The Field Museum Education Department presents
Educator G uide & Walking Map
October 26, 2008 – April 10, 2009
©Michel Zabé /AZA. Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
The Field Museum’s Education Department develops on-line Educator Guides to provide detailed
information on field trip planning, alignment with Illinois State Standards (ILS), as well as hands-on
classroom activities to do before and after your visit to the Museum.
This exhibition was organized by The Field Museum,
Chicago, in collaboration with the CONACULTA-INAH.
Major Sponsor:
This exhibition is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities.
Educator Notes
The Aztec World
October 26, 2008 through April 19, 2009
This Educator Guide is separated into six sections:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Corresponding Illinois Learning Standards (ILS)
Exhibition Guide
Educator and Student Bibliography, Websites, Pronunciation Guide
Corresponding Harris Resources and Related Exhibitions
The Aztec World Education Programs
The Aztec World Walking Map
The Aztec World : Introduction to the Exhibition
Welcome to The Aztec World! This exhibition tells the story of the grandeur and sophistication of one of history’s
great civilizations, and of how the rise and fall of this empire has powerfully shaped both culture and history from
1325 AD until today. Featuring art, stone works, ceramics and jewelry made from precious metals, the exhibition
explores the daily lives of all the people who created and sustained the Aztec Empire.
The exhibition is organized so that visitors move from the periphery to the city center, passing farms and houses
of artisans, merchants and warriors before entering the splendor of the central temple district surrounded by the
palaces of the ruling elite. It also highlights the importance of war in Aztec society, and along with it, the values
of conquering, gathering tribute, and sacrificing to the gods. The nearly 300 artifacts in the exhibition also bring
attention to the great wealth and riches which characterized the lives of Aztec rulers, along with the challenges and
responsibilities that these Aztec leaders carried.
Finally, the exhibition highlights the merging of Aztec and Spanish cultures and the endurance of Aztec influence from
the time the Spanish arrived until today, almost 500 years after the empire collapsed. The Aztec World explores the
history and legacy of a grand empire in its unique position of social, political, religious and cultural richness.
This Educator Guide is designed to serve as a bridge between the exhibition and the classroom, providing activities
and information for use at the Museum as well as for before and after your visit. It offers a preview of the exhibition
and correlates its content with the National and Illinois Learning Standards across multiple disciplines.
The exhibition is divided into the following gallery sections:
1. Farmers
2. Artisans and Merchants
3. Warriors
4. Rulers and Tribute
5. High Priests
6. Conclusion (Merging of Aztec and Spanish Cultures)
Pre-registration is required for all Field Museum field trips.
Register on-line at www.fieldmuseum.org/fieldtrips or call 312.665.7500 for more information.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
Page 2
Corresponding Illinois Learning
Standards (ILS)
The Illinois Learning Standards (ILS) define what students in all Illinois public schools should know and be able
to do in the seven core subject areas as a result of their elementary and secondary schooling. Use of this
Educator Guide in combination with a field trip to the exhibition will help you link learning experiences to the
following ILS. Teachers will need to identify descriptors and benchmarks to individual lesson plans, larger units
of study, and to specific subject area. This exhibition, while suitable for all students regardless of grade level,
maps closely to the concepts studied in upper elementary and middle level school. For more information on
the ILS, visit www.isbe.state.il.us/ils/Default.
English Language Arts
1A – Students can apply word analysis and vocabulary skills to comprehend selections.
1B – Students can apply reading strategies to improve understanding and fluency.
4A – Students can listen effectively in formal and informal situations.
5B – Students can analyze and evaluate information acquired from various sources.
Mathematics
6A – S tudents can demonstrate knowledge and use of numbers and their many representations in
a broad range of theoretical and practical settings.
6C – Students can compute and estimate using mental mathematics, paper-and-pencil methods,
calculators, and computers.
Science
12B – S tudents know and apply concepts that describe how living things interact with each other
and with their environment.
12F – Students know and apply concepts that explain the composition and structure of the universe
and Earth’s place in it.
13B – Students know and apply concepts that describe the interaction between science, technology,
and society.
Social Science
15A – S tudents understand how different economic systems operate in the exchange, production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
15D – Students understand trade as an exchange of goods or services.
16A – Students can apply the skills of historical analysis and interpretation.
16B – Students understand the development of significant political events.
16C – Students understand the development of economic systems.
16D – S tudents understand Illinois, United States, and world social history.
17A – Students can locate, describe and explain places, regions and features on Earth.
17C – Students can understand relationships between geographic factors and society.
17D – Students can understand the historical significance of geography.
18A – Students can compare characteristics of culture as reflected in language, literature, the arts,
traditions, and institutions.
18B – Students can understand the roles and interactions of individuals and groups in society.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 1: Farmers
Farmers formed the foundation of Aztec society. These men, women, and children worked the land and
lived their lives far from the grand temples and opulent residences of central Tenochtitlan. It was there on
the outskirts of the city that Aztec farm families produced the bounty of food that fed an empire.
Balanced between the creative and destructive
forces of nature, Aztec farmers appeased the
deities of earth, water, sun, fire, and fertility—all
vital elements for the success of farm and
family and all intimately connected to the cycles
of nature and agriculture. Farm families built
small altars inside their homes dedicated to
several deities. Two of the most popular were
Chalchiuhtlicue, goddess of streams and lakes,
and Chicomecoatl, goddess of maize. At these
altars, farm families offered tortillas and tamales,
quail, and incense to their gods. Occasionally,
people pierced their skin with sharp bone
perforators, offering their own blood as a way
of giving back vital life force to the gods who
provided sustenance.
The Aztecs transformed low-lying wetlands
and dry mountain hillsides into productive
farmland. In the shallow waters and swampy
Florentine Codex, Vol. 4, Folia 73L
areas of Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco, Aztec
farmers dug drainage ditches and ridges of
earth, called chinampas. By constructing chinampas, soggy lakeshores became fertile plots where several
crops per year could be harvested. It was here, in these moist, highly fertile plots, that farmers grew a
bounty of different foods including maize, squash, chilies, amaranth, and sage. These foods—staples
of the Aztec diet—were the basis of religious feasts celebrated by people at all levels of Aztec society.
With an ever-growing population, Aztec farmers utilized every available patch of land, including the dry
mountain hillsides above the lakes. Here they built terraces to retain the rich volcanic soil and capture
the scant rainfall needed to grow maize, beans, and maguey. The construction of chinampas and terraces
transformed the Valley of Mexico into a productive agricultural landscape, through engineering and
heavy investments of labor.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 1: Farmers
The everyday life of Aztec farming families
was centered on home and hearth. Women
wove cloth and made clothing, prepared
food, raised turkeys, and tapped maguey
plants. The men worked in the fields
growing a variety of crops. When not
tending their fields, men labored on state
building projects and served as foot soldiers
in the state’s armies. Children helped
their parents, aunts, and uncles, carrying
firewood, spinning thread, and rose early
each morning to offer the gods tortillas and
incense at the family altar.
Life for Aztec farmers was not all work and no play. Throughout the year, they celebrated various “feast
days” and sacred holidays — as did people from all levels of Aztec society. On these special days, farmers
shared their bounty with family and friends. They also played music, sang, danced, and drank pulque, a
mild beer fermented from sweet maguey sap. The Aztecs—like all Mesoamerican peoples — were keen
observers of the skies and highly attuned to the cycles of the seasons. They kept track of their feast days
using two calendars: the 260-day ritual calendar and the 365-day solar calendar. Aztec people, at all
levels of society, used large amounts of decorated pottery in their feasts and celebrations. Aztec farmers
ate from simple black-on-orange dishes and drank from red ware bowls and cups. Many of these bowls
and cups featured designs and patterns that represented the solar cycles of day and night, and summer
and winter.
Images ©Michel Zabé / AZA. Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 1: Farmers
Guiding Questions
These are directly linked with the Gallery Overview. Teachers may wish to provide students with a copy of the
Gallery Overview to answer these “Guiding” questions.
1. G
eography played an important role in farming. Where did Aztecs farm and how did they make the chinampas
so productive?
2. D
uality, such as creation and destruction, were a part of the mythological stories of the Aztecs. What other
dualities are mentioned in this section? Can you think of three more?
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 1: Farmers
Activities
The following pre-, during, and post-activities are linked, by numerical order, to provide a cohesive classroom and
The Aztec World student experience. For example, pre-activity #1 prepares a student to complete field trip activity
#1, which is directly tied to post-visit activity #1. These are simply suggestions that can be used in any number of
ways to best fit within the instructional needs of individual classrooms.
Pre-Visit Activities
1. Aztec life was built upon an order of social classes where different classes had different functions and different
advantages within society. At one end of the system were the farmers who were responsible for feeding the
population. Everyday life of Aztec farming families was centered on the field, the home and the hearth. Make a
transparency or photocopy the picture at the end of this section of the farm family in their home. Ask students to
examine the picture and write a brief description of the activities, people, and what objects in the picture might
represent. As a class, discuss student answers, and ask: Why were the hearth and fire important to Aztecs? Are
hearths and fire important today? Why or why not?
2. C
hinampas and terracing were important aspects of Aztec farming. Using activity sheets from The Field Museum’s
Underground Adventure website (www.fieldmuseum.org/undergroundadventure/), ask students to examine local
soil properties, as well as factors that affect soil quality. Compare the geography of the Aztec area to your local
area. Ask questions like: How does geography affect rainfall? Why is volcanic soil important? How are wetlands
and dry hillsides different? How could you create land in the middle of a shallow lake? How would a lake, as the
base of a garden, affect the growth of plants? Discuss with students that chinampas and terraces are only two
types of farming methods used by the Aztecs.
Field Trip Activities
1. A
sk students to bring the Aztec family picture with them to the Museum. As students go through The Aztec
World Farmers gallery, ask them to write down new information that they see, read, or watch that may help them
interpret the image and individuals represented in the scene (for example, an object’s use, meaning, etc).
2. W
hile at The Field Museum, visit several different areas including The Aztec World Farmers gallery and The
Ancient Americas Farming Villagers and Empire Builders galleries to further investigate the importance of
chinampas and terracing. Ask students to create a field trip scrapbook in which they sketch and label evidence
collected in the exhibitions for the ways early societies managed farming (chinampas, terracing, and other), and the
types of food that were harvested.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 1: Farmers
Post-Visit Activities
1. A
rt can be a useful tool for interpreting daily life of past and present peoples. Show students several examples of
artwork, and ask them to identify all objects represented in the images. Based on their observations, ask students
to provide interpretations about the significance and use of the objects. Refer to the Aztec farm family picture
again. After visiting The Aztec World exhibition, what new information was gathered about objects, actions, and
people represented in the image? For comparison, ask students to create illustrations of themselves or their families
and include items that are important to them. Share the pictures as a class, or have students compare/contrast
pictures in small groups. What are the similarities? What are the differences?
2. A
sk students to work in groups to compare
evidence collected at the Museum for early
farming and the crops that were produced.
How important is soil quality to productivity?
Are these early farming techniques still used
in Mexico today? Using the local soil samples
collected prior to the Museum visit, experiment
with growing some foods grown by the Aztecs,
like maize, or corn. To learn more about this
economically important crop in the Midwest,
see www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/corn/03static.html.
As an alternative project, students can use their
new information about chinampa technology
to construct their own classroom model. For
even more information, students can read an
archaeologist interpretation of evidence for
chinampa farming at www.ioa.ucla.edu/backdirt/
Fallwinter00/farming.html.
Florentine Codex, Vol. 7, Folio 21r
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 2: Artisans & Merchants
When the Spanish Conquistadors first laid eyes on the Great Aztec Market at Tlatelolco—the sister city
of Tenochtitlan—they were astounded by its vast stores of goods and huge number of buyers and sellers.
At the time, no market in Europe compared to Tlatelolco. It supplied 250,000 city-dwellers with much of
the food and goods essential for maintaining life in a large urban setting. The Tlatelolco market was the
center of economic power in Mexico, and its location in the middle of Lake Texcoco allowed for the easy
transport of goods by boat.
Royal tribute and long-distance trade
networks and the local production
of agrarian and craft goods supplied
finished products and raw materials
to Tenochtitlan. From these materials,
artisans created a wide range of consumer
goods. Within Tenochtitlan, groups of
artisans formed their own professional
guilds, lived in their own neighborhoods,
and offered religious sacrifices to their
own patron deities. Artisans regarded
the god Quetzalcoatl, or “Feathered
Serpent”, as the patron of the arts.
Three classes of merchants sold goods
within the marketplaces. Both men
and women were merchants at each
Florentine Codex, Vol. 8, Folia 34l
level. At one level, farmers and artisans
sold or bartered homegrown foods and
handmade wares. Above them, the tlanecuilo, or regional merchants, dealt in everyday foodstuffs and
household items. At the top of the merchants’ social pyramid, pochteca undertook long-distance trading
and sold luxury items like greenstone, gold, feathers, shell, and cotton cloth. Cacao beans, cotton cloth,
copper axes and bells served as types of currency or standards of exchange within Aztec markets.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 2: Artisans & Merchants
Along with their markets and long-distance trade networks, the Aztecs also maintained a highly
organized tribute system. The Aztecs demanded that conquered towns send them large quantities of
maize, beans, and sweet maguey syrup, bundles of men’s and women’s clothing, warriors’ uniforms and
other valuables including gold, jade, and the iridescent feathers of tropical birds.
Markets, trade and tribute brought a wide variety
of products to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs imported
obsidian, or volcanic glass, and used it to make
razor-sharp knives, scrapers, and ritual objects.
Laborers quarried local basalt, a volcanic rock,
which they transformed into grinding stones,
sculptures, and building material. Traders imported
flint for tools from the mountains south and west
of Tenochtitlan and travertine from Puebla. For
the elite, artisans created sculptures and jewelry.
Highly valued greenstone came from the Sierra
Madre del Sur Mountains; turquoise came from
the American Southwest and Northwest Mexico;
and gold from Oaxaca and other provinces south
of Tenochtitlan.
Florentine Codex, Vol. 9, Folia 63r
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
Traders brought large quantities of shells from the
Gulf and Pacific coasts to Tenochtitlan. Trees from
mountain slopes were made into canoes, farming
implements, weaving tools, weapons, musical
instruments, and sculptures. The bark of the
amatl tree provided the raw material for paper.
Aztec potters fashioned clay into a wide variety
of cooking and serving vessels, figurines, spindle
whorls, pipes, flutes and drums. Metal workers
created earrings, pendants and bells of copper,
silver, and gold. Aztec women wove textiles from
local maguey fibers and imported cotton. The
tradition of large open-air markets continues today
throughout Mexico. Markets at Coyoacan, Jamaica,
Xochimilco, or La Merced in Mexico City help feed
one of the world’s largest urban populations.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 2: Artisans & Merchants
Guiding Questions
These are directly linked with the Gallery Overview. Teachers may wish to provide students with a copy of the Gallery
Overview to answer “Guiding” questions.
1. W
hat was the reaction of the conquistadors to the Tlatelolco market? Why did they react to the open-air market
as they did?
2. W
hat types of material did Aztec artisans use? Name some finished products made from these materials.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 2: Artisans & Merchants
Activities
The following pre-, during, and post-activities are linked, by numerical order, to provide a cohesive classroom and
The Aztec World student experience. For example, pre-activity #1 prepares a student to complete field trip activity
#1, which is directly tied to post-visit activity #1. These are simply suggestions that can be used in any number of
ways to best fit within the instructional needs of individual classrooms.
Pre-Visit Activities
1. Before visiting the Artisans and Merchants gallery of The Aztec World exhibition, introduce students to
materials available to Aztecs in their marketplaces, and the geographical origins of these materials, using the
Harris Educational Loan Center Aztec and Maya Marketplaces Experience Box (For more information, go to
www.fieldmuseum.org/harrisloan). Aztec market buyers and sellers used cacao beans, cotton cloth, copper axes
and bells as different types of currency or standards of exchange within Aztec markets. As a class, practice
market exchange by determining an item in the classroom that could represent the standard of exchange, and
then express the value of other objects in terms of the standard (For example, a classroom book could be
traded for 300 pieces of chalk).
2. Artisans were an important part of Aztec society, with professional guilds, patron art deities, and defined artisan
neighborhoods. Ask students to read the Artisans and Merchants gallery overview, and then select two or more
items made by Aztec artisans that they would like to know more about. Have students create a KWL chart for
each of these objects, filling information in the “What I Know”, “What I Want to Learn”, and “What I Learned”
columns, prior to their visit to The Aztec World exhibition. Ask students to make a preliminary sketch of a guild
sign for each of the items they selected to research. Remind students that guild signs typically used symbols
and images to depict what a merchant has to offer. Examples of guild signs today might include a barber pole, a
mortar and pestle (pharmacy), or a Mason symbol (tradesmen guild).
Field Trip Activities
1. A
sk students to examine the “Science behind the Art: Markets, Trade, and Tribute” panels in the Artisans and
Merchants gallery. Can students identify the three-part economic system used by the Aztecs? Ask them to write
a narrative about one of the parts of this economic system (market, long-distance trade, or tribute) from the
perspective of a merchant, buyer, seller, tribute collector or tribute payer to later share with their class. Further
information about markets and exchange can be found in the Empire Builders gallery of The Ancient Americas
exhibition. To further explore the Aztec economic system, students can search the marketplace diorama in the
Empire Builders gallery for objects and people discussed in the artisan and merchant overview (See Search and Find
Student Activity Sheet).
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 2: Artisans & Merchants
2. A
sk students to bring their KWL charts and a clipboard to The Aztec World exhibition. Once in the exhibition, ask
students to collect information about the Aztec materials and objects they initially noted on their KWL charts back
in the classroom. Encourage students to use a combination of note taking and sketches to record their information
in the “What I Have Learned” column that would be useful in the creation of their own exhibition! For additional
information on their Aztec materials and objects of interest, visit the Empire Builders gallery of The Ancient
Americas exhibition.
Post-Visit Activities
1. O
nce back in the classroom, ask students to share their interpretations and narratives about the various types
of exchange represented in the Artisans and Merchants gallery and the types of materials exchanged. Can they
come up with contemporary examples and similar stories for these different types of exchange? How was paying
tribute like paying taxes? For what is tax money used? For what were Aztec tribute goods used? As a class, further
investigate the different types of marketplace exchange with the “Marketplace Exchange” lesson included in the
Harris Loan Center Aztec and Maya Marketplaces Experience Box curriculum.
2. In groups of 2 or 3, ask students to compare their KWL charts, and share information that was collected about
their chosen Aztec objects. Then ask students to create classroom Aztec World Artisans exhibitions based on the
information they collected in their KWL charts—these could include sketches, images and information from The
Aztec World and The Ancient Americas exhibition websites, notes from their visit to the Museum, representations
of objects from the exhibition made from Model Magic, etc. Students can also finalize their initial sketches for their
guild signs to attract customers to include in the exhibition.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 2: Artisans & Merchants
Search and Find Student Activity Sheet
In The Ancient Americas exhibition—Empire Builders gallery diorama, see if you can find the following
objects and activities:
Artisan (Someone making pottery)
Adult disciplining child
Beans
Building materials
Cacao beans
Canoes
Child playing with ceramic pot
Clay
Cotton cloth
Earrings
Farmers
Greenstone
Iridescent tropical bird feathers
Maize
Someone resting
Paper
Pochteca (Long-distant merchant)
Serving vessels
Sculptures
Tools
What did you find that was not listed above?
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 3: Warriors
In battle, Aztec warriors had three
main goals: to conquer territories from
which to collect tribute, to establish
trade routes and open new markets for
Aztec products, and to secure enemy
combatants for religious sacrifice. The
Aztecs viewed this last duty as vital to
maintaining order within the universe.
Both women and men were a part of the
Aztec military ideology.
Florentine Codex, Vol. 2, Folia 21L
Warriors identified themselves by
insignias, usually associated with
different kinds of animals. Eagle and
jaguar warriors were the two most
prominent: eagles represented the forces
of daytime, light, and sky associated with
male energy, while jaguars represented
the forces of night, darkness, and the
underworld associated with female
energy. Aztec warriors wore elaborate
regalia into battle that evoked their
animal alter-egos. This sacred regalia
imbued warriors with the supernatural
powers of their spirit guides.
The Aztecs conceptualized warfare differently than we do today. Terrestrial battles reflected the daily
combat between the sun god and the forces of darkness. One objective of battle was to capture enemy
warriors for religious sacrifice. To this end, the Aztec warriors tried to wound their enemies—instead of
killing them outright—for easier capture. The Aztecs viewed the sacrifice of captured warriors as vital to
maintaining order within the universe. Sacrifice—both literal and symbolic—has played a key role in the
religious beliefs of many people throughout history and in all parts of the world.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 3: Warriors
Childbirth was considered comparable to military combat, and pregnant
women were considered the female counterparts of male warriors. Successfully
giving birth was like taking a captive in battle—dying in childbirth was
like being sacrificed. The Aztecs called women who died in childbirth
Cihuateteo. Their spirits lived in the western sky and accompanied the sun
on its afternoon journey towards sunset. In this role, the Cihuateteo were
the female counterparts of dead warriors who accompanied the sun on
its morning journey towards the noon sky.
Located just north of Tenochtitlan’s Templo Mayor, or Great Temple,
the “House of the Eagles” is a structure connected to funerary rituals of
deceased Aztec rulers and coronation rites
of new kings. One of two figures excavated
from this structure was originally interpreted
by archaeologists as an “eagle warrior”
or member of an elite military corps. But
some scholars now think the “eagle
man” sculpture may represent the soul
of a dead warrior, one of many “spirit
warriors” who accompanied the
sun on its daily journey through the
morning sky towards the noontime
zenith. Other scholars hypothesize
that this figure is a personification of
the rising sun, featuring both human
and eagle attributes.
Besides training for battle and
practicing fighting techniques, Aztec
warriors also conditioned themselves
by dancing to drums and music. Elite
warriors enjoyed privileged lives. Feasting
was an important part of military culture,
and the citizens of Tenochtitlan honored and
rewarded victorious warriors with feasts, music,
and dancing. Aztec warriors danced to musical
instruments including drums, rasps, rattles, and flutes. The Aztecs played
drums to accompany dances, feasts, and ritual performances. The beating
of drums also led warriors into battle.
©Michel Zabé / AZA. Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 3: Warriors
Within the sacred confines of Tenochtitlan’s ceremonial precinct, warriors played a sport of life and death.
Practiced by peoples throughout Mesoamerica for thousands of years, the Aztec ballgame symbolized the
cosmic battle between the forces of day and night, light and darkness. The Aztecs played two versions of
the ballgame: one sacred and one secular. In the sacred version, hundreds of spectators watched the elite
warriors battle one another on the ballcourt—the loser often sacrificed by beheading. The secular version
was played by Aztec warriors as a conditioning sport, but also by common people as a recreational game.
The rules were the same in both: keep a nine-pound rubber ball in play using only your hips and knees.
The Aztecs played the sacred ballgame on “I”-shaped playing fields with circular goals on either side of
the court. The end zones and centerline are marked by human skulls, reinforcing the sacrificial aspect of
the game.
Florentine Codex, Vol. 4, Folia 20L
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 3: Warriors
Guiding Questions
These are directly linked with the Gallery Overview. Teachers may wish to provide students with a copy of the Gallery
Overview to answer “Guiding” questions.
1. In battle, warriors had three main goals. List the three goals.
2. Pregnant women were considered the female counterparts of male warriors. List the ways Aztec women were
compared to male warrior while alive and after death.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 3: Warriors
Activities
The following pre-, during, and post-activities are linked, by numerical order, to provide a cohesive classroom
and The Aztec World student experience. For example, pre-activity #1 prepares a student to complete field trip
activity #1, which is directly tied to post-visit activity #1. These are simply suggestions that can be used in any
number of ways to best fit within the instructional needs of individual classrooms.
Pre-Visit Activities
1. Aztec warriors identified themselves by different insignias. The insignias were usually associated with different
kinds of animals. Ask students to create their own insignia with an animal that they feel represents them. Ask
students to share their insignia, noting which animal they have chosen and why the animal represents them.
2. S ports have played an important role in society through time. Have students brainstorm the different types of
sports they are familiar with, past and present. Ask, what makes these sports similar? How are they different?
Do standard rules govern all these sports? Have these activities changed through time? Introduce students to the
Rubber Experience Box available from the Harris Educational Loan Center (See www.fieldmuseum.org/harrisloan).
Students can investigate the origins of rubber, early uses, and its role in contemporary sports. Ask students to
investigate a sport of interest to them that incorporates some type of rubber implement, like a ball. Information
should be gathered about the origin of the sport, how it has changed through time, rules and penalties, historical
moments, and current role in society (if any). In addition, ask students to produce a map of their sport that
demonstrates the layout and dimensions of the area used to enact the sporting activity.
Field Trip Activities
1. W
hile at The Field Museum, ask students to visit the Warriors gallery of The Aztec World exhibition. Have students
find the different images of warriors and identify the animal represented on the artifacts. Ask students what animal
is most frequently represented? Why do they think this animal was important to the Aztecs? Students should
create a detailed sketch of one warrior and their insignia. How might the insignia influence a warrior in battle?
2. W
hile at The Field Museum visit The Aztec World Warriors gallery. Ask students to create a detailed sketch map of
the Aztec ballcourts as represented in the descriptions and images in the gallery. Have students record information
about the Mesoamerican ballgame as they did for their sport of interest (Pre-visit activity 1). Specifically, ask
students to include information about the equipment used in this ballgame (rubber ball). Then lead students to the
Central American rubber tree (Case # 28B22) in the Plants of the World exhibition to learn more about the source
for rubber, the rubber tree.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 3: Warriors
Post-Visit Activities
1. Have students compare the insignia they created in the classroom with the insignias in The Aztec World exhibition.
Ask students to investigate the meaning behind the two animals. What makes the Aztec insignia an interesting
choice for a warrior? What about their own insignia? What insignias are used in the US military today? How do
these insignias differ from Aztec insignias? Have insignias in the US military changed over time?
2. B
uilding upon their sports investigations, including the Mesoamerican ballgame, ask students to consider how
sports, dancing, and feasting are connected, and how they were used by the Aztecs to condition warriors. Do
dancing and feasting activities also play a role in contemporary American sports (eg., football players often take
ballet, marathon runners eat carbohydrate-rich “feasts” before running marathons). How does music have a role in
both sports and military action? One option for enhancing this conversation is to check out the World Percussion
Instruments Experience Box available from the Harris Educational Loan Center to examine various types of drums
and brainstorm the different roles for drums in diverse settings (See www.fieldmuseum.org/harrisloan).
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 4: Rulers
The Aztec military played an important role in securing wealth from
conquered towns and cities, helped with important state rituals
events, and oversaw certain large hydraulic projects. Aztec rulers
required that taxes be paid to them by these conquered towns and
cities in foodstuffs, raw materials, and manufactured goods. Many
valuable tribute items were made from greenstone, gold, and fine
ceramics as well as from cotton cloth, feathers, animal pelts, wood
and foodstuffs, although these tribute items are not as prevalent in
the archaeological record because of their perishable nature. One of
the largest rooms in the palace of Emperor Moctezuma II, who ruled
from AD 1502 – 1520, housed tribute items collected for the emperor.
The Aztecs used a counting system to count everything from these
tribute goods and market items to taxable acres of land. This Aztec
arithmetic was base 20 (unlike our base 10 system today) and
included the concept of zero. In written records, glyphs represented
the main numbers in the Aztec counting system: a dot represented 1
(20 0 ), a flag, 20 (201), a feather, 400 (202), and a bag, 8000 (20 3 ).
By law, the emperor and the ruling elite of Tenochtitlan had access to certain
possessions and privileges that were not available to the vast majority of people within
the Aztec Empire. The nobility enjoyed the best of everything. They wore clothes
made from the finest cotton cloth and adornments of gold and greenstone, ate food
off of high-quality ceramic plates, drank chocolate made from valuable cacao beans,
and lived in luxurious palaces surrounding the sacred precinct in the center of town.
With such power and prestige also came duties and responsibilities. The emperor,
known as the “great king” or huey tlatoani, lived in a sumptuous palace filled with
luxuries and stood at the pinnacle of Aztec society. He was also burdened with heavy
responsibilities and was expected to perform many roles, including high priest, military
commander, supreme judge and builder of public works. Some of these duties included
presiding over religious ceremonies and building and maintaining temples, conquering
neighboring people and regions, and overseeing the building of aqueducts, canals
and dams. In fact, if the emperor did not fulfill his duties to the nobility, he could be
slain—a fate that befell the Emperor Tizoc in 1486.
©Michel Zabé / AZA. Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 4: Rulers
Guiding Questions
These are directly linked with the Gallery Overview. Teachers may wish to provide students with a copy of the Gallery
Overview to answer “Guiding” questions.
1. T
he Aztec emperors were known as “great kings”. What are some of the benefits and challenges that came with
having such great power?
2. W
hat are some of the similarities and differences between the Aztec counting system and the system of counting
we use today?
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 4: Rulers
Activities
The following pre-, during, and post-activities are linked, by numerical order, to provide a cohesive classroom and
The Aztec World student experience. For example, pre-activity #1 prepares a student to complete field trip activity
#1, which is directly tied to post-visit activity #1. These are simply suggestions that can be used in any number of
ways to best fit within the instructional needs of individual classrooms.
Pre-Visit Activities
1. In small groups, ask students to brainstorm a list of “people of power” from different communities (federal
government, local government, household, classroom/school, sports teams, extra-curricular activities, etc).
Ask students to make a chart and list the benefits and challenges that come for each of these people with
being in a position of power. As a class, share your examples and discuss the patterns you see, despite the
great differences among the roles of these people. Are there any things that some people see as benefits of
power that others think of as challenges?
2. A
s a class, respond to the following prompt: Imagine if we were Aztec nobility and were allowed to “conquer”
another classroom. If we could not ask the other classroom for money, what would we ask for them to give as
“taxes” to their ruling classroom (us)? Within groups, ask students to design a “tribute page” showing what items
the classroom will owe us, and in what quantities, without using written words. Remember: Aztecs did not have
currency for money like we do today, and they did not have the same written language that we use today.
Field Trip Activities
1. A
s students explore the Rulers gallery, ask them to fill in a Venn-diagram with “Benefits of being an Aztec
emperor” in one circle and “Challenges of being an Aztec emperor” in the other. Students should write aspects of
the job that seem to be both benefits and challenges in the area where the two circles overlap.
2. M
any highly valued tribute items were created by artisans throughout the Aztec Empire from gold and greenstone
and as exquisitely painted ceramics. Have students pick two tribute items to examine up close in the Rulers gallery
and either draw the item with as much detail as possible, or create a detailed written description of what they see
in these items. Ask students to consider why they think these items were requested by the emperors? Why do they
imagine they were and are so valuable, both in the past and today?
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 4: Rulers
Post-Visit Activities
1. A
sk students to share the information they gathered in their Venn-diagrams while at The Field Museum (Field Trip
Activity 1). Ask students to decide if they would have wanted to be an Aztec emperor. With a partner, ask students
to write a brief argument explaining their decision side (“I would not have wanted to be an Aztec emperor…” OR
“I would have wanted to be an Aztec emperor…”). Remind students to support their arguments with information
gathered while at the Museum. Student teams can write both papers together, sharing ideas, or they can each take
one side and write arguments rebutting each other.
2. A
sk students to make a series of sequential pictures (like a cartoon strip) of what it was like for an emperor to
secure tributes from his conquered towns and cities. The series of pictures should show the entire process, from
the emperor (and maybe other ruling elites) deciding what goods should be acquired/taxed, to a depiction of
how these goods were requested and then collected, to what was done with them once the emperor had secured
them (…and even, where these items are today now that the Aztec empire no longer exists). Explain to students
that they may want to focus heavily on the tribute items they gathered information about during their visit to the
Museum (Field Trip Activity 2).
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 5: High Priests
At the very center of Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs constructed their
sacred precinct, a compound of over 70 buildings marking the
heart of the Aztec world. Here, high priests – both male and
female – performed rituals and gave offerings to hundreds
of deities. The Templo Mayor or Great Temple, stood at the
center of this sacred precinct and the Aztec universe. The Aztecs
dedicated this temple to two central deities: Huitzilopochtli, god
of war and the sun, and Tlaloc, god of rain.
Within Tenochtitlan’s sacred precinct, Aztec priests performed many
different types of religious ceremonies. They re-enacted sacred myths,
buried ritual offerings, burned incense and blood offerings, danced,
chanted, praised the deities, and they sacrificed human victims to their
gods. They believed that offerings of human hearts and blood ensured
the continuance of the gods, the universe, and of all humankind.
The Aztecs shared this practice of human sacrifice with other
Mesoamerican societies, and evidence of human sacrifice is also
found in many ancient cultures around the world, including
many European, Asian, and African societies. Though
human sacrifice was indeed terrible and cruel, it appears
that Spanish conquerors greatly exaggerated the
extent of it in Aztec society, in part to justify their own
conquest of the Aztecs and all of Mexico.
Within Tenochtitlan’s sacred precinct, Quetzalcoatl’s
temple held a place of honor in front of the Templo
Mayor. The Aztecs recognized Quetzalcoatl, or “Feathered
Serpent” as a creator deity and credited him with
inventing the arts, the calendar, and even humans. Though
Tenochtitlan’s sacred precinct was dominated by temples
dedicated to male deities, Aztec priests also venerated female
deities. The Aztecs built temples to different female deities, but
they venerated Cihuacoatl, the earth goddess, above all others,
for she gave birth to the sun each morning and received its death
each night.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 5: High Priests
The Aztecs, like most Mesoamerican peoples, were intrigued by time and thought of it as cyclical rather
than linear. They tracked time using two main calendar systems: a 365-day “solar” calendar and a 260day “ritual” calendar. Patterns of birth, death, and renewal repeated again and again within the Aztec
cosmos, from the daily cycles of the sun to the annual cycles of the seasons. The Aztec equivalent of our
century was a 52-year cycle called a xiuhmolpilli or “bundle of years”.
The Aztecs built their temples from several types of volcanic stone quarried from the hills surrounding
Lake Texcoco. Laborers cut the stone without the aid of metal tools; instead, they used stone tools, rope,
and a mixture of sand and water as abrasives. Then, human laborers carried stone from the quarries to
canoes, which transported the stone across the lake to the temple construction sites. Unlike the exposed
stone seen in today’s ruins, in the Aztec era, painted stucco covered the temples. A Spanish eyewitness
described the monumental buildings as “gleaming white”, though other colors — including yellow,
red, and blue — were also used as accents. In the years after the Conquest, the Spaniards demolished
Tenochtitlan’s sacred precinct and buried the ruins under the colonial buildings of Mexico City. Until the
archaeological excavations of the 20th century, architectural historians could only look to temple models
and illustrations from the Aztec codices to learn what Tenochtitlan’s sacred buildings once looked like.
© The Field Museum, A114594_06Ad, Photographer John Weinstein
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 5: High Priests
Guiding Questions
These are directly linked with the Gallery Overview. Teachers may wish to provide students with a copy of the Gallery
Overview to answer “Guiding” questions.
1. T
he Templo Mayor (Great Temple) sat at the heart of Tenochtitlan’s sacred precinct. What religious rituals and
deities were most highly regarded in Aztec society?
2. M
any Aztec practices set the foundation for modern innovations, including construction technology and
astronomical science. What systems that we currently rely upon have foundations in Aztec society? What are some
of the similarities between these Aztec practices and the ones we follow today?
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 5: High Priests
Activities
The following pre-, during, and post-activities are linked, by numerical order, to provide a cohesive classroom and The
Aztec World student experience. For example, pre-activity #1 prepares a student to complete field trip activity #1,
which is directly tied to post-visit activity #1. These are simply suggestions that can be used in any number of ways to
best fit within the instructional needs of individual classrooms.
Pre-Visit Activities
1. As a class, brainstorm five to ten different religions or cultures – ones you have learned about or ones you have
personal experience with – that practice rituals and/or hold a set of traditional beliefs. Then, in one column,
record who or what is most highly regarded in each of these traditions/religions (beings, objects, values, symbols).
In the next column, list some rituals that you know each culture practices. Discuss as a class the similarities and
differences between the rituals of different religions/cultures as well as between the beings and values they
worship. You may also discuss which traditions and cultures you know less about, and which you would like to
explore more thoroughly.
2. T
he Aztecs tracked time using two calendar systems. One is the daily/weekly/monthly/yearly solar calendar that
we use as the standard calendar in our lives today. If you could make a second calendar system that repeated itself
in cycles during your life, on what would it be based on? What events would mark the divisions of the time cycles?
As a class, imagine your school year as one example of a second cyclical system of time. Together, brainstorm and
record different “phases” during the school year (recurring events, patterns, activities) of this cycle that mark time
passing. Then ask students, individually, to create a “calendar” of the different cyclical phases that represent time
passing by in a school “cycle”. If you didn’t know what the date was, what would indicate passing time through the
school year?
Field Trip Activities
1. A
sk students to choose two deities to study closely in the High Priests gallery. Have students draw and/or describe
the deities in as much detail as possible, including what the deity represents, and what he/she looks like in the
Aztec representations you observed or read about. Also, students should take note of the symbols that the deities
are associated with as well as what they physically look like, what they represented to the Aztecs and what legends
and rituals they may be a part of.
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 5: High Priests
2. W
e’ve learned that many Aztec practices set the foundation for contemporary innovations, including construction
technology and the standard calendar system we use today. As students explore the High Priests gallery, have
them note how some of these Aztec practices, which have influenced many things we see in our lives today, have
changed over time. Make a chart with one column for “Then” and one for “Now”. Practices that may be included
are: “Religious Practices (in general)”, “Calendar Systems”, “Construction Technology”, etc. While the information
for “Then” (what the Aztecs did) will be pretty straightforward from the exhibit, there is a lot of room for variation
in the “Now” section. Since there isn’t one correct answer, encourage students to think about how these Aztec
practices are related to things that exist today!
Post-Visit Activities
1. Using the drawings and notes students gathered in the High Priests gallery (Field Trip Activity 1), have students
find a partner who chose different deities. Then, in partners, students should tell the story of one deity, without
letting the other person see their illustration. Ask students to describe what the deity represents, what he/she
represents, what he/she looks like in the Aztec depictions you saw, what symbols are often found with him/her,
and, what your drawing from the exhibition looks like. As one partner describes the deity, the other partner should
draw and label a recreation of this deity (be sure to spell the name for your partner!) Then, partners should switch
roles.
2. U
sing their “Then” and “Now” chart, have students choose one Aztec technology or practice that has set the
foundation for a modern practice or innovation. Ask students to think about how the Aztecs developed this
technology or practice, and how we have adapted it and built on it today. Then, students should write a paragraph
describing what they think this technology or practice will be like in the next 100 years. What is the future of these
practices that were laid so long ago by the Aztecs?
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 6: Conclusion
(Merging of Aztec and Spanish Cultures)
The Aztecs created one of the greatest civilizations in human history, but their magnificent world came
at a very real human cost. Thousands of Indigenous peoples revolted against the Aztecs when the
Spaniards arrived in 1519, and the resulting battles eventually destroyed Tenochtitlan and brought down
the Aztec Empire. Thousands died of introduced European diseases as the old regime was replaced by the
viceroyalty of New Spain. What followed was the birth of a new society that incorporated elements of
two cultures: one Indigenous, the other European.
The Aztecs initially wondered if the arrival of Spanish ships along the coast of Veracruz signaled the
return of Quetzalcoatl, as foretold by ancient prophecy. Soon, however, Hernán Cortés and his men, with
the help of tens of thousands of rebellious Indigenous peoples, laid siege to Tenochtitlan and eventually
brought down the city.
Codex Durán, courtesy the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, Spain / The Bridgeman Art Library
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
Page 30
Exhibition Guide
Gallery 6: Conclusion
Though the Aztecs possessed skilled metal
workers, iron and steel were unknown until
the arrival of the Spaniards. Guns and steel
weapons provided the Spaniards with some
military advantages, but Spanish swords
were not necessarily superior to the Aztecs’
obsidian-lined macahuitl and steel armor
was cumbersome compared to the Aztec’s
quilted cotton armor. The greater threats to
Aztec warriors were foreign germs and the
Spaniards’ local allies. Ravaged by European
diseases and vastly outnumbered by their
enemies, the Aztec warriors were greatly
disadvantaged. After nearly two years of
fighting, Tenochtitlan finally fell.
After the conquest, the Spanish Crown
established royal mints in Mexico City
and other colonial capitals for the minting
of gold and silver coins. Mexico quickly
became a leading producer of silver and
exchanged this precious metal for Chinese
silks and porcelains during colonial times.
Despite the brutality of the Conquest, the Spaniards were unable to completely eradicate Aztec culture.
Instead, two separate cultures—one Indigenous and one European—blended together to create a new
society. Traditional beliefs continued, as did Aztec crafts—such as the manufacture of ceramic vessels and
figurines – often mixing Spanish and Aztec forms and designs. The result of this cultural melding was the
birth of modern Mexico. Mexican Christianity often retains strong influences of the old religion. Christian
ritual items were even sometimes crafted from Aztec objects.
Even after Spanish rule was ousted from Mexico, the Aztec culture continued to leave its legacy. In 1810,
when Mexico declared its independence from Spain, the Aztec Empire served as a precedent and symbol for
autonomous rule and centralized authority, inspiring the modern Mexican state. The art and architecture
of the Aztecs—along with other Indigenous peoples of Mexico—also inspired the great Mexican muralist
movement of the 20th century and the rebirth of traditional Mexican arts.
© The Field Museum, A114589_04d, Photographer John Weinstein
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 6: Conclusion
Guiding Questions
These are directly linked with the Gallery Overview. Teachers may wish to provide students with a copy of the Gallery
Overview to answer “Guiding” questions.
1. W
hen the Spanish led by Hernán Cortés arrived at Tenochtitlan and laid siege to the city, the great Aztec Empire
fell. What were three primary reasons the Empire was susceptible to their attack? What were their weaknesses in
the face of this Spanish conquest?
2. Although the Empire fell under Spanish conquest, the Spaniards were not able to eradicate Aztec culture. In what
ways was Aztec culture able to survive after the Spanish conquest? In what was does it still survive today?
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Exhibition Guide
Gallery 6: Conclusion
Activities
The following pre-, during, and post-activities are linked, by numerical order, to provide a cohesive classroom and The
Aztec World student experience. For example, pre-activity #1 prepares a student to complete field trip activity #1,
which is directly tied to post-visit activity #1. These are simply suggestions that can be used in any number of ways to
best fit within the instructional needs of individual classrooms.
Pre-Visit Activity
1. In small groups, ask students to brainstorm what concrete things represent “Mexican culture”. Encourage students
to think of things they have seen, learned about, or heard about from different sources: people they know, books,
museums, festivals, school, art, neighborhoods, traveling etc. Have the group share their brainstorms to develop a
thorough and varied perspective of “Mexican culture” prior to visiting The Aztec World.
Field Trip Activity
1. In the final gallery of the exhibition, have students examine the ways the Aztec Empire influences the modern
Mexican state. Ask students to choose the Mexican movement for independence from Spain in 1810, the great
Mexican muralist movement of the 20th century, or the rebirth of traditional Mexican arts to take brief notes on
the ways the Aztecs influenced these modern movements.
Post-Visit Activity
1. U
pon returning to the classroom, have students use the notes they took on the ways that the Aztecs influence
modern Mexican culture and the modern Mexican state. Then, pick one artist or leader influenced by Aztec
principles. Research this person, and write a short report on how he or she is important in modern Mexican culture,
AND, how his or her ideas or art can be connected to the Aztec Empire.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
Page 33
Educator and Student Bibliography
Educator Bibliography
Aghajanian, Alfred. 2007. Chinampas: Their Role in Aztec Empire—Building and Expansion.
IndoEuropeanPublishing.com.
Aguilar, Francisco de, 1977. Relación de la conquista de la Nueva España, Jorge Gurría Lacroix (Editor), México,
UNAM.
Alcina Franch, José, “Guerra” 1992. Azteca-Mexica, Turner.
Barlow, Robert H. 1989. Tlatelolco: fuentes e historia, v 2, Editors. J Monjarás-Ruiz, E Limón y M.C. Paillés,
México, INAH, Universidad de las Américas.
Berdan, Frances. 2004. Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society (Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology).
Wadsworth Publishing, Kentucky.
Bernal, Ignacio. 1979. Historia de la arqueología en México, Editorial Porrúa, México.
Bierhorst, John. 1990. The Mythology of Mexico and Central America. William Morrow and Company, New York.
Brumfel, Elizabeth and Gary Feinman (Editors). 2008. The Aztec World. Abrams, New York.
Burnett, Eric.2003. Aztec Plays for the Classroom. Weekly Reader Teachers Press.
Carrasco, David. 2001. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures: The Civilizations of Mexico and
Central America. Oxford University Press, New York.
Carrasco, Pedro. 1996. Estructura político territorial del imperio tenochca. La Triple Alianza de Tenochtitlan,
Tezcoco y Tlacopan. México, COLMEX, Fideicomiso Historia de las Américas y Fondo de Cultura.
Castello, T. 1986. Presencia de la comida prehispánica, Banamex, México.
Clendinnen, Inga. 1991. Los Aztecas: una interpretación. Nueva Imagen, México, DF.
Closs, Michael (Ed.). 1986. Native American Mathematics. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas.
Coe, Michael, and Rex Koontz. 2002. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Conrad, G. W. 1988. Religión e imperio. Dinámica del expansionismo azteca e inca, Alianza, Madrid.
Covarrubias, Miguel. 1971. Arte indígena de México y Centroamérica, México.
Davies, Nigel. 1980. The Aztecs: A History. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma.
Duvergier Christian. 1987. El origen de los aztecas, México, Ed. Grijalbo.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Educator and Student Bibliography
Evans, Susan. 2000. Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America: An Encyclopedia. Routledge, Oxford.
Feder, Kenneth. 2005. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology. McGraw-Hill
Humanities, New York.
González, Carlos Javier. 1992. Chinampas prehispánicas, México, INAH.
J Rodríguez, María. 1997. La mujer azteca, UAM, México.
Joyce, Rosemary, and Susan Shumaker. 1995. Encounters with the Americas. Peabody Museum of Archaeology &
Ethnology, Cambridge Massachusetts.
Larsen, Linda. 2004. Mayans, Aztecs and Incas Thematic Unit. Teacher Created Resources, California.
Leon-Portilla, Miguel. 1992. The Broken Spears. English translation by Lysander Kemp. Beacon Press, Boston.
León Portilla, Miguel. 1959. La visión de los vencidos UNAM, México.
León Portilla, Miguel. 2003. Códices Los antiguos libros del nuevo mundo. Aguilar, México.
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. 1989. The Aztecs. Rizzoli International Publications, New York.
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. 1986. Vida y muerte en el Templo Mayor, México, Ediciones Océano.
Miller, Mary and Karl Taube. 1997. An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the
Maya. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Pasztory, Esther. 1983. Aztec Art. Harry N. Abrams, New York.
Pohl, John. 2000. Exploring Mesoamerica. Oxford University Press, New York.
Sahagún, Bernardino de. 1986. Coloquios y doctrina cristiana (translated by León-Portilla, Miguel, Newberry
Library, Northern Illinois, Northwestern, and University of Illinois have copies).
Sahagún, fray Bernardino de. 2005. Fauna de Nueva España, México, FCE.
Smith, Michael. 2002. The Aztecs. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa.
Taube, Karl. 1993. Aztec and Maya Myths. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas.
Todorov, Tzvetan 1996. La conquista de América y el problema del otro. Siglo XXI, México.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Educator and Student Bibliography
Student Bibliography
Aguilar-Moreno. 2005. Handbook to Life in the Aztec World. Facts on File Publishing, New York.
(Grades 9 and up, www.factsonfile.com)
Bierhorst, John. 2002. The Mythology of Mexico and Central America. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
(Grades 10 & up)
Bingham, Jane. 2007. The Aztec Empire (Time Travel Guide). Raintree, Indiana. (Grades 5– 8)
Cooke, Tim. 2007. National Geographic Investigates: Ancient Aztecs. National Geographic Children Books,
Washington, DC. (Grades 4 –7)
Kimmel, Eric A. And Leonard Everrett Fisher. 2000. The Two Mountains: An Aztec Legend. Holiday House,
New York. (Grades 3 – 6)
Klobuchar, Lisa. 2006. History and Activities of Aztecs. Heinemann, New Hampshire. (Grades 3 –7)
Libura, Krystyna. 1997. What the Aztecs Told Me. Groundwood Books, Toronto, Canada. (Grades 2– 5)
Macdonald, Fiona. 1994. How Would You Survive as an Aztec? Watts Books, New York. (Grades 3– 7)
Navarrete, Federico. 1998. Huesos de lagartija, México, SM de Ediciones. (Col. El barco de vapor, 2.
Recomendado para lectores de 12 años en adelante).
Morgan, Nina. 1997. Technology in the Time of the Aztecs. Hodder Wayland, London, UK. (Grades 4 – 6)
Phillips, Charles. 2007. The Everyday Life of Aztec and Maya. Southwater Publishing, California. (Grades 4 –7)
Rees, Rosemary. 2006. The Aztecs (Understanding People in the Past/ 2nd Edition). Heinemann, New
Hampshire. (Grades 3 –7)
Reid, Camilla. 2000. Aztecs and Incas, A Guide to Pre-colonized Americas in 1504. Kingfisher, UK.
(Grades Pre-school – 3)
Santella, Andrew. 2003. The Aztec (True Books: American Indians). Children’s Press, Chicago, Illinois. (Grade 2 –7)
Smith, Michael (Consulting Editor). 2005. The Aztecs: Empire Builders. Calliope: Exploring World History.
Cobblestone Publishers, New Hampshire. (Grades 3 – 8, www.cobblestone.com)
Sonneborn, Liz. 2005. The Ancient Aztecs (People of the Ancient World). Franklin Watts, New York. (Grades 3 –7)
Steele, Phillip. 2000. History News: The Aztec News. Candlewick, Massachusetts. (Grades 5 and up)
Wood, Marion. 1998. Growing up in Aztec Times (Growing up Series). Troll Communications, New York.
(Grades 2 – 7)
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
Website Resources
The Aztec World
Official The Aztec World exhibition Field Museum website
http://www.fieldmuseum.org/aztecs/
The Ancient Americas
Aztecs are featured in the Empire Builders Gallery section
www.fieldmuseum.org/ancientamericas/
National Museum of Mexican Art
Local community resource for Mexican art and history, and resources for the classroom
www.nationalmuseumofmexicanart.org/
The University of Chicago, Center for Latin American Studies
Instructional resources for educators and researchers
//clas.uchicago.edu/instres.shtml
Arqueologia Mexicana
www.arqueomex.com/S8N2VersionesLinea.html
The Aztecs: a Pre-Columbian History
Yale –New Haven Teachers Institute curricular unit plans for Aztec activities
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1999/2/99.02.01.x.html
Museo Nacional de Anthropologia
Background information on Aztecs economy, politics, religion, culture and European conquest
www.mna.inah.gob.mx/muna/mna_ing/main.html
Famsi: The Aztec Beginnings
www.Famsi.org/research/pohl/pohl_azetc.html
American Museum of Natural History
Greater Mesoamerica and the Aztecs
www.amnh.org/ology/index.php?channel=archaeology#featres/zapotec?TB_iframe=true&height=500&width=750
MesoWeb Teacher’s Page
Highlights cultures of Mesoamerica with interactive activities
www.mesoweb.com/teachers/teachers.html#
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
Latin American Studies, Indiana University
Photos of Aztecs artifacts and culture
www.latinamericanstudies.org/aztecs.html
The Aztec Empire
Brief review of Aztec history with photos
www.guggenheim.org/exhibitions/aztecs/highlights.html
Law in Mexico Before the Conquest
http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/rare/aztec/Home.htm
Nahuatl Home Page
http://www2.potsdam.edu/schwaljf/Nahuatl/
Tu Cuate
La diversidad en Mexico
www.tucuate.com/index.html
The Mexica/Aztecs
History, religion, economy and society of Aztecs
www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAMRCA/AZTECS.HTM
Chocolate Exhibition
The importance of chocolate and cacao seed to 16th century Aztec civilization
www.fieldmuseum.org/chocolate/exhibits.html
Minnesota State University Mesoamerican Sites and Cultures
www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/latinamerica/meso/mesotable.html
Royal Academy of Arts: Aztecs
Links to all aspects of Aztec society
www.aztecs.org.uk/en/index.html
Aztecs at Mexicolore
Aztec related resources for teachers
www.mexicolore.co.uk/index.php?one-azt&two=aaa
The Archaeology Channel—Maya, Aztecs and Incas
Short film clips—click on the video link to “Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas”
www.archaeologychannel.org/content/videoguide.asp
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
An Ancient Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico
Essay on the conquest of Mexico
www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/aztecs.1.html
The Ancient Aztec
Site created by students on ancient Aztec life
www.library.thinkquest.org/27981/?tqskip1=1
Ancient Aztec Webquest
Webquest for students with links for research, includes activities for Journey to a New Land, Tenochtitlan, Polytheism,
Social Order, Communication, Economy, Arrival of the Spanish, and Fall of an Empire with a culminating event of the
students creating an online-museum.
www.cgs.conway.ma.us/AncientAztec.html
ArchNet
Search by region, topic and grade level for resources in South and Central America and Caribbean archaeology
Archnet.asu.edu
Aztecs: Mighty Warriors of Mexico
Activities introducing students to Aztec life and culture
www.edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id= 446
Aztec Mythology
Aztec myths related to the sky and earth
www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/mythology/aztec_culture.html
Mexico: Splendors of Thirty Centuries
www.humanities-interactive.org/splendors/
Laconquista: The Fall of the Aztec Empire
www.ancientmexico.com/content/conquest/index.html
Hall of Jades
Compare early Chinese use of Jade to Aztec use of greenstone
www.fieldmuseum.org/exhibits/exhibit_sites/jades/index.html
Underground Adventure
Explore online soil education and biodiversity activities that invite students to develop research questions about soil
ecosystems in their neighborhood.
www.fieldmuseum.org/undergroundadventure/teachers/index.shtml
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
Pronunciation Guide — Deities represented in The Aztec World Exhibition
Chalchiuthlicue [CHAL-chee-OOT-lee-quay], goddess of streams and lakes.
Chicomecoatl [CHEE-ko-may-co-aht], goddess of maize. Chicomecoatl wears a distinctive house-shaped headdress
and carries ears of corn in both hands.
Cihuacoatl [SEE-wha-co-aht], or “Snake Woman”. The Aztecs considered Cihuacoatl their “Great Mother,” or
the earth goddess, and she possessed all the regenerative powers of the Earth and the fertility of the land.
Cihuacoatl gave birth to the sun each morning and received its death each night.
Citlalicue [seet-LAH-lee-kway], the goddess of the starry sky.
Coatlicue [co-AHT-lee-kway], Coyolxauhqui’s mother.
Coyolxauhqui [co-yo-zha-OO-kee], the moon goddess.
Ehecatl [AY-hay-caht], the wind god, recognized by his duck-bill mask and spiral shell belt. The Aztecs believed that
Ehecatl “swept the way” for Tlaloc, the rain god.
Huitzilophochtli [wheet-see-lo-POACHT-lee], god of war and the sun.
Mictlantecuhtli [meek-TLAHN-tay-coot-lee], the deity of death and the underworld. The Aztecs linked
Mictlantecuhtli with the forces of chaos.
Pahtecatl [pah-TAY-caht], identified by his moon-shaped nose ring and tuquoise crown. Pahtecatl, like all the pulque
deities, represents the stars, who are the brothers of the moon goddess, Coyolxauhqui [co-yo-zha-OO-kee].
Tlaltecuhtli [tlal-tay-COOT-lee], or “Lord Earth,” the devourer of the dead.
Tlaloc [TLAH-lok], god of rain.
Tonatiuh [toe-nah-TEE-ooh], the sun deity. Warriors had a duty to secure victims for Tonatiuh to ensure the sun’s
daily journey across the sky
Tzitzimitl [SEET-see-meet], or thousand stars who continually threatened the sun and the forces of day.
Quetzalcoatl [ket-zal-coe-AHT], or “Feathered Serpent,” the patron deity of artisans. Considered as a creator deity
and credited with inventing the arts, calendar, and even humans.
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
Xipe Totec [SHEE-pay TO-tek], “Our Flayed Lord,” a deity dressed in the flayed skin of a sacrificed warrior. Recent
scholarship links Xipe Totec to agricultural fertility, the planting season, the harvesting of first fruits, and
warfare.
Xiuhtecuhtli [zhee-ooh-tay-COOT-lee], the “Fire God,” often depicted as an old man who dwelled at the center of
the universe.
Xochipilli [so-chee-PEE-lee], the god of music, song, dance, games, and poetry.
Yacatecuhtli [ya-ka-tay-KOOT-lee], or “Nose Lord” was the protector and patron deity of merchants. Yacatecuhtli
was so important to the pochtecas of Tenochtitlan, that they dedicated a temple in his honor. Considered to be
a guiding star.
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
Pronunciation Guide —General words in The Aztec World Exhibition
Amatl (ah-MAHT), a tree—imported from Morelos, Guerrero, and Puebla—that provided the raw material for
paper.
Chacmool (CHOK-mool), an Aztec sculpture representing a rain god. The chacmool had three functions: as a
platform for offerings, as a container for human hearts, and as an altar for human sacrifice.
Chicahuaztli (CHEE-ka-whazt-lee), a ceremonial scepter carried by fertility deities. A symbol of agricultural renewal
connected with the sun’s energy and the regenerative power of rain.
Chinampas (CHEE-nam-pas), or raised fields. It was here, in these highly fertile plots, that farmers grew a bounty of
different foods including maize, beans, squash, chilies, amaranth, and sage.
Cihuateteo (see-WHAHtay-tay-o), or women who died in childbirth. Their spirits lived in the western sky and
accompanied the sun on its afternoon journey towards sunset. In this role, the Cihuateteo were the female
counterparts of dead warriors who accompanied the sun on its morning journey towards the noon sky.
Cipactli (see-PAHKT-lee), or earth monster. According to one version of the Aztec creation story, the cipactli’s body
became the source of all things that humans need: trees, plants, herbs, springs, rivers, lakes, and mountains.
Cipactli also represented the first day of the Aztec ritual calendar and was therefore associated with the
beginnings of both time and space.
Cuauhtecatl (kwa-TAY-kaht), or sacrificed warrior.
cuauhxicalli (kwah-shee-KAH-lee), literally “eagle’s gourd”. A stone offering vessel.
Huey tlatoani (ooh-ee tla-toe-AHN-ee), or “great king.” The emperor was the pinnacle of Aztec society, and lived
in a sumptuous palace filled with luxuries. Yet despite his privileged lifestyle, he was burdened with heavy
responsibilities and expected to perform many roles, including high priest, military commander, supreme judge,
and builder of public works.
Macuahuitl (mah-cwah-WHEET), or “stick of the hand.” Special armament used by warriors, neither a club nor a
sword, but rather a wood baton lined with razor-sharp obsidian blades.
Mixtec (MEESH-tek), artisans who were brought from Oaxaca to Tenochtitlan to create magnificent adornments for
the Aztec ruling class.
Obsidian (OB-sid-ee-an), a type of volcanic glass. Artisans crafted obsidian into beautiful ritual objects and practical
cutting tools; in fact, obsidian knives can be sharper than surgical steel.
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Additional Educator and
Student Resources
Ollin (OH-leen), or glyph representing “movement.”
Pochteca (poach-TAY-kah), merchants/traders who undertook long-distance trading expeditions and sold luxury
items such as greenstone, gold, feathers, shell, and high-quality cotton cloth.
Pulque (PULL-kay), a fermented drink made from the sap of the maguey plant. To make pulque, women first
“tapped” the maguey sap by scraping the plant’s center with sharp stone tools, often made of obsidian. After
being transferred into ceramic containers, the sap was allowed to ferment. pulque was linked with the moon
and the stars.
Temalacatl (tay-mah-lah-caht), literally “spindle whorl made of stone.” The Aztecs often forced captured warriors to
fight while tied to a temalacatl.
Teponaztli (tay-poe-NAHZ-lee), a horizontal wood drum carved from a single log and played with drumsticks tipped
in rubber.
Tequihua (tay-KEE-whah), or emissary. Warriors were often promoted by emperors to the rank of tequihua.
Tlanecuilo (tla-nay-KWEE-lo), or regional merchants who dealt in everyday foodstuffs and common household
items.
Xiuhmolpilli (shee-ooh-mol-PEE-lee), or “bundle of years.” The Aztec equivalent of our century was a 52-year cycle.
Xochimilco (so-CHEE-mil-koe), a lake where Aztecs built chinampas. Also the name of a town town south of Mexico
City, where Aztec chinampas still survive and flourish. Xochimilco means “place of flower fields,” and today
farmers still grow flowers and vegetables here.
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Corresponding Harris Educational
Loan Center Resources
Visit us on-line at www.fieldmusem.org/harrisloan, or call 312.665.7555.
Experience Boxes
Ancient Egypt: Life Along the Nile
Learn how ancient Egyptians used water for irrigation by assembling a model of a shaduf and compare to methods
used by ancient Aztecs! Also, experiment with Egyptian measurements by using a cubit stick.
Aztec and Maya Marketplaces
Marketplaces played an important role in Aztec economy. Merchants served customers from all levels of society,
fueling the busting Aztec economy. Explore some of the items available in Aztec and Maya marketplaces, and identify
where some of these materials originated.
Metate
The metate is a volcanic flat rock used in Mexico and Central America for grinding corn and other foods products.
Students can experience grinding corn into meal.
Religion and Ceremony (British Airways)
Discover why religion and ceremony is so important to many cultures and how different religions and ceremonies fit
into daily life.
Underground Adventure: Science Explorers
Use scientific methods to discover the underground world around you! Includes tools used to collect specimens of
soils in field research. This kit provides an excellent introduction to careers in science.
Underground Adventure: Vacant Lot
Find out about city soils and plants by using scientific tools to examine plant samples.
Vamos a Comer (Let’s Eat!)
Take a closer look at Latin American cultures by examining the plants and foods of different countries in the region.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are clues to the constant changes of the Earth’s surface. Look at pumice, obsidian, and basalt, and find out
how they were formed. Kit includes a volcano model and Rivers of Fire videotape.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Corresponding Harris Educational
Loan Center Resources
Exhibit Cases
Corn
Examine the great versatility and interesting cultural history of corn. A native of Mexico, corn’s usefulness goes
beyond flour and cornmeal, to paper, mattress stuffing and even explosives.
Volcanic Products
Investigate the more peaceful time, after a volcanic eruption, when lava cools. Specimens of pumice, obsidian, and
basalt demonstrate how igneous rocks are formed.
Rubber
Bounce into the fascinating world of rubber production. Rubber is, and was an important resource in Middle
America. Extracted from milkweed trees, rubber is exposed to acid, sulphur and high heat to create a variety of useful
materials. Rubber was imported into Central Mexico from Veracruz.
Pyralin
It takes a lot to convert cotton bolls into usable cotton fabric. Investigate the step-by-step process that mixes this
cellulose product—that forms the basis of the cotton fabric—with shredded and treated cotton, eventually producing
manufactured pyroxylin.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Related Exhibitions
The Ancient Americas Exhibition
F ollow the epic tale of the peoples of the Americas! This exhibition
presents the diverse and fascinating story of the early cultures of
North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean, from the
earliest peoples in the Western Hemisphere to roughly AD 1500.
Compare early social structures in the Americas to those you are
familiar with today, including the Aztecs.
Visit The Field Museum’s many other fascinating permanent
exhibitions about early peoples of the Americas, including:
The Alsdorf Hall of Northwest Coast and Arctic Peoples Exhibition
Compare life in the Arctic with that along a temperate Pacific Coast, and learn
how these environments led to different lifeways. Amazing historic photographs
supplement life-sized cross-sections of houses and displays of tools, cooking gear,
clothing, and luxury goods that portray the daily life and complex social organization
of these maritime cultures.
Native North Americans Hall
Find out more about some of the over 500 Indigenous groups in North America. Displays exploring select peoples
from the Great Lakes, the Prairies, the Plains, and the Southwest regions include a wide range of traditional clothing,
ceramics, basketry, textiles, weaponry, beadwork, and children’s toys, all created mostly in the late 19th century.
The Pawnee Earth Lodge and the Webber Gallery
Explore a full-scale reconstruction of a traditional Pawnee lodge to learn about some
of the traditional ways of this Great Plains tribal group. Or, visit the Webber Gallery to
discover the arts and traditions of contemporary Indigenous cultures of North, Central,
and South America through small traveling exhibitions and presentations created from
the Museum’s own collections.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Related Exhibitions
Hall of Jades
Jade has meant many things to many people. Its luminous beauty and
extraordinary durability have inspired cultures throughout history to invest it
with meaning. Compare the meaning and use of greenstone by the Aztecs to the
meaning and use in prehistoric China. This stunning permanent display of more
than 450 objects from the Museum’s collection takes you on a walk through
China’s history, from prehistoric burials through two thousand years of the world’s
most enduring empire.
Inside Ancient Egypt Exhibition
Explore the world or the ancient Egyptians! Help students make connections
between Aztec and Egyptian everyday life and mythology.
Pacific Spirits: Life, Death, and the Supernatural Exhibition
Investigate Pacific peoples’ beliefs about religion, warfare, and ancestor veneration
while making comparisons to ancient Aztec beliefs about religion, warfare, and
ancestors.
Plants of the World Exhibition
Marvel at world-famous plant models, from algae to orchids. You won’t believe
these are models crafted from glass and wax! Explore plants with connections to
the ancient Aztecs and those commonly found in Mexico today.
Underground Adventure Exhibition
There’s more to soil than meets the eye. The world of soil is a rich habitat for many
amazing creatures. What do you think life would be like if you lived underground?
Investigate the role agriculture in Aztec society with the importance of soil and
agriculture in the world today.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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The Aztec World Education Programs
Student Programs
Aztec Mexico: Earth, Water and Sky, Grades 3–5
Available November 10, 2008 – April 17, 2009
In this class, students will get an in-depth look at the artistic traditions of the Aztec Empire.
Students will travel through The Aztec World exhibition and interpret fantastic displays of history,
art, culture, spirit and science. Using examples of Aztec literature, art, and materials, students will
examine elements of Aztec life and Mesoamerican society.
Meets ILS goals 11, 16, 17.
Tuesdays through Fridays, 10:00am–12:00pm
$4 per student; Pre-registration required.
Aztec: Exploring the Marketplace, Grades 6–8
Available November 10, 2008 – April 17, 2009
Students will tour The Aztec World and discover a remarkably unique and artifact-rich exhibition
on the history and culture of the Aztecs. Students will also explore a classroom that has been
converted into an Aztec marketplace and work in groups to understand the natural environment,
government and religion of the Aztecs.
Meets ILS goals 11, 16, 17.
Tuesdays through Fridays, 10:00am–12:00pm
$4 per student; Pre-registration required.
Michael Heralda: Aztec Stories, Grades 3–12
Through a presentation of ancient poetry, narratives, oral tradition stories and ballads, students
will learn to sing songs in the Nahuatl language and play with hand-made, Indigenous-styled
instruments. This program allows students the opportunity for interactive, improvisational
participation.
Meets ILS goals 18, 26, 27.
Friday, March 6, 2009 at 10:30am
Free; Pre-registration required.
The Field Museum • Maps Educator Guide
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The Aztec World Education Programs
Family Programs
Gallery Programs: Interpretive Stations
Aztec Sun Stone
Utilize the cast of the Aztec Sun Stone in The Ancient Americas exhibition to explore the images found on
this tablet and discover their meaning.
Mega Maps of the Americas
Explore sites illustrating the routes the first peoples of the Americas took to spread across the continents
and find out more about Native peoples’ explanation of their origins in these lands.
The Story of Domestication
Trace the routes and history of products in the Americas and discover the story of their domestication
through trade and industrialization.
Schedule varies. Please check the information kiosk on the day of your visit for a list of the day’s activities.
Free with basic admission.
Kraft Story Time
Take a seat in the Crown Family PlayLab, hear a story, and make an art project to take home, all in 20 minutes!
Stories during November will highlight Mexico.
Saturdays and Sundays in November at 1:30pm, free with basic admission.
Scientists at The Field
Meet a Field Museum scientist and see rarely displayed specimens from our Mesoamerican collections.
Saturday, November 15, 2008
11:00am–2:00pm, free with basic admission.
Creating Codices
Gain a further understanding of Aztec culture though their writings. Look at the meaning of different
Aztec codices while creating a codex of our own.
Saturday, November 15, 2008 at 10:00am
$7, members $4; Pre-registration required, call 312.665.7400.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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The Aztec World Education Programs
Performances
Nahui Ollin
Enjoy a spectacular performance by Chicago-based dance troupe Nahui Ollin! Watch as they perform indigenous
ceremonial dances from Mexico using native instruments such as the jarana, huehuetl drum, rattles, whistles and
a guitar made from a turtle shell.
Saturday, November 1, 2008 at 12:00pm, free with basic admission.
Chicago Youth Symphony Orchestra
The Chicago Youth Symphony Orchestra features gifted musicians 7–18 years old who perform great orchestral
works. Under the direction of Music Director Allen Tinkham, this concert will feature works by Marquez, Copland,
Moncayo and Falla.
Saturday, November 1, 2008 at 1:00pm, free with basic admission.
Michael Heralda: Aztec Stories
Through a presentation of poetry, narratives, oral tradition stories, and ballads, families will learn about ancient
Mexico from an Indigenous perspective.
Saturday, March 7, 2009 at 12:00pm, free with basic admission.
Adult Lectures
The Aztec World Conference Adult Lecture
Explore Aztec art and culture with the foremost experts in the field of Aztec anthropology.
Conference will place a special emphasis on women, farmers, and commoners; sacrifice; and
contemporary excavations in Mexico City.
Featuring the curators of The Aztec World exhibition:
Felipe Solís Olguín, Director, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City
Juan Alberto Román Berrelleza, Professor-Researcher, Templo Mayor Museum, Mx City
Leonardo López Luján, Director, Templo Mayor Project, Mx City
Elizabeth Brumfiel, Professor of Anthropology, Northwestern University
Sunday, October 26, 2008 at 2:00pm, free; Pre-registration required, call 312.665.7400.
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
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Walking Map
RULERS
WA R R I O R S
HIGH PRIESTS
ARTISANS
FA R M I N G
CONCLUSION
INTRO
EXIT
The Field Museum • The Aztec World Educator Guide
ENTRANCE
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