. 1RM is the maximum amount of weight
you can lift in this position)
Calculate 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100% of your 1RM, and complete three maximum
effort (i.e. as fast as possible) repetitions at each weight, beginning with the lightest. Time reps
using the light-sensitive timing gates.
…………………………………………………..
49
Estimation of fat free mass using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)
(BRW 06)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic/ Intermediate (BIA)
Aim: To estimate the fat free mass and fat mass ratios in the body. Bio-electrical impedance analysis
(BIA) measures the impedance or opposition to the flow of an electric current through the body
fluids contained mainly in the lean and fat tissue. Impedance is low in lean tissue, where intracellular
and extra cellular fluid and electrolytes are primarily contained, but high in fat tissue. Impedance is
thus proportional to body water volume (TBW).
Brief Summary of Methods:
To perform a test, the participant is asked to lie down and two disposable electrodes are placed on
the right hand and two on the right foot. The crocodile/alligator clips are attached to the exposed
tabs on the electrodes. Once the appropriate data of gender, height, weight and age are keyed into
the BIA unit, the enter key is pressed and within seconds the comprehensive personal body
composition statistical analysis is displayed on the LCD screen.
…………………………………………………..
Field tests for power (BRW 07)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Stopwatch, stairs, measuring tape, chalk, jump mat (optional))
Aim: To estimate power from a variety of simple jump tests
Brief summary of methods:
Plyometic jump test: Participants perform 3 trials of a plyometric leap test. From a standing
position, participants perform 3 consecutive leaps by springing from one foot to the opposite foot.
The participants land on both feet after the last leap. The test is identical to the triple jump
performed in track and field, except that this test begins from a standing start instead of a running
start. Measurements are made at the point of the participant’s heel closest to the starting line.
Bosco test: The participant performs a series of jumps for 15 seconds on a contact mat. Total flight
time is calculated by summing the consecutive flight times. A greater total flight time reflects a
greater anaerobic power.
(Alternatively, participants carry out a simple standing jump near a wall and mark the difference
(using chalk on fingertips) between arm extended standing height and arm extended jump, to
determine jump height.
The Margaria Stair test: This is a test of anaerobic power that requires very little equipment. It
has been shown to correlate with 30-sec Wingate at r=0.75. (This is a strong, positive relationship).
Participants ascend 12 stairs, each around 17.5cm in height, 2 at a time. Power produced is
calculated as Power = (W x 9.8 x d) /t (where t is time taken to run up the 12 stairs)
50
Vertical jump using basic equipment: Jump height can be assessed using chalk on the finger tips,
then by marking the height of the outstretched arm on the wall. The participant then jumps and
touches the wall (leaving a chalk mark) as high as possible. Difference between the 2 chalk marks is
jump height. Alternatively, devices such as the Vertek instrument allow participants to swivel plastic
markers to indicate jump height.
Calculate power (P) in kgm.s-1 as: P= 2.21 x wt x √D, where 2.21 is a constant, wt is weight in kg , D is
jump height in metres.
…………………………………………………..
Anaerobic step test (BRW 08)
Source: Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Bench- height should allow the participants knee to be at
approximate right angle when one leg placed on bench and one on the floor (40cm is normal),
stopwatch)
Aim: To estimate anaerobic power (i.e. the ability of the body to produce a high energy for a short
duration) from a stepping task.
Brief summary of methods:
Participant stands side on to a bench with dominant leg (test leg) on top of the bench. The other leg
(the free leg) need not touch the bench when the test leg lifts the body. During the test each step
raises the body to the top of the step with the one test leg. The legs and the back must be
straightened with each step. Arms used for balance only. The participant is instructed to go at a
maximal pace for the whole test, until fatigued. This is defined as the participant being able to make
another step without an obvious rest pause. Steps are counted as each time the test leg is fully
straightened. Number of steps completed in 60 seconds is recorded.
Calculate power as AnP (kgm.min-1 )= [(F x D)/t] x 1.33 Where F is weight in kg, D is 0.4m x no of
steps in 1 minute, 1.33 is a conversion factor to account for eccentric work.
…………………………………………………..
Sprint tests (BRW 09)
Source: Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Stopwatch, stairs, measuring tape)
Aim: To estimate horizontal power from a sprint
Brief summary of methods:
Participant sprints either 40, 50 or 60 m. This can be repeated up to 3 times with a 2-3 min rest in
between sets. Time as accurately as possible – to nearest 1/10th second. Convert sprint time to
velocity (v) by dividing time (s) into the distance (m) i.e. v = m/s. Multiply the velocity by body
weight in kg, to express the performance as power in kgm. s-1
………………………………………………….
51
Strength testing with goniometry: effect of joint position on strength (BRW
10)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low/Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic /Intermediate (goniometers- instrument used to measure joint
angles, handgrip dynamometer, force transducer or hip and back dynamometer)
Aim: determining strength in various positions
Brief summary of methods:
The effect of forearm position on handgrip strength
Adjust the handgrip dynamometer to the size of your participant’s hand as instructed and perform 3
repetitions of each of the following manoeuvres. Exhale while you contract and hold for 3-5 seconds.
1. Elbow extended, hand by side, palm inwards (don’t squeeze against your leg)
Record three readings and highlight the best.
2. Elbow flexed at 90 degrees, palm inwards (you don’t need to measure 90 degrees)
Record three readings and highlight the best.
3. Elbow flexed at 90 degrees with full forearm pronation (palm down).
Record three readings and highlight the best.
The effect of joint angle on strength
Set up the hip and back dynamometer (or force transducer) to use in a preacher curl (this is bicep
curl with upper arms resting on a hard surface, subject in a seated position).
Measure the total ROM of elbow flexion and extension while in the preacher curl position.
Get someone (heavy) to stand on the dynamometer
Measure isometric strength with the upper and lower arms forming the following angles (best of
three trials)
120_____________________
90______________________
60 ______________________
…………………………………………………..
52
The Borg cycling strength test with constant load (BRW 11)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Stationary bike (with ability to change resistance fairly
accurately)
Aim: To determine maximum power output that can be sustained for a period of 30 sec using the
Borg RPE scale
Brief summary of methods: Participant cycles fro a series of 30 s bouts at constant work rates of 50,
100, 150, 200, 250 and 300……. W until an RPE of about 16-17 is achieved. Pedalling speed should be
kept constant at 60 or 70 rpm. Work intervals are separated by 2 min rest periods. PRE and HR are
recorded in the final 5 s. Predicted maximum work rate (W1) for 30 s is calculated by extrapolating
the data to an RPE of 19-20. Participant then cycles at predicted maximum until exhaustion (T1).
Using standard equations: adjust max Wattage to W2 in the light of T1 (W2 = W1 x (T1/30s)0.25
…………………………………………………..
Power 170 Test (BRW 12)
Source: Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Moderate (Stationary bike, HRM, stopwatch)
Aim: To predict power output at a projected heart rate of 170 bpm (P170) ; a higher power output
at the same absolute HR (170 bpm) indicates a greater fitness / strength.
Brief summary of methods:
Participant exercises for 6 minutes at the first of the two prescribed power levels (see below). These
should elicit heart rates that differ by at least 20 bpm. Also, an absolute difference of at least 50W
between the two power levels maximizes accuracy of predicting P170.
Time
Power
Target HR (bpm)
0-6 min
25-100 (W)
120-140
=150-600 kgm. min-1
6-12 min
75-150 (W)
150-170
-1
=450-1050 kgm. min
For the first 6 min, participant cycles at 50 rpm. For the second power level, the cadence may need
to increase slightly. Measure HR at 3 min intervals to allow for correction of resistance to achieve
target HR. Calculate P170 using a nomogram, a graph or the equation (below) which is merely the
transformation of a straight line. The P170 is the result of dividing the product of the difference of
the first and second power (P) levels and the difference of HR 170 and HR at second P level by the
difference of the two heart rates at the two P levels.
P170 = {[(P12 – P6) x (170 – HR12]/[(HR12-HR6)]} + P12
Where P6 / P12 is power level at 6th /12th min (kgm. min-1), respectively
53
HR6 and HR12 are the heart rates at the 6th /12th min respectively
…………………………………………………..
Using a flywheel dynamometer to estimate velocity / power relationships
(BRW 13)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Moderate (Flywheel dynamometer)
Aim: To observe the relationship between velocity (speed) and peak force in a muscle. A certain
amount of inertia is important in overcoming resistance. Trying to move a heavy object at a slow
speed is often more difficult than moving it at a fast speed.
Brief summary of methods:
The dynamometer will record the peak force from the acceleration of the flywheel over the range of
motion and the velocity of the movement. The flywheel dampers can be opened and closed to allow
more or less air into the veins – opening the dampers slows the velocity of movement and vice
versa.
1. Set the handle so that it is out of the way of your knees, and adjust the foot position so that your
foot rests on the flat on the stationary section of the rest
2. Set the damper levers on the flywheel so that they are all open (pointing slightly outwards)
3. Press the “on/off” button twice to reset the system. The system automatically generates 3 warmup repetitions. These should be used to practice the movement, gradually building the effort to
about 50% of the maximum. Allow about 5 seconds between each push. During the 3 practice
movements the display will show: “start in…3…2…1”
4. On the fourth push the participant should make a maximum effort throughout the entire range of
motion. The display will show “Rep 1” (top right). After this maximum push wait for about 10-15
seconds; you will see the rep timer counting up in the bottom right of the display. Once this changes
to ‘Set 1’ you can then use the “Display” button to scroll through the measurements for the
maximum effort.
5. Make a note of ‘max’ (the maximum force in kg), power (in Watts), and velocity (in mm/s).
6. Repeat steps 5-7 twice more to establish the best of three efforts
7. After at least 2 min rest close alternate dampers on the flywheel and repeat points 1-8. Finally,
again after sufficient rest, repeat points 1-8 with all the dampers closed. The order of the tests in
points 7 and 8 (dampers open/closed etc) should be randomised
8. Construct a 3-point force-velocity and power-velocity relationship using the best single effort at
each velocity of movement
…………………………………………………..
54
Muscle strength: 1 Repetition max and fatigue (BRW 14)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic/Moderate (Smith Press if possible – this is a counter levered piece
of weight lifting apparatus common in many gyms)
Aim: To determine 1RM and observe the effect of fatigue on strength
Brief summary of methods:
1. Lay supine on a bench, feet on the floor straddling the bench, so that the bar is in line with the
upper chest. Ensure that the stoppers (the safety stops in the vertical rails) are adjusted
appropriately to allow the weight to be lowered to chest level but no further. Although the Smith
machine does not strictly require ‘spotters’ because of the built-in safety stops and catch-hooks, it is
good practice to have two experimenters at either side of the weights bar to assist the participant if
needed
2. The participant should perform a light warm-up of 5 repetitions at 40 to 60% of perceived
maximum. The Smith weights-machine is counterbalanced such that the effective weight of the bar
alone is 6kg (without the addition of any free weights).
3. Grip the bar with an overhand (pronated) grip, slightly wider than shoulder width apart and lift
extending the wrists very slightly to release the catch-hooks. Lower the bar until it is just above the
chest. Push the bar up to full elbow extension while maintaining body position and without arching
the back
4. Following a ~1 minute rest, perform 3 repetitions at 60% to 80% of perceived maximum
5. In step 5 the participant should be close to their perceived 1-RM. Add a small amount of weight,
and attempt a single lift. If the lift is successful, a rest period of 3 to 5 minutes is suggested. The goal
is to find the 1-RM within less than 5 maximal efforts
6. The 1-RM is reported as the weight of the last successfully completed lift
7. To assess the effect of muscle fatigue on 1-RM, take up a “plank” position (i.e. the beginning
position of a press up) and hold it for 2-minutes (or as long as you can manage). Allow two minutes
of recovery between two more repeats. This should fatigue the arm muscles. Now repeat steps 5-7
above to reassess 1-RM with prior arm fatigue.
…………………………………………………..
Optimisation of Human Power output (BRW 15)
Source: University of Strathclyde
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate
Aim: to investigate the change in power output that occurs during a 30 s all out sprint on a frictionbraked stationary bike, and the peak power output that can be obtained with varying levels of load.
Brief summary of methods: Alter the seat height, toe straps, and waist belt so that the participant
is firmly attached to the bike. The participant must perform a 5 min warm up maintaining a fixed
power output of 100 W (50 W for females).
55
1. Apply the required weight to the ergometer basket, lift the basket and support the load while the
participant accelerates up to 60 rpm.
2. With a countdown of 3-2-1-GO the participant should perform an ‘all-out’ sprint for the required
duration, the basket being applied on the command GO (ensure the participant does not accelerate
before GO).
Experimental protocol
Part 1: The sprint test should be performed for 10 s with calculated friction resistance equivalent to
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 % of the participant’s body mass. Allow at least 10 min rest between each
test.
Part 2a: The sprint test should be performed for 30 s with a calculated frictional resistance
equivalent to 7.5 % of the participant’s body mass (the standard ‘Wingate’ test).
Part 2b: After a suitable rest period the sprint test should be performed for 30 s with a load
equivalent to optimal frictional resistance of each participant.
Parts 2a and 2b should be randomised between participants
Data analysis and interpretation
Record peak power, mean power, peak pedal frequency and fatigue index. For each trial record peak
power and peak pedal frequency. Graphically illustrate the relationships between:
- frictional load (N and % body weight) and pedalling frequency.
- frictional load and peak power output.
- pedalling frequency and peak power output.
…………………………………………………..
Maximal Anaerobic Running Test (BRW 16)
Source: University of Strathclyde
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Treadmill)
Aim: to estimate anaerobic energy capacity
Brief summary of methods:
Complete a series of repeated 20 s runs on the treadmill, each at increasing intensities at a gradient
of 10.5% with a passive recovery of 100 s between runs.
The starting speed of the treadmill should be 14.3 kph (3.97 m s-1) and increase by 1.2 kph (0.35 m
s-1) on each progressive run until exhaustion. Hold onto the handrails whilst stepping on and off the
treadmill. The 20 s count should only begin when in the full running action. Perform the maximal
aerobic running test on at least 3 participants.
Ensure an adequate warm-up is performed before completing the test.
Calculations: Anaerobic running capacity (expressed as ml O2 kg-1 min-1) is calculated from the speed
of the last completed 20 s run and the exhaustion time of the subsequent sprint according to the
formula (ACSM, 1986):
56
3.5 + 12v + 54gv
where: v is treadmill speed (m s-1)
g is gradient of treadmill (tangent of the angle with horizontal)
If, in the final run, the participant was able to complete 10 s anaerobic capacity was modified by
adding 1ml O2 kg-1 min-1 to the calculated value. Each additional 2 s increased the value by a similar
amount.
…………………………………………………..
The Wingate Test: A measure of power (BRW 17)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Stationary bike (with ability to change resistance fairly
accurately), PC with ‘Wingate’ software, (or power can be calculated by counting pedal revolutions))
Aim : To determine maximum power output(anaerobic) during a short test.
Brief summary of methods: After a warm up, participant cycles at 0.075% of their bodyweight (kg)
at maximum speed for 20 or 30 seconds. If a Wingate application is available on a PC then maximum
power and fatigue can quickly be determined. Alternatively, distance travelled can be calculated
(using revs, pedal/flywheel ratio and flywheel circumference) and power calculated.
…………………………………………………..
Basic EMG activity (BRW 18)
Source: University of Leicester
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (EMG recording equipment, Powerlab system, muscle
stimulating equipment)
Aim : To observe neural activity and the stretch reflex response
Brief summary of methods: The action potentials of the muscle fibres of superficial muscles can
easily be recorded by means of electrodes applied to the skin. In this exercise you will record the
action potentials from the Abductor digiti minimi brevis (ADMB) muscle that abducts the little finger.
Position the recording electrodes over the ADMB muscle
You should make the following observations:
1 a) With the muscle relaxed is there any electrical activity?
b) Gradually abduct the little finger and observe the EMG (on Powerlab). Does increasing force lead
to more electrical activity? Can you tell anything about the way in which more force is generated?
2. Conduction Velocity
Electrical stimulation of a muscle nerve generates a synchronous action potential in all the muscle
fibres of the muscle. The time of occurrence of such an event is easy to measure and can therefore
be used to determine the conduction velocity of the motor nerve.
The ADMB muscle is innervated by the Ulnar nerve which can be stimulated at the wrist, elbow and
armpit.
57
a) Measure the time taken for the compound action potential to travel from each stimulus site
(wrist, elbow or armpit) to the muscle.
b) Measure the distance (d) in mm between the stimulus sites.
The conduction velocity can be calculated by dividing the distance between the two sites by the
difference in the latencies of conduction from the two sites.
Time from A (e.g. elbow) to muscle = t1 ms
Time from B (e.g. wrist) to muscle = t2 ms
Therefore Conduction Velocity =d /(t1-t2) (in m.s-1)
This represents the conduction velocity of the motor (efferent) axons.
…………………………………………………..
Muscle fatigue and EMG (BRW 19)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Advanced
Handgrip dynamometer, PowerLab, EMG recording equipment.
Aim : To simultaneously measure strength (tension) and EMG signal (iRMS) during a series of
fatiguing maximal contraction of the finger flexors (flexor digitorum superficialis / profundus).
Brief summary of methods:
1. Attach two adhesive electrodes along the long axis of the flexors, positioning their centres
approximately 8 cm apart.
2. Attach the electrodes to the PowerLab. Ensure that the grip dynamometer is also connected. Start
the chart and hold a steady, maximum finger flexion for a count of 5 sec. Relax the grip for 5 sec
then produce a second maximal contraction. Rest for 5 sec. Repeat for a total of 10 maximal
contractions, each separated by a 5 sec relaxation.
3. Rest for 5 min then repeat for a second set. Note the mean tension produced during the middle 3
s of each contraction. For each contraction note the area beneath the middle 3 s of the iRMS.
4. Examine the frequency distribution spectra and note any changes between first and last
contraction.
For each set, plot tension against contraction number, iRMS against contraction number and tension
against iRMS
…………………………………………………..
Assessment of muscle flexion during isokinetic knee flexion and extension
(BRW 20)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Advanced (Isokinetic dynamometer)
Aim : To assess the maximum muscle moment of the knee extensor and flexor muscles at different
concentric and eccentric joint angular velocities.
58
Brief summary of methods: Secure participant into the isokinetic dynamometer according to
instructions. Allow 5-6 reciprocal repetitions, randomising the order of the test angular velocity.
Allow 1-2 minutes rest then repeat at another angular velocity.
…………………………………………………..
Assessment of isometric force-joint position relationship (BRW 21)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Advanced (Isokinetic dynamometer)
Aim: To assess the maximum isometric moment (static strength) of the knee extensor muscles at
different knee joint positions.
Brief summary of methods: Secure participant into the isokinetic dynamometer according to
instructions. Position the knee at 90 degrees flexion and ask participant to maintain contraction for
5-7 seconds. Allow the participant 2 maximal contractions, avoiding sudden ballistic movements.
Rest 1-2 min, then perform the test at angular position intervals of 10 degree until full extension.
…………………………………………………..
Assessment of electromechanical delay (EMD) of the knee flexors
associated with static maximal voluntary muscle actions (BRW 22)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Advanced (Surface electrodes EMG recording device, isokinetic
dynamomenter)
Aim: To assess the EMD of the knee flexors associated with static maximal muscle actions and knee
flexion angles at which key ligamentous structures are placed under mechanical strain.
Brief summary of methods:
1. Attach surface electrodes to the leg along the sites of muscles innervations . Allow participant to
warm up. With participant prone on dynamometer, and knee flexed to 25 degree (passive). Secure
all other body parts. Allow the participant to warm up against resistance offered by the static
dynamometer for a least 5 intermittent submax repetitions.
2. Rest 60 seconds then a signal is given to the participant to attempt to flex the knee joint as
forcefully and rapidly as possible against the immovable restraint. After a period of max voluntary
activation (around 3 seconds) to elicit peak force, other auditory signal is given to cue the conscious
withdrawal of muscle activation and associated neuromuscular relaxation by the participant as
quickly as possible. Repeat twice.
…………………………………………………..
59
Assessment of electromyographic signal amplitude and force of the knee
flexors associated with static voluntary muscle action (BRW 23)
Source: Kinanthropometry and Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual
Difficulty level: High
Equipment required level: Advanced (Surface electrodes, EMG recording device, isokinetic
dynamomenter)
Aim : To assess the relationship between EMG signal amplitude and force of the knee flexors.
Brief summary of methods.
1. Attach surface electrodes to the leg along the length of the muscle (biceps femoris). Allow
participant to warm up.
2. With participant prone on dynamometer, and knee flexed to 25 degree (passive). Secure all other
body parts. Allow the participant to warm up against resistance offered by the static dynamometer
for a least 5 intermittent submax repetitions.
3. Rest 60 seconds then a signal is given to the participant to attempt to flex the knee joint as
forcefully and rapidly as possible against the immovable restraint (this is the 100% trial). Participants
are requested to produce (in random order) 10, 20, 30, 30 50, 60 70 80 and 90% knee flexion forces.
…………………………………………………..
60
1.5 Physiology sub-section: BONE
Bones protect our vital organs, allow us to move and stand, make and store red blood cells, store
calcium and other minerals and even help us hear. The length of our bones (and our build) is
important in determining the type of sport or exercise we are good i.e. long levers (limbs) are good
for rowing but not very helpful in gymnastics.
How healthy our bones are also determines how often we get injured (by breaking a bone) and how
well we then repair ourselves after an injury. In early years our bones ‘bend’ easily but as we get
older we lose bone strength and they become brittle (osteoporotic). Exercise can help keeps bones
strong by increasing their mineral content and by improving their structure. However, these factors
are difficult to assess in classroom situations.
Where 2 or more bones touch there is a joint. There are several different types of joint, each
allowing a different type of movement , or motion – a ball and socket joint such as the hip allows
motion in all planes, whilst a hinge joint such as the knee only allows flexion and extension.
Type of motion is primarily dictated by bone structure, but the length of ligaments and tendons
associated with those joints also influence range of movement. Goniometers are simple devices that
allow for measurement of joint angle and range of movement. They range from sophisticated digital
devices to cheap plastic rules.
…………………………………………………..
61
Measuring joint angles (BO 01)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Low
Equipment required level: Basic (Goniometers – instrument used to measure joint angles)
Aim: To measure range of motion in the hip joint – both actively and passively and with the knee
extended and flexed. Changing from active to passive movement, and having the knee in flexion and
extension can elicit discussion as to what limits range of motion (Note that the hamstring muscles
cross both the hip and the knee joint).
Brief summary of methods: Measurement of active and passive hip flexion
1. With your participant laying supine, identify the axis of rotation of the hip. Align the goniometer
along the midline of the trunk, with the other end pointing toward the lateral condyle of the knee
(the end of the thigh bone near the knee joint) .
2. Ask the participant to raise the dominant leg as far as possible, keeping knee extended and
without rotating the hips; measure the angle and record.
Make three measurements and take the largest angle: ______________
3. Repeat the above with someone pushing against the leg to passively flex the hip. Put one hand on
the quadriceps, one hand on the ankle and push with your shoulder on the back of the leg to the
point where the hips begin to rotate or the participant feels discomfort.
4. Try this measurement with the knee flexed.
…………………………………………………..
Finger length and sport ability (BO 02)
Source: University of Cardiff
Difficulty level: Basic
Equipment required level: Basic (Rule)
Aim: To examine the alleged relationship between bone (finger) length and sports ability
Brief summary of methods:
Measure lengths in mm (to the nearest 0.5 mm) of the 2nd (index – next to the thumb) and 4th (ring
– next to the little finger) fingers of your right hand. (Measure from the crease where the finger
joins the palm to the tip of the finger, excluding the fingernail).
Divide the length of the index finger by the length of the ring finger (I/R ratio), giving the value to 3
decimal places (e.g. 0.912, or 1.023).
NB. Before submitting your result, check that you have got your I/R ratio the right way round! Place
your hand flat on the bench and look at it. If your index finger is shorter than your ring finger, your
value must be less than 1. Conversely, if it is longer, your value must be more than 1.
If you have ever seriously injured (e.g. broken) either finger, please do not participate in this study.
Next, rate your sports performance on a scale of 1-10
62
10 = You have represented your country,
9= You think you could represent your country,
8= You have competed at national level,
7= You think you could compete at national level,
6= You have competed at university/county level,
5= You think you could compete at university/county level,
4= You have competed at an organised level,
3= You think you could compete at an organised level,
2= Your sport is only social (occasional game with your friends in the park) and
1= You never play any sport
Draw a scatter plot of sporting ability score vs. I/R value (take care to get your axes the appropriate
way around)
…………………………………………………..
Bones , joints and the skeleton (BO 03)
Source: University of Essex
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic (Skeleton)
Aim: To examine the bones and joints of the skeleton
Brief summary of methods: Using the guest skeleton in residence, and with reference to your text
books, fill out the following tables. (Table 1 lists all types of bone in column 1, e.g. ribs, metatarsals,
lumbar vertebrae, carpals etc. Column 2 is titled: Number in skeleton. Table 2 lists all the types of
joint in Column 1. Column 2 is titled: Example of this type of joint)
…………………………………………………..
Estimation of skeletal mass (BO 04)
Source: Kinathropometry and Exercise Physiology Lab Manual
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Basic /Intermediate (bone girth calipers)
Aim: To estimate skeletal mass (S) by anthropometry
Brief summary of methods:
Using bone callipers measure the 4 sites listed below. The measure is generally done at the widest
point near the joint (i.e. the epicondyles, or the styloids)
S (kg) = [(HB + WB +FB + AB) /4]2 x ht x 1.2 x 0.001,
S (%) = (S (kg) / body mass) x 100
Where :
HB is biepicondylar breadth in the humerus (at the elbow)
WB is bistyloideus (wrist breadth)
FB is biepicondylar breadth in the femur (at the knee joint)
AB is bimalleolar (ankle breadth)
ht is height in cm
63
…………………………………………………..
Structure of a synovial joint (BO 05)
Source: http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/advanced/cells-to-systems/support-andmovement/structure-of-synovial-joint-with-tendons-and-ligaments,61,EXP.html
Difficulty level: Moderate
Equipment required level: Intermediate (Soap and Towels, Disposable Gloves, Bag for waste
materials, Dissecting kit and a pigs trotter)
Aim: To understand the structure of a synovial joint and to understand the contribution of the other
structures in a joint (ligaments, tendons, cartilage, bone and muscle).
Brief summary of methods: The students should
hold the trotter so that they are looking at it from the
side with the toes pointing down. They should waggle
the toes to identify a joint near the base of each toe
and also bend the toes downwards to identify a
second joint further away from the toe. With a
scalpel the students should then cut vertically from
5cm above the 2nd joint, to 5cm below the 1st joint,
about 1mm in depth. Cuts should also be made at
right angles to the original cut; to make a cross
shaped incision. The skin can then be peeled back
(using a scalpel and forceps) and cut off, so that a
circular area of skin has been removed. (Diagram a)
Diagram a
Over the top of the joint the students will see 4
tendons running down the foot. They should
bend the toes so that this is exposed and cut
across the knuckle vertically, cutting through the
tendons and other tissues. Underneath the
tissues, close to the bone there is a loose
membrane, behind which there is fluid (Diagram
b). The students should cut through the
membrane and notice the fluid dribbling out,
this is synovial fluid. They should then cut
towards the toes with scissors and expose the shiny
white surface on the lower part of the joint and also cut
through the joint capsule and ligaments which hold the
bone together The students will now be able to see the
articulating surfaces of the joint, they are covered in
white cartilage, a piece of which should be sliced off.
Underneath the cartilage there will be pink bone.
64
65
Summary Table
Title and No.
Equipment
*
Engagement
**
Blood
BL 01 Predicting VO2 max using the 20 m shuttle run
1
HIGH
x
x
BL 02 Predicting VO2 max using the Forestry step test
1
HIGH
x
x
BL 03 Predicting VO2 max using the Harvard step test
1
HIGH
x
x
BL 04 Cooper 12 minute run test
1
HIGH
x
x
BL 05 Using RPE to determine and control intensity of exercise
1
HIGH
x
x
BL 06 Taking blood pressure using a manual cuff and stethoscope
1
HIGH
x
BL 07 Using a stethoscope to identify heart sounds
1
HIGH
x
BL 08 Taking blood pressure using automatic and manual methods…
1
HIGH
x
BL 09 Predicting VO2 max using the YMCA protocol (Cycling)
2
HIGH
x
BL 10 Assessing haemoglobin content in blood
2
HIGH
x
BL 11 Taking an ECG during rest and activity
2
HIGH
x
BL 12 The Diving Reflex
2
BL 13 Effects of exercise on ECG
2
BL 14 Predicting VO2 max using Astrand-Rhyming Nomogram
2
BL 15 Observing the effects of temperature on CV parameters
2
BL 16 Determining maximal oxygen uptake (treadmill)
x
HIGH
Bone
Breath
x
x
x
HIGH
x
x
3
x
x
BL 17 Determining maximal oxygen uptake (Bruce)
3
x
x
BL 18 Determining maximal oxygen uptake (Cycle)
3
x
x
BL 19 Heart rate deflection point (Conconi)
3
x
BL 20 Effects of exercise on the human body (CV)
3
x
x
Brain
Brawn
Title and No.
Equipment
*
Engagement
**
Blood
Bone
Breath
BL 21 Exercise pressor response
2
x
BL 22 Skin blood flow response to reactive hyperaemia
3
x
BL 23 Acute effects of exercise on CV function
3
x
x
BL 24 Effects of endurance and strength exercise on CV response
3
x
x
BL 25 Blood lactate sampling at rest and exercise
2/3
BL 26 Determining the onset of blood lactate accumulation
HIGH
3
BL 27 Analysing the components of blood
2/3
BL 28 Elastic recoil of arteries and veins
x
HIGH
3
BL 29 Structure of the heart
x
x
x
x
2/3
HIGH
BRE 01 Effects of breath holding
1
HIGH
BRE 02 Effects of exercise on CO2 output
1
HIGH
BRE 03 Assessment of resting lung volumes
2
HIGH
x
BRE 04 Using a spirometer to assess lung function
2
HIGH
x
BRE 05 Effects of exercise on tidal and minute volume
2
HIGH
x
x
BRE 06 Assessment of lung volume during exercise
2
HIGH
x
x
BRE 07 Effects of load carriage on economy of walking
3
x
BRE 08 Assessing muscular efficiency
3
x
BRE 09 Ventilation: normal volumes and exercise
2
BRE 10 Structure of the lungs
3
BRE 11 Determining the ventilatory threshold
3
x
x
BRE 12 Oxygen kinetics during exercise
3
x
x
BRE 13 Estimating maximal oxygen uptake using gas analysis
3
x
x
67
HIGH
x
x
x
x
x
x
Brain
Brawn
Title and No.
Equipment
*
Engagement
**
Blood
Bone
Breath
Brain
Brawn
x
BRE 14 Simulated altitude and exercise
3
x
x
BRE 15 Maximal accumulated oxygen deficit
3
x
x
BRA 01 Stretch reflex
1
HIGH
x
BRA 02 The stroop test
1
HIGH
x
BRA 03 Music and performance
1
HIGH
x
BRA 04 The effects of practice on skill acquisition
2
HIGH
x
BRA 05 The effect of imagery on skill
2
BRA06 The effect of caffeine on reaction time
1
BRA 07 Reaction time test series
3
BRA 08 Reaction time of race start
1/2
x
HIGH
x
x
HIGH
x
x
BRA 09 Ulnar nerve conduction velocity
3
BRW 01 Isometric hand grip test
1
HIGH
x
BRW 02 Simple muscle fatigue
1
HIGH
x
BRW 03 Relationship between muscle size and strength
1
HIGH
x
BRW 04 Estimation of muscle mass and regional muscularity
1
x
BRW 05 Force power relationships in muscle contraction
1
x
BRW 06 Estimation of fat free mass using BIA
2
HIGH
x
BRW 07 Field tests for power
1
HIGH
x
BRW 08 Anaerobic step test
1
HIGH
BRW 09 Sprint tests
1
HIGH
BRW 10 Strength testing with goniometry
1
HIGH
68
x
x
x
x
x
x
Title and No.
Equipment
*
Engagement
**
Blood
Bone
Breath
Brain
Brawn
BRW 11 Borg cycling test with constant load
3
x
BRW 12 Using a flywheel to estimate velocity
3
x
BRW 13 Power 170 test
3
BRW 14 Muscle strength: 1RM and fatigue
2
BRW 15 Optimisation of human power
3
BRW 16 Maximal anaerobic running test
3
x
BRW 17 Wingate test
3
x
BRW 18 Basic EMG
x
x
HIGH
x
x
x
x
x
2/3
x
BRW 19 Muscle fatigue and EMG
3
x
BRW 20 Assessment of muscle flexion during isokinetic knee activity
3
x
BRW 21 Assessment of isometric force –joint position
3
BRW 22 Assessment of electromechanical delay of the knee flexors
3
x
BRW 23 Assessment of EMG signal amplitude and force of knee flexors
3
x
BO 01 Measuring joint angles
1
HIGH
x
BO 02 Finger length and sports ability
1
HIGH
x
BO 03 Bones, Joints and the skeleton
1
HIGH
x
BO 04 Estimation of skeletal mass
1
x
BO 05 Structure of a synovial joint
2
x
x
*equipment; 1 is BASIC equipment likely available in schools , 2 is an INTERMEDIATE level of equipment, that would need to be provided by
Wellcome and may involve some technical instruction, 3 is an ADVANCED level of equipment which is less likely to be useable in schools.
** engagement; activities of HIGH engagement mean a lot of the class can be directly involved, successful results are likely and the physiology
behind the test is obviously applicable to sports and activities.
69
x
x
SECTION 2: SCIENCE CENTRES
This section details experiments regarding how our bodies work in Science Centres. Several science
centres contributed and are included in this section of the report: The Ontario Science Centre
(Canada); The Science Museum (London); The Natural History Museum; Glasgow Science Centre;
and “ThinkTank” (Birmingham).
Where possible, experiments are listed under the topics Blood, Breath, Bone, Brain and Brawn.
Other experiments that may be of interested are also listed and briefly detailed. To enhance
descriptions, photographs have been included, where possible. Web links are also included.
Ontario Science Centre, Canada ( www.ontariosciencecentre.ca )
The centre holds a permanent ‘Human Body’ Exhibition, which is an informative, somewhat
interactive display. Photographs of these experiments are included in the appendix 2
BLOOD: Activities include:
a) stacking the correct quantities of bags of ‘blood’ for certain procedures/accidents (e.g. the
typical kidney transplant requires 5 units of blood) and so on.
b) Matching the blood constituent to the need (e.g. a victim of a car accident needs a lot of
plasma). When the correction connection is made (using a coiled wire) then lights come on
c) Listening (through a ‘stethoscope’) to heart beats of various animals / humans of different
ages.
BONE: Activities include:
a) Lifting flaps on the model to reveal different types of joints, then gaining an understanding
of the permissible range of motion of each type of joint using the plastic models.
BALANCE and FLEXIBILITY: Activities include:
a) Attempting to press a button on the floor, with your nose, whilst kneeling, without
overbalancing. The participant is given instruction regarding achieving the correct position
prior to attempting the activity. This is all to do with centre of gravity etc.
b) Sit and reach, with digital readout, to assess hamstring flexibility.
BRAIN: Activities include:
a) Test of reaction time. Participant presses button in response to a visual cue, and their
reaction time is shown as a column of lights, with the amount of lights lit correlating with
reaction time.
BREATH: Activities include:
a) Using handle/pump to inflate the balloons in the bell jar. Participants pump the handle at
different speeds to change the minute volume etc. Participants change the rate and volume
to simulate changes in tidal volume/minute volume etc.
Science Museum (London)
The Science Museum was generally focused on Physics for children, and had interesting but not
interactive displays on the history of medicine. One exhibit that could be utilised was the Thermal
Imaging Camera (see photographs). Participants observed themselves on a screen linked to a
thermal imaging camera. They were able to put their hands on hot and cold pads to see how this
altered the image on screen. This could be used in conjunction with explaining BLOOD and blood
vessels to children. Photographs are shown in appendix 2
Natural History Museum (London)
The Natural History Museum had a human biology display. Quite a large amount of this exhibit was
dedicated to reproduction, genetics and hormones.
BLOOD & BREATH:
A virtual reality game called ‘Keep me alive’ required the participant to keep a human body alive in
various situations (Resting, walking or running) by altering heart rate, breathing frequency and
temperature. Participants use a console to increase or decrease various bodily functions to maintain
a homeostatic environment.
BRAIN:
Large exhibits on memory and perception, not very related to this audit
BONE & BRAWN:
This includes 3D ‘mirror images’ of arm bones (and muscle). Participant moves a lever and the arm in
the mirror image moves too. Various models of joints are also on display to enable participants to
appreciate range of movement in different parts of the body. These sections (BONE and BRAWN)
also had a lot of visual, non interactive displays.
Glasgow Science Centre
Robin Hoyle (robin.hoyle@glasgowsciencecentre.org) sent the following information regarding their
‘BodyWorks Exhibition’. Further resources are available at www.glasgowsciencecentre.org
BLOOD:
a) Blocked and normal arteries: The exhibit has 2 arteries, one blocked and one normal. There
are 2 pumps for pumping blood through each of the arteries. The blocked artery will be
smaller in diameter to represent furring inside the artery. This makes it more difficult to
pump the blood through the artery.
b) Heart as a pump: The heart as a pump exhibit has 2 hand pumps attached to loops of tubing
through which the blood flows top represent the circulatory system. Paticipants need to
squeeze one of he pumps and then the other in rhythm to push the blood around the
circulatory system.
c) Heart beat drum: The heart beat drum has two handles for the visitor to hold. There are
sensors on the handles that pick up the visitor’s pulse rate. The pulse rate is then beat out
71
on a bass drum. Visitors can test their resting heart rate, do some form of exercise and then
test their heart rate again to compare the difference.
d) Oximeter: Participants are asked to clip the pulse oximeter onto their middle finger and wait
a few seconds for a reading to appear. There will be 2 readings: The top reading is the %
oxygen in the participants’ blood. Normal level for this is between 95 and 100%. A 100%
reading means the blood is carrying as much oxygen as it can hold. The bottom reading is
heart rate in beats per minute. The average for an adult is between 60 and 90 and for a child
it can be up to 100 beats per minute.
e) Blood pressure monitor: Participants are asked to put the blood pressure monitor on their
wrist so that it sits on the side of the wrist, above the thumb. Participants are asked to hold
their arm up and across the chest then press the start button. Wait for the monitor to
display a reading.
f)
Isotonic drinks: Use diluting orange juice, salt and water to create your own version of the 3
types of sports drink available in the shops: isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic. These drinks
are all different and are designed for slightly different purposes, but in general they are to
replace fluids lost through sweating and to give an energy boost from carbohydrates.
g) Sports Day Story: Children will discover why our bodies need oxygen and learn how to check
their pulse rate. This highlights the importance of practice, training and rest. It also raises
awareness of the effect exercise has on the body and encourages children to set up their
own activities.
BONE & BRAWN:
a) Bendy bone: “Make bones bend in this bite sized science experiment and find out what
makes bones hard and strong and how you can soften them to tie them in knots”
b) Body Builder: “This exhibit is made up several cubes, each with images of layers of the
bodies on either side.”
c) Flex your muscle: The muscles in the exhibit arm are pneumatic. When the visitor pumps up
the arm the muscles get shorter and fatter, pulling up the lower arm to bend the arm. The
visitor has to pump the handle up and down to pump up the arm. Air is pumped into the
tube and it flexes. When the visitor pushes the button the air is forced out of the tube.
d) Torso: The torso is a standard plastic torso used for teaching anatomy. The organs are
anatomically correct and in proportion to the size of the torso. They are removable to allow
visitors to look closely at them and then try to put them back into the right places.
e) Arm strength: Participant is asked to hold onto the handles and with their arm straight out in
front of them, they should lift the weight and see how long they can hold it for. As soon as
the visitor lifts the weight a timer will start. There are 2 weights and 2 timers for visitors’ to
compete with their friends. When the visitor can hold the weight no longer they can drop it
and the timer stops.
f)
Grip strength: The exhibit has a handle on it with a sensor on it. When visitors grip the
handle the sensor will detect how strong their grip is and transfer this to a read-out.
72
g) Tug of war: The exhibit consists of a rope and a floor marker. The floor marker is placed in
the middle of the floor. The rope is laid on the floor with the marker tape lined up with the
floor marker.
h) Vertical jump: This exhibit consists of a board that the visitor stands on. There is a display in
the middle of the board. The visitor should stand with their feet on either side of the
display. The visitor will do a standing jump and the display records how long they were off
the ground for. The longer the visitor is off the ground, the higher they have jumped.
i)
Radar gun: This exhibit consists of a radar gun and some floor markings. The visitor will start
on one of the floor markers and run as fast as they can towards their friend who will be
stood behind another floor marker about 15 metres away. The visitor has to run as fast as
they can and the speed will be recorded on the radar gun.
BALANCE &BEND
a) Balance board: The balance board has two plates on top of each other. The top one is on a
pivot above the bottom plate – this means it can tip to the left or right and top the bottom
plate. The bottom plate has sensors which are triggered when the top plate touches the
bottom plate. Visitors must stand on the balance board and try to stop the top plate from
making contact with the bottom plate. The table top part of the exhibit has a sensor strip on
it. Visitors put their hands on this strip until they are ready to start. When they remove
their hands the clock will start and as soon as the balance board sensor is triggered the clock
will stop, giving the visitor their balance time.
b) How flexible are you?: The bending your body exhibit consists of a mat for visitors to sit on
and an exhibit platform, which sits on the floor. Visitors can then sit on the mat with their
feet against the side of the exhibit. In the middle there is a scale, and the visitor has to see
how far across the scale they can get to see how flexible they are.
BRAIN
a) Mindball: The Mindball works by detecting the wavelengths of the electrical impulses of the
brain through the contacts on the headband. The programme run by the Mindball then
mechanically moves the ball when the level of brain wave production reaches a threshold
level. The threshold level required depends on the level that the game is set at.
b) Reaction timer: There a number of lights on the board and next to each is a button. When a
light goes on the visitor must press the button next to it as fast as possible. As soon as a
light goes on a timer starts, which only stops when the corresponding button has been
pressed. The average reaction time is calculated based on the reaction time taken to react to
each of the lights appearing in the sequence.
BREATH
a) Smokers lungs: The lungs are attached to two pumps. The visitor can pump air into each of
the lungs to inflate them – they can also, suck the air back out to deflate them. Participants
can also make their own model lungs that can inflate and deflate.
73
b) Spirometer: Participant is asked to put a new mouthpiece into the spirometer. Instructions
are ‘Make sure the switch is on blow. Take a deep breath and blow into the mouthpiece as
hard and as long as possible. Switch to view to see your results.’ FVC is vital capacity – total
amount of air you breathe. The average reading for males is 4 litres and the average for
females is around 3 litres.
Birmingham Science Centre ‘ThinkTank’
A permanent exhibition aimed at younger children is housed at ThinkTank. It is entitled ‘Things
About Me’ and uses the acronym TAM as the character for a lot of the activities and explanations.
Photographs can be seen in appendix 2.
BONE & BRAWN
a) Mainly models of joint types. Exhibit allowed visitors to press a button associated with a
joint type and the part of the model skeleton that contains that joint type lights up. Visitors
move the model joints to observe their range of motion etc.
b) A 3-D ‘mirror’ model allows participants to look at the elbow joint and associated muscle
moving as they pull a lever.
BRAIN
a) A game called ‘Bat Tam’ tests participants reaction time. Small puppets (Tam’s) appear and
visitors have to bat as many as possible in the given time.
b) Visitors can also place their hands on hot and cold pads. After this, visitors put hands on
neutral pad to confuse the sensations.
BREATH
a) A large model set of lungs and ribs is on display. Visitors can press a button to inflate and
deflate the lungs and watch the ribs move up and down. Visitors can also open and close a
throat model.
BLOOD (& the heart)
a) Blood Central Station: A large exhibit concerned with blood and the circulation. First
component of the exhibit was ‘Blood Central Station’, set up like an old fashioned train
departures board. The train analogy was used to convey the message that blood carried
many nutrients and gases around the body for a variety of functions. There were several
buttons for the visitors to press such as ‘The Oxygen Express’ which came with the question ‘
Muscles need oxygen to work, but where does the blood pick up oxygen’. On pressing the
button the train departures display board flips around to show answers/pictures etc.
b) Heart beat: Visitors touch the sensor with a finger tip and the model heart beats in time with
the visitors pulse.
74
c) Spin the wheel: Visitors spin a disc shaped screen and watch as various cell components of
blood fall across the screen. Numbers of platelets, white and red blood cells can be counted
as the blood falls.
d) Squeeze the blood out: A rubber heart model can be squeezed by the visitor to eject blood
into a glass jar.
e) TAM GAME: A virtual Tam goes about his day to day activities. Participants must control
levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide and heat to maintain homeostasis.
75
SECTION 3: SCIENCE FESTIVALS
There are several science festivals which are run throughout the UK. Most encompass some
physiology and provide hands on learning for children and general public. Below are some examples
of festivals and activities.
Edinburgh Science Festival
This is an annual event in Edinburgh. A number of related exhibits and shows here include:
•
•
•
•
Nina and the Neurones: Aimed at 3+ years, Nina explores the senses with basic experiments
Body Builders: Aimed at 3+ years , How the body is put together and why it is important to
stay healthy
Dr Clot: Aimed at 7+ years, Activities in which Dr Clot (and visitors?) climbs through a
capillary, where participants can help him carry oxygen, battle bacteria and create a blood
clot. This activity lasts 20min. This is supported by the Engineering and Physical Sciences
Council, EPSRC.
The Blood Bar: Aimed at 8+ years, visitors mix up blood milkshakes and touch a real heart.
Visitors take a close look at hearts and lungs and the role of oxygen. This is supported by the
Medical Research Council , MRC.
The Big Bang Science Festival
This is held annually in different locations (London in 2011). The 2010 festival (held in Manchester)
heavily focused on disease and DNA. However, some exhibits were related to this audit. In particular
the ‘BodyZone’ allowed visitors to conduct a hands on examination of a sheep’s heart. Children
could also draw their own organs on white t-shirts. The Winter Biathlon was an exhibit designed by
Dr Valerie Gladwell (University of Essex) and sponsored by The Physiological Society. This activity
was adapted for demonstration at the Wellcome Trust ‘Moving Bodies’ event (see below in
Outreach). http://www.thebigbangfair.co.uk/home.cfm
British Science Festival
This UK event is one of Europe’s largest science festivals. The main festival is held each September
(at different venues each year) with additional satellite centres throughout the UK. The Physiological
Society is sponsoring two physiological events in 2010: one for adults entitled “Struggling for breath:
asthma-latest advances in Medical Research for Patients and their families”. This is in the format of a
debate with a patient, clinician, and a researcher on the panel with questions posed by the audience.
The other is for school age children entitled “Battle to breathe” which uses an interactive game to
learn about the physiology of the lungs. This is being run by Dr Ceri Harrop, University of Manchester
Dr Harrop was the winner of The Science Communication Award, 2009, (awarded by Society of
Biology). For more details see: www.britishscienceassociation.org
76
SECTION 4: SCIENCE OUTREACH
Several of the Science Centres/Museums have Outreach Education programmes. These are available
to hire by the day/hour and generally visit schools in the area. Some centres also host children’s
parties with a science focus. Several of the science museums also ‘tour’ during the science festival
season. Universities also provide outreach activities either as part of Science and Engineering week
or through various outreach programmes they run.
Science Live
This is a directory of Nationwide Science Show presenters (www.sciencelive.net). Potentially, this
could be a very useful resource.
The Inspire Discovery Centre (Norwich)
This Centre has an outreach programme that visits schools and hosts parties (www.inspirediscovery
centre.com). There is a show called Life Processes and Living Things: Show me what you are made of
aimed at 5-10 year olds. In this show, the children get to ‘find out how the body works from the
outside in. Look at muscles, bones and what’s in your stomach’.
Due to time constraints and party bookings we have not been able to visit the centre, but they have
expressed their interest in helping us at a later date. We have been in touch with Alexandra Minns
(alex@inspirediscoverycentre.com)
The Science Museum (London)
Jones the Bones Science Museum (London) has a fairly extensive outreach programme that also
features at the Cheltenham Science festival this year. Highlights include:
‘Jones the Bones’
Meet the eccentric surgeon Jones the Bones and his Skeleton as they take you on a
wondrous journey around the human body. Jones the Bones will be able to answer all your
questions about the human body, from what happens when you swallow your food, to why
we fart. He’ll also supply you with a healthy dose of horrible and gory facts you can impress
your friends with.
‘Glorious Blood’
This show takes a journey through the human body. We discover what blood is, what it
does, and where it goes. What are nutrients and how do they help us? Why does our heart
beat faster when we exercise? And what happened when Phil the Stunt Frog's new trick
went horribly wrong?! An engaging interactive performance the whole class will love.
‘Human Body 2D’
77
In partnership with the Science Museum and the BBC, this groundbreaking film reveals the
daily biological processes that go on without our control and often without our notice. It
tells the story of a single day in the lives and bodies of a family; eight-year-old Zannah,
teenager Luke, and Uncle Buster and Aunt Heather, a couple expecting their first child.
The Discovery Zone at Leeds University
Leeds University for the last 3 years has run an interactive science session for school children. It is
held in the Universities’ Sports Hall and children from the local area attend (up to 480 children each
year). There are 20 science related stalls with over 70 academics involved in running the event. The
children have approximately two hours to visit the different stalls. The Physiology related stalls
(supported by an outreach grant from The Physiological Society) include:
•
Skeletons: naming bones and their purpose, relating teeth and jaws to purpose using
skeletons, models and skulls
•
The wonders of the brain: Studying brains and their function then discussing neurones and
how they communicate using a giant model of a neurone, complete with "action potential"
passing down to release "neurotransmitter". This includes making pipe-cleaner neurones.
•
Examining blood: Using microscopes to look in depth at the different blood cells
University of Bristol: Physiology Teaching Lorry
The University run a ‘Mobile teaching Unit’ programme that visits schools. This is a lorry with an
expanding seminar room with lots of hands on activities that allow pupils to experience physiology
experiments first hand (sponsored by The Physiological Society). Details at:
http://www.bristol.ac.uk/cetl/aims/mobileTeachingLab/index.php
The Human Performance Unit, University of Essex
Although not unique, the University of Essex provides an excellent example of outreach activities
that are suitable for the general public, schools and sports people (elite, recreational and young
gifted and talented individuals) interested in finding more about the Physiology of exercise.
The outreach activities are mainly aimed at secondary school children but have been adapted for
different audiences. Classes from schools attend to have experience of practical aspects of their
curriculum that otherwise may be difficult to achieve within their own schools. The main topic of
exercise physiology is learning about aerobic fitness and energy systems. Other pupils will attend as
small groups as part of the gifted and talented programme who have been selected for excellence in
one sport or all round excellence. These pupils are exposed to a battery of tests. By entering the data
into the Human Performance Unit database the pupils to can be ranked on the various fitness
elements. This information along with their fitness scores can enable the pupils to improve or to
help identify new sports that may be suitable where they could potential reach the top.
www.humanperformanceunit.co.uk
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Science and Engineering week
This is a nationwide event organised by scientist throughout the UK (and select other countries) to
engage the general public and school children into science and engineering. Individuals and
Universities either go to schools or invite schools to Universities for hands on experience in all
aspects of science and engineering. The Physiological Society sponsor events each year, in 2010 they
supported interactive workshops focussing on brain and sensation function (Dr Sheila Dargan,
University of Cardiff). The University of Essex also runs events each year which are similar to those
provided all year around by the Human Performance Unit (Dr Reed ran these events in 2010).
Wellcome Trust Moving Bodies Event
A reminder of the activities we featured at the event in May, 2010. These were run by members of
staff from the University of Essex in conjunction with The Physiological Society.
Experiment 1: Modern Pentathlon Challenge
Background: The Modern Pentathlon is where athletes compete in five separate events within one
day: swimming, horse riding, fencing, shooting and running. In 2009, shooting and running were
combined into one part of the event with shooting taking place (5 targets to hit) followed by a 1km
run and this is repeated continually 3 times. http://www.modern-pentathlon.com/
Aims: To investigate how the body responds to a task which requires skill and concentrate; to
investigate how the body responds to exercise; to investigate how combining exercise with a skill
based task alters what happens both in task and in the body; to discuss what techniques could help
to improve skill based task
Equipment: Wii and Wii remote (with sports resort game), Bioharness connected to laptop
(ADInstruments), Laptop for video/presentation, Rower/bike
Methods: In this simulation “athletes” will try to shoot accurately at a target (using Wii consolearchery) before and after taking part in a period of intense exercise (on a bike/rower). During the
simulation “athletes” will be timed (to ensure they don’t incur any time penalties, will have their
scores noted and will have heart rate and breathing rate measured and recorded by a “scientist”.
Experiment 2: How high can you jump?
Background: The generation of power is important in many sports. The height that an individual
jumps can give an indication of the power they have in their legs. Jumping height is not only
important in high jump but in other sports including basketball and volleyball.
Equipment: Just jump mat, Record sheets
Aims: To measure vertical jump height as an indicator of muscle power for jumping activities in
basketball/volleyball and high jump; to use calculations to estimate power; to see how physics and
maths can be used to measure sports performance; to understand how muscle contraction works
and how to improve power generated (e.g. squat jump versus countermovement technique, and
using arms); to explore how training can improve power
Methods: Using a jump mat measure the maximum height the participant can reach from standing,
from squatting and from bending and jumping in the same movement. The “athletes” weight will
also be recorded. Can compare against norms using Labtutor (ADInstruments)
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Experiment 3: Give me air
Background: During any physical activity whether it is sport or just walking up some stairs our
breathing is altered to allow more oxygen to get to our lungs, which then travels around our body by
being pumped by our heart. As we increase the intensity of exercise we require more oxygen but
how is this achieved- by increasing rate and depth.
Equipment: Stationary bike, ADInstruments: powerlab, respiratory attachment (oxygen bottle),
pulse oximetry, ECG or HRM.
Aim: To investigate the breathing responses to exercise and in recovery; to investigate heart rate
responses to exercise and in recovery; to discuss how breathing responses relate to “fitness” levels;
to discuss why “recovery” is also an important factor to consider when defining fitness; to explore
how responses can be reduced following training
Methods: In this experiment our “athlete” will undertake exercise of increasing intensity on a
bike/rower whilst recording their breathing: volume per breath, breathing rate, oxygen and carbon
dioxide concentration in expired gas. We will also measure heart rate and the amount of oxygen that
is reaching the finger (pulse oximetry). We will then look at how the “athlete” recovers following
exercise.
Experiment 4: Use your eyes – both of them!
Background: In ball sports it is really important to be able to hit or catch the ball, or to throw it at
the target for your eyes to tell you exactly how far the ball is away from you otherwise it becomes
quite difficult. The brain uses the information from both of your eyes to be able to tell you exactly
where the ball is and where the target is and how far apart they are.
Aims: To investigate how accuracy is altered by using one or two eyes; to explore how accuracy
could be improved
Equipment: Bean bags, Bucket, Patch
Methods: “Athletes” will undertake catching and target shooting using a bean bag to catch and a
bucket on a chair as a target with both eyes and then with either the right or the left eye covered
using dark patch/goggles.
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Appendices
1. Commonly used equipment
Equipment:
Some of the equipment used in the following experiments is easy to obtain from health care
companies e.g. blood pressure monitors (including BP monitors), heart rate monitors (HRM), and
steps, rowers (ConceptII) stationary bikes (cycle ergometers), arm cranks (Monark). More specialist
equipment can be purchased from companies who specialise in human physiology teaching or
research. These include:
1. For a range of excellent teaching and research tools: Powerlab (hardware for data
collection), Chart (software for data collection), electrocardiogram (ECG-for heart analysis),
electromyography (EMG-for muscle activity), gas analysis (for oxygen uptake). Website:
(www.adinstruments.co.uk). A LabTutor summary is provided below
2. For gas analysis: Jaeger Oxycon Pro breath-by-breath cardiorespiratory system, VIASYS
Healthcare GmbH, Hoechburg, Germany.
Website: http://www.jaeger-toennies.com/english/products/cardiorespiratory/cardiopulmonary-ex-testing/oxycon-pro/ox-pro.html
3. For Haemoglobin analysis: B-Haemoglobin photometer (Hemocue Ltd, Angelholm, Sweden)
4. For lactate analysis: YSI 2500 Lactate Analyser, YSI, UK.
5. For Douglas bags (large bags for collecting gas to analyse) and timing gates : Cranlea
(www.cranlea.co.uk)
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LabTutor provided by ADInstruments
PowerLab LabTutor Systems
Step-by-step, interactive data acquisition and courseware for highschool, college and introductory university courses.
Ideal for courses not requiring data acquisition skills.
Takes students through background information, instructions, real-time
data acquisition, analysis and reporting all within a single software
application.
Experiments concentrate on scientific principles.
Supplied with LabTutor Software.
For info see http://www.adinstruments.com/products/teaching-systems/education/
and for equipment:
http://www.adinstruments.com/products/hardware/education/Teaching*Systems/PowerLab*LabTu
tor*Systems/
Human Physiology Experiments for LabTutor 4: Explore the principles of human physiology and
data acquisition using student volunteers and a variety of foundation PowerLab applications.
Students can acquire and analyze signals including blood pressure, ECG, EMG and EEG, as well as
becoming familiar with laboratory techniques including spirometry and using an isolated stimulator.
The latest release of Human Physiology experiments are available for existing LabTutor users to
download free of charge.
See http://www.adinstruments.com/products/labtutor4/education/
Human Physiology
Introduction to LabTutor
Familiarization with LabTutor software and PowerLab hardware.
Basic features of acquisition, analysis and reporting are covered
using LabTutor.
Blood Pressure
Students will measure blood pressure using a
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope or microphone. They will
also assess changes in peripheral circulation and the effects of
cuff location.
Breathing
Students investigate the effects of breath holding,
hyperventilation and rebreathing using a respiratory belt
transducer around the abdomen. The relation between
breathing and heart rate are also studied.
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Cardiorespiratory Effects of Exercise
In this laboratory, students will record the electrocardiogram
(ECG), blood pressure and respiratory movements from a
healthy volunteer, and compare the recordings made when the
volunteer is at rest, during exercise and immediately after
exercise.
Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise
Study how heart rate and finger pulse change after different
exercise regimes. Students will determine the factors that
control heart rate and blood flow to tissues before, during and
after exercise.
The Diving Response
Investigate the effects of the diving response on heart rate and
peripheral circulation in humans during simulated dives as well
as breath holding.
ECG & Heart Sounds
Record and identify the major components of the human ECG
as well as timings of these components. Students will correlate
heart sounds, components of the ECG with mechanical activity
of the heart.
Energy Expenditure and Exercise
Students will investigate ventilation and gas exchange at three
different levels of exercise and calculate the rate of metabolic
energy consumption as a function of mechanical energy
expenditure.
ECG & Peripheral Circulation
Students measure and analyze ECG and pulse at rest as well
as investigating the blood supply to the fingers from the radial
and ulnar arteries.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Students will record and analyze electroencephalograms
(EEGs). The effect of opening and shutting the eyes, auditory
and mental cues on alpha and beta waves will be examined .
Electromyography (EMG)
Record EMG and investigate how contractile force changes with
increasing demand. Examine the activity of antagonist muscles,
coactivation and measuring nerve conduction velocity.
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Electro-oculography (EOG)
Record the electrical activity (EOG) associated with eye
movements, recognize common artifacts in EOG recordings.
Measure and understand the significance of angular
displacement measurements, smooth tracking and investigate
aspects of gaze holding.
Gut Absorption
In this experiment, students will investigate how the gut handles
a carbohydrate load presented as either glucose or starch.
Measurements are made of blood glucose at 15 minute
intervals using a glucolet and glucometer.
Mechanics of Ventilation
In this laboratory students examine mechanical properties of the
lung and chest wall by measuring pressures generated
passively and by contraction of expiratory and inspiratory
muscles.
Muscle
Measure muscular twitch responses to nerve stimulation as well
as demonstrating recruitment in the twitch response. Measure
the decline in maximal force during a sustained contraction and
examine muscle fatigue.
Reflexes and Reaction Times
Investigate reflexes and reaction times in response to a variety
of stimuli.
Respiratory Airflow and Volume
Record and analyze respiratory signals to derive respiratory
parameters, such as lung volumes and capacities. Students
also perform basic tests of pulmonary function and stimulate an
airway restriction.
Sensory Illusions
Human sensation is the conscious perception of information
from both internal and external environments. It is detected,
transmitted and analyzed by the sensory neurons in the somatic
nervous system and autonomic nervous system. In this
laboratory, students will investigate mechanisms of sensory
perception and experiment with techniques that send conflicting
information to the central nervous system (CNS).
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Sensory Physiology
Students will make observations based on their own senses.
These include sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Within this
experiment other senses such as body awareness, balance,
and heat, will also be studied.
The Stroop Test
A reproduction of J.R. Stroops classic stress test.
Water Balance
Students investigate how the kidneys handle fluid loads. These
include water alone, isosmotic salt and monosaccharide
solutions, as well as a hyperosmotic monosaccharide solution.
Exercise Physiology Experiments for LabTutor 4: Introduces students to the fundamentals of
exercise physiology theory, methods and real-life applications.
Students test the fitness of volunteers from their class, and analyze energy expenditure and metabolism. The
experiments familiarize students with exercise physiology methods including skin-fold testing, gas analysis and
heart rate, blood pressure and ECG recording. The latest release of Exercise Physiology experiments are
available for existing LabTutor users to download free of charge.
Exercise Physiology
Introduction to LabTutor
Familiarization with LabTutor software and PowerLab hardware.
Basic features of acquisition, analysis and reporting are covered
using LabTutor.
Introduction to Fitness Testing
Students will learn some fitness testing methods that include
recording and assessing heart rate and blood pressure during
exercise, and measure body composition and musculoskeletal
fitness.
Aerobic Fitness Testing
Students will determine the aerobic power of two volunteers by
measuring the maximal rate of oxygen consumption (VO2 max).
Anaerobic Fitness Testing
Students will measure anaerobic capacity through a Maximum
Accumulated Oxygen Deficit (MAOD) test.
Cardiorespiratory Effects of Exercise
In this laboratory, students will record the electrocardiogram
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(ECG), blood pressure and respiratory movements from a
healthy volunteer, and compare the recordings made when the
volunteer is at rest, during exercise and immediately after
exercise.
Cardiovascular Effects of Exercise
Study how heart rate and finger pulse change after different
exercise regimes. Students will determine the factors that
control heart rate and blood flow to tissues before, during and
after exercise.
Energy Expenditure and Exercise
Students will investigate ventilation and gas exchange at three
different levels of exercise and calculate the rate of metabolic
energy consumption as a function of mechanical energy
expenditure.
Energy Metabolism
Students will investigate how increasing levels of exercise affect
energy metabolism, and use respiratory analysis techniques to
determine the utilization of energy substrates at various levels
of exercise.
Respiratory Gas Analysis
Instructors and students will learn the process of setting up,
calibrating and using the ADInstruments Gas Analyzer.
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Pictures of commonly used equipment (CONT)
Taking BP and BP monitors (sphygmomanometer) , automatic and manual cuffs
Heart rate monitor
Douglas Bags and online gas analysis (for VO2 testing)
Spirometers (to assess pulmonary function)
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Example of ADI labtutor online pulmonary function graph
Arm crank ergometer and isokinetic dynamometer
Example of nerve stimulation and measurement device
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Handgrip dynamometer and jump mats (timing and distance)
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2.
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