Advanced English - Julius Caesar Notes
Julius Caesar – Rise to Prominence
Family Background and Position
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102/100 – Born. If 102 correct age, if 100 then started C H two years too early.
Personal name Gaius, clan nameJulius, surnameCaesar.
Father (same name) probably finished a term as quaestor or praetor as highest.
Member of Patrician class. Julian family claimed descent from Venus. Important
family.
Mother’s family traced lineage to ancient kings, before republic. High prestige and
status, although family is not incredibly wealthy.
Mother’s family; Aurelians, upper class Plebian family. 4 consuls from Mother’s
family, last being Caesar’s grandfather.
Caesar’s father’s family Only 2 consuls in 2 previous centuries from family.
By birthshould have been member of optimates, he stands out as being part of
populares thru’ career. Strong rivalries with optimates thru’ career for untraditional
approach/actions.
In period of time; prestige thru’ military/political services important as prestige thru’
birth, class. Great no. of Plebian families in wealth/status
As a rule, anyone belonging to senatorial nobility aspired to became a politician
Education, Early Life, and Ambitions
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Influenced by both Marius and Cinnaopposed Sulla.
Caesar’s Aunt was married to Mariuspowerful in past. He had become consul 5
times in a row, even though he was a novus homo (new man)
Sulla (most powerful at time) thru’ proscription, eliminated all who had eve opposed
him, executed many. Caesar not executed.
84 – C’ married to Cornelia (daughter of Sinna, lieutenant of Marius) though. Sulla
told C’ to divorce her.
82 - Caesar did not, forced to flee Rome. 81 Goes to East as envoy to King
Nicomedes of Bythnia, in collection of a fleet – successful.
80 – Wins Civic Crown for bravery in military service in Asia.
78 - Returns when Sulla dies. Involves self in court cases, has done some military
service.
75 – Leaves for Rhodes to study oratory. Captured by pirates. Ransomed and went
back and crucified pirates. “Often smilingly sworn, while still in their power, that he
would…crucify them”- Suetonius
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73 – Member of priests – Pontifex. Works way to Pontifex Maximus, which he
retained for the rest of his life.
69 – Quaestor; public funeral oration in honour of Aunt Julia, odd thing to do,
generally not done for women. Emphasises Julian descent from Venus.
Julia can claim “both the sanctity of kings who reign supreme among the mortals and
reverence due to gods, who hold even kings in their power.” (Seutonius). In saying
thisrefers to claim C’ own heritage, to make him stand out.
69 - Quaestor; in further Spain. Supposedly wept at statue of Alexanderhad done
nothing “in the least epoch-making” – Suetonius. Followed standard C H for next ten
years.
68 – Cornelia died. C’ married Pompeia – granddaughter of Sulla. Political motives.
C’ hoped for support of Sulla, Pompey and optimates.
65 – Aedile. Wild beast hunts, plays, gladiatorial shows, many at own expense
secured support from people.
63 - Voted chief priest (Pontifex Maximus) using leeway, possible bribery.
C’ only man not to demand death of Catline during conspiracy. Suggested imprisoned
in a different town, and estates confiscated. C’ won over many with rational
approach.
C’ continued to block proceedings until a body of Roman knights threatened to kill
him, C retracted.
62 – Praetor. Divorces Pompeia because of suspicion of her and Clodius acts.
“Caesar’s wife must be above suspicion”. S
61/60 – Governor of further Spain (propraetor). Military success, wealth so pay back
some debts. Went off before Senate formally confirmed appointment, and delivered
necessary funds. Either wanted to hurry to attend to Spanish allies or fear of being
prosecuted while a private citizen. Restored order in Spain, returned to Rome next
summer.
Demanded triumph + stand for consulship. Could only go for onetime and rules
regarding a triumph. Gave up triumph to stand for consul.
60 – First triumvirate formed and C’ stands for election.
59 – Consulship.
During early careerunspectacular but members of optimates were concerned, as he
became a “champion of the people” like Marius had. “There are many Mariuses in
this fellow Caesar” – Sulla (from Suetonius)
Meier; although rigidly following C H: denial to Sulla, extra honours (P Max), funeral
oratory, pirates, achievements in Spain“His ambition was plain for all to see”
The Position of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar in 61-60
- Pompey
Needed backing of Optimates to gain land for veterans, arrangements ratified. By disbanding
army proved no intention to overthrow govt. Majority still suspicious. Frustrated by Cato,
Metellus, Celer, Lucullus. Pompey blocked from gaining land for veterans. Optimates had
rejected him personally and discredited his prestige by preventing him honouring his vet’s’.
Pompey presented and wanted all accepted; treaties, provinces. Pompey believed Dignitas
depended on all being accepted as a whole. Senate disagreed, wanted to scrutinise all
details/items of Eastern arrangements individually. Pompey disgruntled.
- Crassus
Frustrated in 61 by Optimates. Spokesman for Equestrian tax-collectors. They made losses,
and requested Crassus to grant a rebate – for tax bills to be reduced.
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Lots of opposition by senate, including Cato, Celer. Crassus + equestrians also offended by
inquiry into bribery of jurors in a different trial. Cato + optimates maintained opposition,
61land bill of Flavius and question of Asian taxes dropped.
- Caesar
In Spain as propraetor (61) hoped to return for consul in next year. Wanted triumph as well.
(rules of triumph meant he had to stay outside of Rome after triumph occurred. If so Caesar
would miss out on elections)
Wrote to request to stand in ‘absentia’. Cato/Optimates refused request, but gave Caesar
triumph. He gave up honour of triumph and returned to stand in person – he was eligible for
consul.
Prior to election, senate decided provinces for consuls for following yeargave boring/low
opportunity ones (forests/cattle farms) hoping Caesar would not continue to succeed after
consulship or that he would not run.
Caesar needed Pompey + Crassus support to become elected. Pompey had little alternative
but to back Caesar. Crassus’ short term objectives meant he could use C’, also needed to be
on relatively good terms with Pompey.
From the 1st Triumvirate to the death of Caesar, (60-44BC)
Caesar, Pompey, Crassusdisgruntled, decide to form alliance to meet goals. This is the 1st
Triumvirate. Caesar made some sort of deal/compromise to work together.
(2nd Triumvirate after Caesar’s death; between Marc Antony, Octavius (Augustus),
Leopardus. This one was a legal arrangement, recognised by Senate)
1st Triumvirate; no legal standing – amicitia (friendship/alliance). Were going to use all
resources to have demands/goals satisfied. To have Caesar elected consul for 59initiate
legislation to fulfil. Senate fairly powerless, trio had wealth, power, personal armies,
popularity, support of equites.
Many believe forming of tri’ meant civil war that later occurred would be inevitable.
Plutarch, “the first disaster and the worst had been, not the quarrel and split between Caesar
and Pompey, but the friendship and harmony that had existed between them.”
Caesar’s 1st Consulship, 59
Caesar and Bibulus. Caesar prepared legislation, but senate hostile. Because Bibulus a
supporter of Senate/Optimates, opposed Caesar in consulship.
Caesar’s 1st bill; to provide for P’ veterans, offered to amend if objections reasonable. Senate
denied/obstructedVetoed by Bibulus. So Caesar bypassed senate and went to people’s
assembly.
P’ and Crassus helped, with P’ supposedly bringing in some veterans to help control Forum.
Used threat of force to keep Bibulus out. Bibulus withdrew to house, claiming to be
watching sky for omens (claimed to see lightning every night)in effect means legislation
cannot be passed, because a consul is absent.
Caesar declared bill passed, (technically illegal) governed alone (says Suetonius). Land for
urban plebs/veterans bought at market price with funds from P’ Eastern conquests, senators
made to swear to abide by bill.
Had a bill to reduce amount of money tax farmers had to pay (1/3 rebate)
Early reforms for members of triumvirate. All bills put in front of popular assembly and
passed.
Second land bill, Lex Campania, to have public lands from Campania (previously leased to
wealthy) divided and distributed to poor. Pompey became uneasy with methods used – use of
violence, threats.
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Caesar gave daughter, Julia, to P’ in marriage. P’ forced to stay in coalition, for fear of losing
gains. Agreed to marriage link. C’ honoured rest of promises (helped by Vatinius); P’
Eastern settlement ratified, equites received 1/3 of tax contract back.
V’ also proposed Caesar’s provinces be changed to Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, for proconsulship, imperium for 5 years (normally only 1), army of 3 legions. Was passed. (Later
Transalpine Gaul added)
Also during consulship; a German chief to be recnsd’ as a friend of Rome, Ptolemy
recognised as king of Egypt, bill to prevent exploitation by Roman governors in provinces.
More accountability, limits to ‘gifts’. Also senatorial resolutionsto be published.
Another bill; dealing with corruption/extortion by provincial governors. Passed laws “Lex
Julia Reputundis” to control expoiltation of a population. Would be charged in court if
needed.
From Boac, “Most of Caesar’s legislation was determined by blatantly personal interests of
triumvirs and was passed by measures of violence and terrorism but he was the author of
several constructive and even statesmanlike measures” (page 225)
C’ continued, using threat of force to ensure passed. Optimates concerned when they learnt
of coalition’s existence. Cato, Cicero, Bibulus vocal in opposition. People in gladiatorial
shows, acting shows etc. criticised P’ especially. P’ had always wanted respect/acceptance.
Cicero had refused to join alliance 60, but friend with P’, wished for trio to break up.
Refused a second offer to join group. Hoped group would break up, believed Pompey would
break up once got what wanted.
Caesar realised threat of Cicero, aware of what would happen when C’ went to be proconsul.
Secured favourable candidates for next year’s consulship, but also needed threats of Cato,
Cicero nullified, and Pompey being watched.
Triumvirs secured election of favourable candidates for consulship, 58Piso and Gabinius.
(Caesar’s father in law and one of Pompey’s supporters)
59, Clodius PulcherPatrician changed to plebeian to help Caesar, also motivated by
revenge against Cicero. Cicero realised danger of Clodius. C’ did not depart for provinces
until Clodius had removed Cicero and Cato from political scene.
At end of consulship senate asked C’ to resubmit legislation and pass it through proper
procedures. He declined, unsure why.
• Beneath him to re-pass everything?
• Didn’t believe senate would keep word?
Ruled out senate evoking decrees against him (for irregular methods), compromising his
legislation.
Significance of Consulship
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Use of force, irregular methodsillegal measures. Caesar needed to keep imperium
so he couldn’t be prosecuted as a private citizen
His Lex Campania created high resentment
For Pompey; loss of popularity troubled himvulnerable to public opinion
Showed cracks in triumvirateaims of Crassus and Pompey were short term. Once
satisfied, difficult to keep agreement.
Tribunate of Clodius and Exile of Cicero (58)
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Clodiusmeasures to gain popularity with masses. Distribution of corn (later used to
bribe people), abolition of omens to stop business, legislation of collegia
(clubs/assosiations)
Legislation of collegiagangs of thugs formed under blanket of political clubs, over
next few years undermined law + order in Rome.
Clodius introduced bill; banish any magistrate who had put a citizen to death without
a trial. Cicero in danger of prosecution for past actions. Appealed to Pompey for
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helpP’ said a private citizen had no influence over Clodius (also Cicero had
declined to join triumvirs in past). Not only P’, but others deserted Cicero.
Cicero departed, after that, officially exiled by Clodius’ law, Ciceros; property
confiscated. Cicero in East (Greece / Macedonia) miserable, disconsolate.
Clodius arranged Cato to Cyprus to supervise annexation.
Clodius’ changing of Eastern arrangements made Pompey suspicious, led to series of
public humiliations of P’ by Clodius.
Pompey suspected plot by Clodius and hid self from public life for rest of Clodius’
tribunate.
Triumvirate Under Pressure 58-56
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Pompey and Crassus always hostile to each otherhad achieved short term goals.
Suspected of Crassus behind Clodius attacks on Pompey. Gang warfare between
Clodius and Milo highlighted conflict between Pompey/Crassus
57 movement for Cicero’s recall gained momentum. Clodius (now out of office) used
violence/rioting to stop bill. P’ brought men from estates and those under his
influence to voice opinions for bill. Bill passed, Cicero returned.
Cicero spoke in favour of P’ assuming another extraordinary command. Demanded P’
be in charge of grain supply. Bill draftedP’ Curator of the Grain Supply and
received 15 legates, total control of ports/trading centres. For five years.
Pompey continued to succeed, Plu says made P’ “virtually the master of all Roman
possessions by sea and land”. P’ controlled seas, filled markets with grain. Possibly
P’ sees benefits of Tri’ as dwindling due to acquired power
Debate laterrestoring Ptolemy (was previously helped by triumvirs). Prolemy
requested Pompey to restore him. Cicero, Crassus, optimates against this. Lost
Pompey considerable support.
Cicero; final attempt to break tri’s. brought up Q’ of Lex Campania. Looking to
repeal or modify legislation. If P’ did not object; would go against Caesar. But would
also gain funds to carry out role as grain controller.
A candidate for consul for 55; Ahenobarbusdeclared would recall Caesar if elected.
Despite Crassus role in attacking P’ through Clodiuswanted same prestige of those
two.
Caesar needed alliance to continue; had not finished conquest of Gaul, a recall would
be disastrous. Best interests of all three to renew political assosications.
The Conference of Luca (56) – Renewal of Triumvirate
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Luca Close to Rome, but Caesar remains in province (remains with imperium).
Crassus travelled North to inform C’ of threats to coalition.
C’ needed to sort out situation before he went back to campaigning.
Three discussed future of Tri’, some doubt whether Crassus went with Caesar to meet
Pompey (Plu and Suetonius implied he did). Pompey with 120 senators.
Not a secret meeting. Decisions made provided public reconciliation between Crassus
and Pompey.
Pompey + Crassus would stand for consulship next year and then look after own
proconsular futures. Would gain extension for C’ command in Gaul. To not discuss
issue of Lex Campania or recalling Caesar. Crassus to disassociate self with Clodius.
The Second Joint Consulship of Pompey + Crassus (55)
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Aware of difficulties to be elected. Powerful enemies, one being Ahenobarbus. He
needed to be prevented as he said he would recall Caesar from Gaul.
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Planned to delay elections for 56, obstructed using violence/mobs. No elections held
by end of year so Interex needed to be appointed. (Had 5 days to conduct elections).
One friendly to P’ appointed; proposed only Crassus and Pompey only candidates.
Were elected, violence included (where Ahenobarbus injured), also violence.
Trebonius (a tribune) used to gain P’ and Crassus valuable commands. Crassus given
Syria, Pompey given two Spain’s. P’ allowed to govern from Rome so could keep eye
on city.
Both proconsular commands; 5 years, imperium, right to make war/peace on own
account.
Secured Caesar an extension in Gaul, until end of 50.
Breakdown of the 1st Triumvirate
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Pompey in strongest position Imperium, control of corn supplies, control of
provinces.
54 Julia dies. Was a crucial link between P’ and C’. Situation in Rome also in some
anarchy; with delaying of elections. No consuls for 1st half of 53.
Political crisis developing, P’ seemed in good position to take advantage, possibly
gain exceptional powers.
Crassus in Syria defeated by Parthians at Carrhae. He himself is killed. Meant Tri
literally broken as one member is killed. Split between P’ and C’ more likely.
C’ hoped “to preserve Pompey’s friendship and renew the family ties” (Suetonius) he
offered, great niece Octavia, as well as option of C’ divorcing wife, and marrying P’
daughter. P’ refused offer, and in 52 married Cornelia, daughter of Q.C.M.P.Scipio.N
Meant shifted position slightly towards Optimates, did not want to break up with C’.
Events Leading to Civil War between Pompey and Caesar 52-49
Anarchy in Rome; Clodius and Milo
• 53 characterised by lawlessness, bribery, violence. Prevented election of consuls.
• Obvious to P’ that he could exploit situation for own benefit. (Pompey is still grain
curator and had legions, power etc.) 52 will become one of P’ most powerful years.
• Annius Milo; useful to P’ in past, and now a candidate for sonsulship. Clodius was
standing for praetorship. Long standing enmity resulted in clash between them on
Appian way in Jan Clodius was wounded. Orders of Milo he was then killed.
• Funeral fire went out of control and Senate house was destroyed. Clodius’ wife
stirred up a mob, who raided houses of Milo and some of his supporters.
• Still no elections, and pressure amounted. P’ called on by members of senate to
restore order. To stop P’ gaining full dictatorship, optimates of Bibulus and Cato
made a proposal for P’ to be sole consul (they saw it inevitable he would be given a
position of power)
• Sole consul would still have restrictions, also meant P’ would be expected to stand
down after his year (after he organised and held elections) as well as take up a
colleague for his year whilst being consulwould not have absolute power of a
dictator.
Pompey’s Sole Consulship – 52
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Another in the series of extraordinary commands.
Had not had the (required) 10 year interval between consulshipsonly been 3. Had
been proposed by conservatives, even though it was unconstitutional.
P’ passed a series of legislation;
1. Law against public violence
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2. law stipulating a 5 year interval between a magistracy and provincial
command
3. law demanding that candidates must be in Rome to stand for election.
• Milo prosecuted under the 1st law. Pompey forced to bring troops into forum to
ensure control due to disturbances during trial.
• Milo condemned and sent into exile.
• Other two laws affected C’although not directly to undermine him.
• C’ wanted to extend command in Gaul, also wanted to stand in absentia for consul for
following year. Would mean continued unbroken string of imperium.
• Second law was to make it so people did not seek urban office so they could then go
abroad for extortion. New law also meant a new successor to a province could be
nominated and sent to the province straight away (e.g. who would replace C’ in Gaul)
• Meant C’ would have an interval between being proconsul and trying to be consul
again. Meant a potential break in imperium.
• Third law; contradicted what C’ had wantedto stand in absentia. In 52all ten
tribunes had agreed for C’ to have this right. Pompey added a clause exempting C’ for
this third law.
• Pompey took Metellus Scipio (father in law) as colleague. Pompey also extended his
own command of Spain(s) for a further 5 years.
• 52; P’ position somewhere between optimates and C’. C’ political survival depended
on P’ support. Senate needed P’ for law/order. P’ would soon have to commit to one
side.
Aims of P, C, optimates(senate) in 51
• Optimates; wanted to prosecute Caesar, wanted to keep law/order.
• Pompey; Keep balance between Caesar and optimates. Wanted to hold higher
commands than Caesar did, make sure C’ did not become an equal.
• Caesar; Wanted command in Gaul until he could stand in absentia for consulship of
48. So he could not be prosecuted as he would inevitably be condemned.
Political Manoeuvres by the optimates and Pompey
1. M. Marcellus wanted to remove C’ from command in Gaul. Illegalwould have
disregarded the law P’ and Crassus passed on C’ behalf in 55. P’ objected to this
proposal.
2. Marcellus humiliated C’ by flogging some Transpadane Gaul’s whom C’ treated as
citizens.
3. P’ indicated that it would be legitimate to discuss C’ recall after March in 50.
4. Curio into tribune for 50. Worked with C’veoted any discussion of C’ replacement
thru’ 50, suggested Pompey and C’ give up commands.
5. Pompey had no intention of giving up command. Made counter-proposal for C’ to
leave province in November.
6. Curio vetoed this again. Once again proposed Pompey and C’ give up powers, to
restore balance of power.
7. Threat of war in Syriasenate decree C’ and P’ each give a legion to be sent to East.
P’ asked for return of a legion he had previously lent to C’. C’ therefore had to give 2;
and after situation in East quelled, both legions kept with Pompey.
8. Curio again urged vote be taken for P/C’ to give up commands. 370 for, 22 against.
Marcellus dismissed senate, demanded P’ defend Rome from Caesar. P’ agreed, here
showing taking side of optimates.
9. Curio left at end of 50. Antony and Cassius tribunes for 49 worked for Caesar. Letter
from C’; pointed out that it was unreasonable for only C’ to lay down arms, with P’
retaining power.
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10. Senate angered by letter, but wanted to avoid war. Lentulus, consul declared that he
would override senate if they tried to reconcile with Caesar.
11. Mettelus proposed C’ dismiss army by certain date or be declared enemy.
12. Antony and Cassius vetoed this.
13. Cato, Lentulus, Scipiomade an SCU and it was passed. (Made
consuls/optimates/Pompey to be given power to solve emergency) Tribunes
threatened that if they interfered they would be harmed.
14. Tribunes fled to Caesar.
15. Pompey assumed command of Roman forces in Italy
16. C’ crosses Rubicon and committed to Civil War. Says he is defending sacrosanct
qualities of tribunes.
Caesar’s Relationships
Caesar’s army
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Army loyal to him.
Prior to political careeralready noted for bravery. Had received Corona Civica
(highest honour)
Saw C’ as a leader, but also a comrade as he fought with them, often leading the
charge.
Meier – “leader of men”, “superb military machine”, C’ “shared in all their dangers”
Lived with army, marched at head, treated men as comrades. Looked after them well.
Remarkable endurance, capacity, which inspired men.
Well rewarded doubled pay and made it standard.
When troops not fighting, allowed them festivities, wine, to relax. Understood needs
of people.
C’ concerned with all aspects of a campaign.
Incredible trust due to successes together.
Plu’ “His ability to secure the affection of his men and to get the best out of them was
remarkable”
Cary, “most efficient infantry of ancient times and their commander exploited to the
utmost their tactical skill and endurance in marching and entrenching”
Experience in Gaul crucial to support in Civil War. Army was decidedly Caesarian,
said to “follow Caesar anywhere” – Caesar himself
Caesar and the Senate
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Through early career; follows CH pattern, however senate suspicious early on. Due
to his popularity with people, funeral oration, demands for triumph.
C’ trying to disempower the senate. He uses popular assemblies, tribunesto pass
bills, get his way. First consulship, completely ignores Senate’s power, using popular
assemblies to pass bills.
Always a populare even though birth would suggest he become an optimates. Senate
sees C’ as disrespecting traditions of Rome, tough on him because he is from a noble
family.
Senate shows contemptappointing him governor to cattle tracks and forests for 1st
consulship.
Triumvirate is not a secret to the senate. They know about it, many including Cicero
criticise it. Many senators go to Luca to attend conference.
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Senate always want C’ to be prosecuted for consulship 59BC. Connected to causes
for Civil war. After consulship 59, relationship always strained + hostile.
Caesar undermines senate’s power because he is impatient and would rather decide on
doing things and do them, than discuss and vote. Southern “He was going to do the
best for Rome, whether Rome wanted it or not”. Meier “His ambition was plain for
all to see”
Plu tells during negotiations leading to Civil War; “so suspicious of him were they
made by their fear of a monarchy” – before C’ had crossed Rubicon. Senate always
paranoid.
Senate not conducive to getting things done efficiently. C’ dislikes how they debate
everything, there is always opposition. Its institution does not suit his personality.
Julia
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Caesar’s daughter, born 76 BC. Caesar married her to Pompey to strengthen
relationship (amicitae)
Seen as ideal Roman woman, successful link while alive.
Death played an important part in severing family ties between P’ and C’, making
triumvirate under pressure.
Cleopatra VII
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Captivated, seduced and intrigued Caesar. He took her side in Civil War in Egypt and
left her in control of throne. Cleopatra moved to Italy in 45/44 and stayed in a villa
near Caesar.
Cleopatra gave birth to son of Caesar – Caesarion.
Brutus
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Caesar’s favourite prodigy, spared after defeating Pompeians at Pharsalus. Personally
knew each other, Caesar individually made sure Brutus not harmed.
Caesar relationship with Brutus mother.
Brutus plays role in assassinating Caesar, supposedly for Republican values.
Mark Antony
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Tribune of people used by Caesar in 49 lead up to Civil War. Vetoed resolutions that
C’ give up command and army. Often represented C’ in Rome, whilst C’ away on
campaign.
Commander in Caesar’s army – Master of Horse. Successful. Consul with Caesar 44
at time of C’ death.
Cicero
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Tried to uphold Republican principles. Used skills to prosecute guilty in law courts.
Did not support Caesar’s acts/motives.
A threat to Caesar and the T’ so C’ has Clodius exile Cicero for killing without a trail.
Declined to join first T.
Admitted to Caesar’s rhetorical abilities. Cicero admits that he does not know a finer
speaker than Caesar.
Cicero admired C’ clementia.
Caesar in Gaul General Notes
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58 -50. Proconsular command pCisalpine Gaul, Illyricum, later Cisalpine Gaul
added
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Several opportunities for C’land, money/welath, recruiting of troops, expansion of
Roman provinces, train/deploy army, glory, gain favour with people/army of
Rome/senate, put self in powerful political position for return.
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Helvetii and Suebi seeking new homes in Gaul. 400 000 intended migration. Rome
allied with Aedui, and thought migrating tribes would cause violence. C’ attacked
when they intended to migrate against his permission. Swift marching, strong
fortifications.
Arar – massacred when trying to cross. C’ army defeated Helvetii and forced them to
return to homeland.
Ariovistus tries to cross Rhine, Caesar defeats Ariovitus and Suebi, driving survivors
back across the Rhine.
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Belgae, Veneti and Aquitanias preparing to expel Romans. C’ took offensive.
Defeated their forces and they became subject to Roman rule
Nervii feared C’ would conquer all of Gaul and attacked Roman forces. C’ launched
full scale attack and defeated Nervii.
56
• Veneti revolted, squashed by Caesar. Aquitani defeated also.
• Conference at Luca
Caesar gained great reputation due to success, wealth gained. Romans in control of whole of
Gaul. C’ had choice of setting up in client states like Pompey had done in East.
55/54
• C’ massacred two whole Germanic tribes who tried to cross Rhine into Gaul.
• Expedition into Britaincrossed channel. Crossed Thames, took capital. Tribes
submitted to Caesar.
• C’ reputation continued to grow. Harsh treatment of Germans contrasted with leniency
towards Gallic people.
• Further uprising from GaulsEbruones tribe decimated one and a half legions. C’
crushed revolt.
53/52
• Uprising under Vercingetorix, gained momentum and numbers. After a series of
Roman victories, rebellious Gauls sieged at Alesia and were submitted.
51/50
• Caesar subdued any resistance and organised the govt of Gaul.
What does C’ gain from the Gallic Wars
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More than 8 yearsestimated over 1 million killed, over 800 towns. Enormous
plunder to Rome, Gauls financially exhausted.
Support of Gallic peoplealliances, wealth, power base, clients/patron.
Added area twice size of Italy to Rome’s dominion. Larger population than Spain,
effectively surpassing Pompey.
Meier “raised Roman military technique, tactics and strategy to a new plane”
“The way in which Caesar conquered Gaul…makes him one of the greatest
commanders of all time” - Meier
Experienced, loyal, excellent army.
Booty, financial wealth. Can pay army well, repay debts
Individual Power – army to call upon. Strong relationship. Military reputation. Seen
as hero, success means he is favoured by gods.
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Political propaganda, opportunity for power
Administration, clementia, trade mean political power.
Senate is scared by C’ success, power, popularity, that he does not depend on them or
answer to them. Many are already envious of him, or dislike him, especially for his
acts in his consulship. He also acted without seeking Senate’s permission when
waging war.
Civil War Occurrences
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Caesar crossed Rubicon 49BC
The senatorial party had given command to Pompey with the SCU. Pompey slowly
gathered his legions. Then fled to Brundisium.
Pompey was now in his late '50s, and had not commanded troops in the field for 15
years.
His slow response to Caesar's invasion may have been a sign of age, or possibly a sign
that the legions available to the Republic in Italia had, in many cases, fought with
Caesar's legendary Gallic legions: their loyalty was debatable.
Caesar took city after city in northern Italy, almost all by peaceful surrender. It
appeared that all of northern Italy would fall to Caesar without a serious battle.
Pompey intended to fight Caesar, not in Italia, but in Asia, an area of the Roman
world in which he had strong connections and many client-kings.
When Caesar entered Rome, he took control of it financially (opening the Treasury)
and politically (calling the senate).
Caesar besieged Pompey at Brundisium but Pompey fled. (March 49)
General outline
Aug 49 Caesar does not chase Pompey but turns to Pompeian forces in Spain. Defeats them
led by Afranius and controls Massilia
• In Spain Caesar’s troops were almost defeated because of the loose order of the
Spanish army. Floodwaters had also blocked off the supply routes but Caesar devised
a solution by building bridges and transport ships. He relentlessly pursued the
Pompeians who were surprised by his celeritas (speed)
• It took Caesar's augmented legions less than six months - to August, 49 - to break the
resistance of the port of Massilia (Marseilles), which had effectively declared for
Pompey, and to destroy Pompey's armies in Spain.
October 49 Caesar appointed Dictator of Rome
Elected consul as well.
Dec 49 Caesar pursues Pompey to Brundisium and transports Troops to Dyrrachium across
the Adriatic
Caesar sieges Pompey at Dyrrachium.
July 48 Battle of Dyrrachium
Aug 48 Battle of Pharsalus
August 48 Caesar appointed Consul for 5 years
Caesar fights the remnant Pompeian forces in the Battles of Ruspina (Africa, Jan 46),
Thapsus (Africa April 46) and Munda (Spain 45).
44BC Caesar appointed Dictator Perpetuos.
Reasons for Victory
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Caesar’s generalship
1. Tactics – unusual but effective, executed well, helped win battles with smaller
force
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2. Strategy – marching, financial base, fighting where he wanted it (land),
3. Leadership – of others, of troops, command, inspiration, logistics.
4. Legions – faster, veterans, loyalty, trust, experience, discipline.
5. Clementia – gather support from enemy towns, absorb enemy forces.
• Pompey’s inadequate generalship
1. Dyrrachium mistake
2. Not taking advantage of naval superiority
3. Engaging in battle at Pharsalus – influence of senate
4. Leaving field of Pharsalus
• Fortune
1. Crossing Adriatic
2. Landing in Africa
" For Caesar publicly declared that only two things were needed to rule, soldiers and money,
and armies could only be held together with money… since the Roman citizen force had
inevitably changed into an army of professional soldiers, the imperator with his veterans took
the political place of the patron and his clients. What some had feared and others aspired to,
for decades, was fully realized in the person of Caesar; the conqueror of Gaul whom the old
powers refused to recognize overwhelmed all resistance and, on the strength of an authority
based solely on the loyalty of his soldiers, was reaching for the government of the Empire." Gelzer
Caesar’s return to Rome
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C’ had spent only short periods in Rome between Civil War campaigns, but during
these carried out a number of reforms as well as securing his political position by
his elections to consul (2nd consulship 48) and short-term dictatorships (11 days in 48).
Accepted various powers, honours from senate.
Held autocratic position, which became increasingly clear with each extension of his
dictatorship. 49 (11 days), 48 (1 year) 47 (10 years) 44 (life) Also was consul 48, 46,
45, 44
It was obvious that C’ did not intend to relinquish power of being dictator, and he was
not in complete respect of oligarchical Republican rule. Had broken constitution
[unwritten] regarding consulships, length of dictatorships, honours received.
Had portrait on Roman coins – showed he regarded himself a truly great man. Called
‘prefect of morals’ (praefectura morum) effectively making him the first man in
Rome.
He also had powers of a censor, tribunician sancrosanctity, Pontifex manixus, right to
speak first, right to appoint magistrates, control over money, army, provinces.
All magistrates had to take an oath to support him, and uphold his powers.
Fear rose that C’ might try to establish a monarchy. Rumours spread 44BC. Possibly
by nobility who were trying to curb C’ powers. However, C’ already had power of a
king without having the title. Certainly he was not going to let go of these powers.
“Caesar had only one unshakeable principle – he would not let go of the power he had
won” – Gelzer
Foreign bodyguard, foreign ‘queen’ suggested wanted to be king.
C’ had been unpopular with members of senate, and their jealousy grew. C’ had
placed self above constitution, reduced other magistrates powers.
Honours
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Parens Patriae – Father of the fatherland. Imperator – victorious generals.
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Statues of Caesar erected in Rome and other areastemple Quirinius near statues of
kings of Rome.
• Month renamed to Iulius – July
• Gilded chair, triumphal robe, laurel crown, wore special red boots [that Etruscan kings
had worn]
• Toga all purple
• Celebration of birthday as public holiday
“He had never believed the ideologies of the optimates and populares” – Gelzer
“He was going to do the best for Rome, whether Rome wanted it or not” – Southern
“took honours which as a mere mortal, he should have refused” – Suetonius
Reforms
Reform “to improve by alteration, correction of error, or removal of defects; put into a
better condition. It involves “action to improve social or economic conditions without radical
or revolutionary change”
• Successful, efficient, prepared, planned for future, permanence, bypassed
obstructions, decisive, swift.
Provincial
• Founding of colonies outside Italy. Extension of Roman citizenship (including voting
rights e.g. to Gauls) especially to those who supported him thru’ wars or loyal to
Rome.
• Settled veterans and urban poor (80 000) to colonies (Spain, Africa, Gaul). Continued
“Romanisation” and ensured control of provinces. Eased population/resource
pressures in Rome.
• Replaced system of taxationfixed land tax instead of previous tithe system. Less
corruption, reduce middleman.
• Soldiers pay doubled and made standard.
• ‘Lex Julia de Repetundis’ – dealt with extortion in provinces. Throughout empire,
controlled governor from being corrupt, greedy.
• Offered citizenship to doctors/teachers to move to Rome
Building Programs
• Forum extension – Forum Julium.
• Basilica Iulia, planned a vast library
• Planned to drain Pontine marshes, for agricultural land to further ease population
pressures, build new roads, expand harbour, new theatre.
• Standardised some weights and measures
Logistical
• Calendar. Festivals/months/seasons out of sync. Reorganised using own skill, in
place until 15th Century
• Replenished public treasury from taxation of foreign kings, from Civil War spoils.
• Reduces no. eligible for corn doleonly those truly in need received it. Made a cut
off, so govt of Rome held less burden.
• 1/3 workers on large estates had to be free men employment for poor
• Penalties for criminal offences increased
• Laws to relieve debtors and creditors’ problems – balanced solution
• Land distributed to poor through various bills.
Senatorial
• Lex Julia Municipalis – uniform system of local govt for towns in Italy. Local
senate / magistrates.
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Rome’s senate no.s from 600 to 900. Stretched power between individual members,
making it harder for one to rise to sig’ power. Undermines senate’s importance, fills
with own supporters.
Supressed all private clubs (which he blamed for violence) except for Jewish
synagogues and craftsmen.
Assassination
General
• C’ had made plans for another campaign against Parthians. Wanted to avenge Roman
defeat with Crassus. Started recruiting an army of 16 legions.
• Some suggest C’ plagued by headaches, epilepsy, illness. Had drawn up will 45 after
Munda.
• Caesar had previously dismissed Spanish bodyguard, supposedly showing he was not
living in fear, as well as a sign that he did not feel in danger in Rome. Senators had
also taken an oath to protect his life.
• Omens on days leading to death; Calpurnia had dreams, supposed fortune teller
predicted it.
• In reference to Caesar’s death “Afterwards it became evident that his strength was
also his weakness, and in the end a certain melancholy of fulfilment – and a sense of
futility – may have descended on him.” – Meier. Might have been fatalistic.
Motives for Assassination
• Many optimates unhappy with Caesar’s position of power. A group formed a
conspiracy that they successfully implemented 15th (ides) of March 44. Caesar had
openly disregarded senate’s ideologieshe did not rise to greet them.
• Power redistributed to C’ supporters and away from those from Senate e.g. senior or
more deserving might not receive positions they deserve and C’ supporters would.
• Fear of Caesar becoming king. Antony had offered crown as festival of Lupercal.
• Jealousy of power; had personally been pardoned after Civil War – owed political
status to him but were bitter about his power. Dislike of personality, arrogance,
ambition. “His ambition soared so high because he was conscious of his power to
become the master of the empire” - Gelzer
• Optimates did not find it acceptable that Caesar would soon be ruling from East on
campaign, “A perpetual dictator ruling by remote control was so frightful it could not
be endured” (Grant)
• Preservation of Republic; believed they would be supported in actions. Idealism –
“believed that republicanism could still be saved” - Baldson
• Former supporters of Caesar might have been jealous that enemies had been treated so
well; Brutus was in praetor.
• Suetonius “more than sixty conspirators banded together against him”
Main Known Conspirators
Gaius Cassius Longinus (Cassius)
Fought on Pompeian side and been pardoned after Pharsalus. Benefited from clementia of
Caesar. Thought to be a proud man, possibly bitter, angry at Caesar’s position and owing all
he had to the mercy of Caesar.
Marcus Brutus
Also benefited from clementia after Pharsalus. Close relationships with Caesar; had served
on staff, his mother (Servilla) was C’ lover. Cassius supposedly exploited family history of
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Brutus and convinced him C’ was a tyrant. Brutus supposedly destined to restore Republic
by killing C’.
Decimus Brutus
A relative of Marcus Brutus. Had been a supporter of C’ throughout (even mentioned in
will). Possibly found C’ power unbearable, wanted to achieve personal power.
Trebonius
Also a follower of Caesar. Served under C’ as a general in Gaul. Reports say Trebonius kept
Antony outside senate when assassination took place. Unknown motives; possibly jealous of
Caesar’s power, own ambition and to restore Republic.
Interpretations / Images of Caesar’s Career
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Influenced by primary sources. Examine ancient sources before assessing modern
sources
Caesar’s ‘commentaries’ Piece of propaganda. Positive outlook on C’ career,
favoured by gods, exaggerates achievements. Justifies motives, “to reclaim for
myself and the Roman people freedom from the domination of a small clique”
Cicero; hostile regarding C’ actions. Because Cicero is an optimates. However,
praises rhetoric and writing flair. Although critical, admits conquest of Gaul “was a
decisive act in world history”. Later calls Caesar a “tyrant”
Plutarch; Roman-centric view. Tragic hero, with a fatal flaw. Personal conclusions
about motives, actions. Though C’ constantly sought supreme power.
Victorian Era / Shakespeare; C’ career – driven by pride and arrogance.
German Historians such as Gelzer – ruthless political power; “his demonic genius
raised him in every aspect above his contemporaries”
Meier; “brutal, successful, calculating and a thoughtful exemplar of all that Rome
represented” – more balanced interpretation. Sees him as a symbol of Rome.
Grant; “an amalgamation of genius, method, culture, thoughtfulness, industry and
culture”
Meier/Grant – recognition of both perceived positive and negative traits.
Shotter Pro/Caesar; “There is no serious evidence that Caesar wished to elevate
himself to the level of divinity”. Also praises reforms program “thought about the
needs of government”.
All agree C’ success; highest political office, extensive military victories.
Outstanding politician, general, writer, orator.
Varying, divided views have inevitably arisen as historians project own
values/context, and because of the nature of Caesar’s career – controversial in ancient
and in modern times.
Evaluation of Julius Caesar
Plutarch; “He was always fighting with himself to make the future excel the past”
Impact and Influence on his time
1. Military leader / General
Achievements
• Conquest of Gaul proved a huge impact on Rome. Added and area double the size of
Italy, with a population larger than Spain to Rome’s empire.
• The way Caesar administrated it endorsed the empire-type government
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Meier; “Caesar had to contend with numerous powers, a turbulent country and, valiant
opponents”, with “boldness, swiftness, energy and perseverance”
• The actual conquest gained Caesar considerable wealth, political power and
reputation. Influences the people’s views of Caesar – hero-like status.
• Impact meant peace to the Gallic area for over 300 years, wealth to Rome.
• “The way in which Caesar conquered Gaul…makes him one of the greatest
commanders of all time” (Meier)
• Victory in Civil War meant thousands of deaths of Romans. Caesar became the most
dominant political figure. His strategy, tactics, army, generalship; changed the course
of history and therefore made immense impact in his time.
Army / Generalship
• Caesar was an exceptional commander. He gained a loyal army
• An immediate impact was his innovation of new tactics which were incredibly
successful.
• Introduced swift attacks (celeritas) – e.g. outmanoeuvred Afrianus in Spain to make
them surrender. C’ did not have to engage in a battle so did not lose men.
• Caesar displayed clemency; gained alliances from towns in Spain, Gaul, Asia.
Reputation in Rome for sparing Romans.
• Non-returnable slimline javelin. Tactics within battles were varied e.g. Fourth line at
Pharsalus, missiles against elephants at Thapsus.
• Continued to display how the use of an army could be used to propel self to eminence
(previously Sulla, Marius, Pompey)
• Successful in every situation he fought in; Spain, Gauls, Africa, against Pharnaces,
Egypt, Asia. “Vini Vidi Vici” – Came, saw, conquered. (Caesar)
• Some say used military glory to advance political career. Showed how one could do
so. Impacted the government of Rome; the senate could not stop him after he attained
his army.
• Meier: Caesar “raised Roman military technique, tactics and strategy to a new plane”
• Psychologically analysed his own soldiers, Pompey, senate in Civil War. Used
psychological warfare to bate Pompeians at Pharsalus.
• Cary “He held at his beck and call an invincible army that was ready to follow him
anywhere”
• Caesar had an incredible relationship with his army, Plu; able to “secure the affection
of his men and get the best out of them” Suetonius “addressed his men as comrades”.
Other generals had not had such equitable relationships with their armies.
• Grant; “His army was the most potent, effective, responsive martial instrument the
world had ever seen. Its traditional talents were raised to new red-hot capacity by its
commander”
• Grant; “As a general, he was versatile…a frightening military intellectual…totally
committed, determined…physically courageous beyond measure”
• Quelled mutinies that had arisen in his absence. 47 Speech where he addressed them
as “quirites” (citizens) meant picked up extra legions for Africa without spending any
money.
• Ultimately must measure a general by their success; undoubtedly Caesar was
completely successful, winning every war he engaged in.
2. Politician / Reformer
• Followed Cursus Honorum. Attained Pontifex Maximus. Suo Anno (first eligible
year)
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•
Held highest positions a Roman could hold – consul and dictator. Meant regarded in
his time as an incredibly successful Roman.
Building Empire
• Caesar helped transition Rome into an empire. Changed its history in being a catalyst
for Republic being destroyed.
• Extension of citizenship to Gauls. Encouraged colonisation and settling of veterans
and other Romans there. Acted to Romanise.
• Established system of govt’ in Gaul that continued into Empire
• Lex Julia De Repetunis dealt with extortion and corruption. Remained throughout
empire, limited power/wealth a provincial commander could gain.
• Replaced the system of taxation. Introduced a fixed land tax instead of previous tithe
system. Meant less corruption, no middle man.
• Made such an impact that he took steps to empire; “His ambition soared so high
because he was conscious of his power to become the master of the empire” – Gelzer
• A tribute to Caesar’s influence arises through assassination. The conspirators
believed that Caesar was so influential that he might create an empire and make
himself king. His existence threatened the existence of the Republic.
Affiliation with Senate / Traditions
• Caesar opposed the optimates throughout his career even though he was born into a
Patrician family. “He had never believed the ideologies of the optimates” (Gelzer)
• Undermined the senate’s power and disregarded traditions. Examples; during
dictatorships putting allies into office even without correct age/qualifications. Held
dictatorships longer and for different purposes than it was intended for.
• Use of alliances, force, army by Caesar: exploited cracks in Republican government.
• First T’ (which C’ initiated) undermined senate. Used violence in enacting legislation
59BC. Impact meant senate could no longer control individuals within the state.
• Caesar made considerable influence on his peers. He reconciled Crassus and Pompey,
showing his interpersonal skills and ability to use relationships.
• Plu: “worked together to destroy the power of the aristocracy”
• In causing Civil War; to “defend myself from the slanders of my enemies, to restore to
their rightful positions the tribunes of the plebs who have been expelled…and to
reclaim for myself and the Roman people freedom from the domination of a small
clique” (Caesar)
• Suetonius: “another view is that he dreaded having to account for the irregularities of
his first consulship”
• Impact of the Civil War was that Caesar showed ultimate contempt for the optimates.
He marched on Rome, committing treason.
• Deducted power from the senate in many ways during 45 – 44. Examples; increased
numbers from 600 to 900, filled with own supporters.
• Cicero (always a Republican) stated that C’ “no longer refuses to be called a tyrant, in
fact he practically demands it – and that is exactly what he is”
• Plu; “The only fruit on his supreme power that he had reaped was an empty name and
a glory which made him envied by his fellow citizens”
• Suet says C’ received “unconstitutional honours”, further showing his disregard for
the senate. Impacts on C’ reputation and eventual assassination.
Reformer/Statesman
• Solved practical problems within Rome relating to debt, land, population etc.
Reforms were swift, successful, efficient, prepared, had permanence, bypassed
obstructions, decisive.
• Extensive public works; statues, Forum Iulium, weights/measures standardisation.
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Uniform system of govt’ for towns in Italy local Senate/magistrates. Lex Julia
Municipalis.
• Calendar, corn dole, employment of Romans on farms, corn dole.
• Offered citizenship to doctors/teachers to move to Rome
• Radical, but the impact of this was that he implemented an incredible amount. Also
did not only benefit optimates but also urban poor of Rome.
• Suppressed private clubs – stopping public violence.
• Evidence shows C’ care for Rome; directly impacts the city as well as other colonies.
Improves state of city, living conditions for poor.
Use for personal power
• Followed Cursus Honorum up to consul. Strong ambition, “plain for all to see”
(Meier)
• Attained Pontifex Maximus, had early military experience.
• Doubled soldiers pay and made standardsecure loyalty
• Had statues of self around city, considered himself greater than other men in his
actions; wearing of purple toga, titles (father of fatherland), perpetual dictator, above
constitution (10 year dictatorship)
• Took honours and roles which “as a mere mortal, he should have refused” – Suetonius
• Introduces legislation to please T’ members which meant C’ had power and
kept/continued it.
3. Writer / Speaker
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Writings; unprecedented for a general, set standard, power of speaking in third person.
Presented all info regarding conquests to Romans. Defended and applauded own
actions in his writings.
Speaker; excellent orator, able to further self. Examples; funeral of Julia (aunt) and
during Cataline Conspiracy. Influenced much of the senate to support him.
Plu; “natural ability as a political speaker was of the highest order”. Cicero admitted
that he did not know a greater public speaker.
Assessment of his life and career
1. Military Glory (above)
2. Wealth
• Ran himself into considerable debt but attained wealth always through military
endeavours.
• Conquest of Gaul delivered an unbelievable amount of wealth for himself and
Rome, which renewed with the taxes/tributes.
• Would have been one of the richest men in Rome. At the time of his dictatorships
money would not have been an issue at all.
3. Fame
• Contributed to his own fame through public orations and writings. Everyone in
Rome would have known who he was.
4. Political Administration of Rome and provinces (above)
5. Emulated powers of Sulla and Marius
• Their use of armies had shown C’ how to do it and he surpassed their power whilst
using similar methods to them.
Ultimately, his career was incredibly successful in every way. An undefeated general,
dominant source of political power, he was the greatest Roman of all time.
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Legacy
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Immediate legacy was a power vacuum. The assassinators did not have a plan to
restore the Republic, and C’ had not left a direct heir.
Left Roman people 75 denarii and opened up gardens for public use in will. Meant he
was popular even after death, deified, admired.
His successes and failures were there for Octavius to learn from and eventually
become Emperor.
His reforms had a sense of permanence. E.g. calendar (solar, July), empire building.
Public works changed the city of Rome. Basilica Iulia, Forum Iulum.
Through the life of C’ we have symbols of ambition, victory, success, unrelenting
determination, leadership. Modern use; Tsar, Kaiser, Czar.
Paved the way for EmpireLex Julia De Repetudundis, conquering Gaul, idea of
singular leader, way of tribute/pay. Colonisation, Romanisation.
Writings are left for modern historians. Insight into Caesar’s character; both political
and military spheres. Caesar is still a controversial figure.
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