Beowulf
Possible Lines of Approach
Beowulf as heroic epic
Beowulf and traditional roles
Beowulf and the blending of Christian and pagan elements
Monsters vs. monstrous behavior in Beowulf
Beowulf and community values and legal issues
Beowulf and lineage
Digressions within Beowulf
Comparisons/Connections
Notes on Particular Sections/Features
Key Literary Features of Beowulf
Approaches to Particular Sections
Questions for Discussion
Possible Lines of Approach
Beowulf as heroic epic
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Define “epic” and consider the functions of epic in a culture, and then compare the
generic qualities of classical epics to those of Beowulf.
Compare the prologue of Beowulf to that of classical epics such The Odyssey or
The Iliad.
Discuss how Beowulf fits the definition of a hero.
Examine the combination of historical and fictitious elements in Beowulf.
Look at the heroic code as it is presented in the text and compare it to heroic codes
in Judith, The Dream of the Rood, The Battle of Maldon, or The Wanderer.
Beowulf and traditional roles
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Consider how the text establishes positive and negative examples of “man” and
“woman” as well as “king,” “queen,” and “warrior.”
Consider how names within Beowulf may further understanding of roles—e.g.,
Heorot, Beowulf, Hrothgar, Wealhtheow, Heremod, Hygd.
Compare this use of names to that in Judith, The Dream of the Rood, The
Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Wife’s Lament, The Cotton Maxims, The Exeter Book
Riddles, The Battle of Maldon.
Beowulf and the blending of Christian and pagan elements
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This blending raises questions of authorship, authorial motivation, and date of
composition.
Compare Beowulf, a pagan storyline infused with Judeo-Christian elements, to
Judith, an Old Testament text infused with pagan elements.
Look at which elements of the poem are decidedly pagan and which are Christian.
Compare clearly Christian characters (Hrothgar) to more ambiguous ones
(Beowulf), and consider the ambiguity of epithets and references to God. Look at
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how many references could also apply to Odin, and how they appeal to a warrior
culture.
Discuss the afterlife of characters.
Discuss the role of wyrd (“fate”).
Discuss the Christian sin of pride vs. the warrior’s desire for glory.
How does the poem’s end serve to signal the end of pagan religion and culture?
Monsters vs. monstrous behavior in Beowulf
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Establish the lineage of Grendel and Grendel’s mother, and evaluate physical
descriptions of Grendel and his mother for possible ambiguity on whether they are
literal or figurative monsters.
Compare descriptions of the home of Grendel and his mother to the homes of
Heorot.
Determine how the text defines monstrous behavior and compare Grendel’s
behavior with that of his mother; consider also the behavior of Heremod and
Thryth; compare to the behavior of Holofernes in Judith.
Compare the poet’s narration of Beowulf’s slaying of Grendel and Grendel’s
mother to Beowulf’s retelling of these slayings when he returns home.
Beowulf and community values and legal issues
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Look at the mead-hall as a reflection of the state of the community (see also
Judith). Look at the role of feasting.
Examine implied or stated contracts between various members of society, including
the implied contract between king and thane (a warrior in service to a leader) and
the loyalty owed by a thane to a leader and to the members of the comitatus.
Look at the the use of one’s word as bond (oral contracts, importance to reputation)
and at boasting as a kind of promise that must be upheld.
Notice the role of wergild (“man-gold”) as compensation for wrongful death (i.e.,
an attempt to minimize blood-feuds begun by the kin of the slain in revenge) and
the legal difference between “murder” (refusal to pay wergild) and “manslaughter”
(slaying of a person is compensated). Notice also the attempts to end blood feuds
through marriage.
Look at the most heinous crimes and how they are punished (i.e., by exile from the
community). Compare the sorrow of exile with that depicted in The Wanderer.
Examine attitudes toward kinslayers (Unferth).
Beowulf and lineage
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Germanic epics and sagas tend to begin with a genealogy, thus Beowulf begins
with the story of Scyld Scefing.
Inheritance and bloodlines are patrilineal; this is emphasized through the use of
epithets (e.g., Shield, Son of Sheaf).
Look at what else is inherited: for example, Beowulf inherits his father’s obligation
to Hrothgar; Grendel is descended from Cain, a kinslayer.
Beowulf lacks progeny, thus leaves the kingdom without an heir. What are the
implications of this?
Digressions within Beowulf
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Digressions are a generic component of epics. Look at how they function as a part
of oral literature—e.g., as part of the unique entertainment provided by the
scop—as well as the role they serve in the narrative. Digressions may act as
foreshadowing (the story of Sigemund, Hildeburh) or admonition/advice (the
stories of Heremod, Thryth)
Comparisons/Connections
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Historical matter: Bede’s The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, The
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
Religious matter: Bede’s The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Ælfric’s
The Passion of Saint Edmund, Wulfstan’s Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, Blickling
Homilies.
Poetic works: Judith (found in same manuscript as Beowulf), The Exeter Book
Elegies, The Dream of the Rood, The Cotton Maxims, The Exeter Book Riddles,
The Battle of Maldon.
Notes on Particular Sections/Features
Form: A long heroic poem—arguably an epic—of 3182 lines written in alliterative
verse. Old English poetry is written in alliterative verse, which is common for poems
composed in Old Norse, Old Saxon, and Old High German; rhyming poems are scarce.
Structure: The poem is divided into 44 numbered sections in the manuscript. The first
approximately 2200 lines are dedicated to Beowulf’s youthful exploits, including the
slayings of Grendel and Grendel’s mother. After informing us that 50 years have passed,
the remaining third of the poem details Beowulf’s death as a result of his fight with the
dragon.
Composition/Authorship: The poem Beowulf survives in only one manuscript, Cotton
Vitellius A. xv, which also includes the heroic poem Judith, an Old Testament tale
reworked in Old English; a prose life of St. Christopher, the patron saint of travelers; and
The Wonders of the East and Alexander’s Letter to Aristotle, two prose works describing
the marvels encountered by the narrator while traveling in “the Orient.” The date of the
manuscript is c.1000, though the composition of Beowulf may date from c.700–c.1000.
The poem is set in Scandinavia during geardagum (“days of yore”) and includes
historical characters (Hrothgar, Heremod, Hygelac). Based on the historicity of Hygelac,
the events of the poem may have taken place in the late sixth century.
Scholars are divided on the issue of Beowulf’s composition, with some insisting on its
being part of oral tradition and others arguing for a single author who may have imitated
the style of older Germanic heroic poetry. The method of composition may have
implications for the date of its composition (if a single author, then most likely the date of
composition is contemporaneous with that of the manuscript) and for the purpose of its
creation.
If Beowulf is the product of oral tradition, then rather than memorizing the entire poem,
the scop (poet-performer, pronounced “shoap” to rhyme with “soap”) would have
extemporaneously stitched the poem together by drawing from his knowledge of
traditional tales, as well as from a vast repertoire of recurring motifs and memorized
phrases (called formulas) that fit the metrical scheme of the poem. At some point,
someone would have eventually written down the poem and thus given the defined shape
as it exists in the manuscript. The scop would have sung or chanted the poem before his
audience. See lines 867-874 and 1063-1070 for references to a scop.
Regardless of the method of its composition, Beowulf exhibits poetic elements generally
found in orally composed narratives (such as formulas) and its performative and
oral/aural nature is emphasized throughout, starting with its first word, Hwæt (“Listen!”
or “Hark!”).
Key Literary Features of Beowulf
Alliteration. A typical Old English metrical line consists of two half-lines separated by a
caesura. Each half-line contains two stresses of which either/both the first and second
stress must alliterate with the third. The fourth stress of the line does not alliterate with
the others. Consider the following lines from Beowulf:
Swa sceal geong guma gode gewyrcan,
Fromum feoh-giftum on fæder bearme,
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In line 20, although it may appear that “swa” and “sceal” alliterate, they do not because
they begin with different sounds: the “s” in “swa” is an “s” sound like in the Middle
English “swallow” and the “sc” in “sceal” is pronounced “sh” as in the word “shall,” its
cognate in Middle English. The next three words in line 20 do alliterate, despite that the
“g” in geong is pronounced like the “y” in its Middle English cognate “young,” but the
“g” in “guma” and “gode” are both pronounced like the “g” in the Middle English
“good.” Since the “ge” in “gewyrcan” is a verbal prefix (much like the “re” in the Middle
English “rework”), it cannot count as part of the alliterative sequence.
In line 21, the “f” at the beginning of the words “fromum” and “feoh-giftum” on the first
half-line and the “f” in “fæder” in the second half-line alliterate.
Although Liuzza’s translation does incorporate use of alliteration, it does not necessarily
correspond to how it appears in Beowulf.
Formula. A formula, according to the OED, is a “set form of words in which something
is defined, stated, or declared, or which is prescribed by authority or custom to be used on
some ceremonial occasion.” In oral poetry, a formula is a conventional phrase used as a
transition or description to fill the meter, to give the oral poet time to compose or recall
the coming lines, and to communicate the structure of a story to an audience through
repetition. “The rosy-red fingers of the Dawn” is a formulaic phrase employed in The
Odyssey and deliberately echoed by Virgil in The Aeneid. In Beowulf the scop often
introduces a character’s speech by stating the character’s name, followed by an
epithet—e.g., “Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow” (529, 631, 957, 1383, 1473, etc.) or
“Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scyldings” (371, 456, 1321).
Epithet. An epithet is a descriptive word or phrase associated with a figure—often, but
not always, accompanying their name and sometimes in lieu of the name—used by an
oral poet to fill the meter of a poetic line. General examples include “Alexander the
Great” and “Ol’ Blue Eyes” (for Frank Sinatra). Examples from Beowulf include “SpearDanes” (2), “Scyld Scefing” (“Shield, son of Sheaf,” 4), “Lord of Life” and “Wielder of
Glory” (God, 16-17), “mighty stalker of the marshes” (Grendel, 103), “joy giver of the
Geatish people” (Beowulf, 2900).
Kenning. This is a type of compounded phrase, made up of two unrelated elements, that
is cryptic and metaphoric in nature. Although a talented scop may create his own
kennings, many would have been stock phrases. Examples include “whale’s-riding” (the
sea, 10), “wave-crosser” (ship, 199), “word-hoard” (mouth, capacity for speech, 259),
“battle-runes” (ill-thoughts, 501). The names of some of the characters are also kennings.
For instance, Beowulf’s name consists of beo (“bee”) + wulf (“wolf”) and means “bear.”
Note that a kenning is a specific type of compound—a new word created by combining
two others—but that not all compounds found in Beowulf are kennings. Compounds may
be formulaic, may be used to meets the demands of the meter or the alliteration, or may
be used to describe a repeated element in a poetic fashion. For example, in line 4, “meadbench” is both a compound and an example of synecdoche, but it is not a kenning.
Motif. A motif is a repeated story element, such as the scene of heroes putting on their
gear before going to battle, or the giving of rewards to a warrior by a king.
Variation. The repetition, utilizing different language, of a sentence element to aid in
maintaining the metrical scheme is called “variation.” For example, the epithets “Lord of
Life” and “Wielder of Glory” are repeated one after the other in lines 16-17 and both
refer to God. There is variation in the lines “he should order a hall-building, have men
make a great mead-house” (69-70).
Digression. A digression is a break in the main storyline that may describe, in what
might seem to us to be over-elaborate detail, the history of various props (such as a
scepter or a weapon) or the ancestry of a warrior, or that may tell a story within a story
that will enhance themes in the main storyline. The stories of Sigemund the Dragonslayer (874-897), Hildeburh (1071-1124), Heremod (1709-1723), and Thryth (19311962) are each digressions that either foreshadow events to come or serve a didactic
purpose.
Approaches to Particular Sections
The prologue: The narrator opens with the instruction for its audience to “Listen!” The
next three lines emphasize the oral/aural nature of the poem and reminds the audience of
other tales told about the Danes and of the fame of “those noble lords [who] did noble
deeds.” In doing so, the poet establishes one of the main themes of the poem: the
importance of reputation and the desire for fame. The last line of the poem—the
description of Beowulf as being “the most eager for fame”—echoes this opening.
After beginning thus, the poet provides Hrothgar’s genealogy, a convention found in
many medieval Germanic heroic narratives. Lines 20-25 detail the qualities a future king
should have: he should be generous in giving rewards so that his warriors will be loyal to
him in times of war, and he should behave in ways that will be praised by his people.
Consider which characters (or character roles) demonstrate generosity and/or loyalty
(including loyalty to comrades, to leaders, to kith and kin, and—in a more abstract
sense—to vows and oaths), and which perform deeds established by the text as
praiseworthy. We can see that there is an implied contract between a war-leader and his
warriors: a leader should reward those warriors who battle on his behalf, and in exchange,
a warrior pledges his loyalty and his sword to his leader. This contract will be significant
in the interactions between Hrothgar and Beowulf, in the advice Hrothgar gives to
Beowulf via Heremod’s story, in Wealtheow’s speech, in Beowulf’s behavior when he
returns home to Geatland, and in the actions of Beowulf’s thanes during his battle with
the dragon.
The remainder of the prologue describes the traditional (and pagan) burial of a king.
Scyld, who “passed away at his appointed hour,” is placed on his ship, whereby,
accompanied by treasure and his battle-gear, he sails into the next world (Valhalla,
Odin’s big mead-hall in the sky, where mighty warriors spend their afterlife doing much
of what they did on earth: feasting, drinking, and fighting). Contrast this scene with
Beowulf’s funeral.
Sections 1-12 (to Grendel’s death): After recounting Hrothgar’s genealogy, the narrator
introduces first Hrothgar, then Grendel. After much success in war, Hrothgar, greatgrandson of Scyld, builds the mead-hall Heorot (“hart”). Throughout Beowulf, the state of
the mead-hall reflects the state of the community at large. Until Grendel wreaks havoc,
Heorot is a mead-hall filled with “joyful din” and “with the harp’s sound, the clear song
of the scop” (89-90), indicating that it is a happy and safe place with many celebrations
and feasts. Its name, Heorot, may symbolize Hrothgar: a “hart” is not just a deer, but
more specifically a stag, a distinctly male animal who may battle with others for
dominance. Although Hrothgar was a fierce buck once, his might and masculinity are
diminished once he reaches old age. After Grendel begins to wreak havoc upon Heorot,
the hart loses his antlers, so to speak. Trace how the descriptions of Hrothgar as a mighty
warrior and king shift to those of Hrothgar as an old man, one who functions in ways
similar to the women in the text. Despite his age, Hrothgar is established as an example
of an excellent king: “he remembered his boast; he gave out rings” (80). He is generous
and he keeps his word.
Grendel is introduced as a “bold demon who waited in darkness” (86). The Old English
does not refer to Grendel as a “demon”; this is the word chosen by the translator. A few
lines further, Grendel is described as a “fiend from hell” (101). The Old English word
feond is glossed as “fiend,” but may also be glossed simply as “foe” or “enemy,” as it is
in the poem Judith (195, 321). See the translator’s note 1 on page 48. Note how often
“dark” or “darkness” appear in relation to Grendel. This could be a metaphoric darkness
to symbolize Grendel’s godlessness or to reflect that he has committed evil deeds. It
could also be literal, since Grendel only appears in times of darkness, that is, at night and
in dark places, such as the fens. The darkness could also refer to the lawless and
community-less places outside of Heorot, a place of law and community. Why does
Grendel begin his attacks on Heorot? What exactly is Grendel’s crime? The text makes it
clear that Grendel’s killing of Hrothgar’s thanes is a series of foul acts. Note the grievous
complaint levied against Grendel in lines 154-158: Grendel does not pay wergild for his
murders. Wergild was established as one of several means to prevent, or at least to
mitigate, blood-feud and revenge killings. Note that, according to the poet, after Cain
kills Abel, “the eternal Lord avenged that death” (108). Avenging the death of
(wrongfully) slain warriors, especially ones related by blood or oaths, is part of a
warrior’s duty and an important community duty. Another complaint against Grendel is
lodged in lines 164-169 and demonstrates how his behavior is the antithesis of AngloSaxon values and the code of the comitatus. Consider how God is described in ways
calculated to appeal to a militant culture.
Beowulf is first introduced in line 194 as “the thane of Hygelac.” However, he is not
referred to by name until he himself exclaims it: “Beowulf is my name” (341). News of
Grendel’s heinous deeds travel, and after Beowulf hears of them, he makes the decision
to travel to Heorot. Once Beowulf’s ship lands on the Danish shores, his presence there is
challenged by one of Hrothgar’s thanes and then again by another at the gates of Heorot.
After greeting Hrothgar, Beowulf explains that he is there to rid Heorot of Grendel’s
presence. He gives a resumé of sorts: previously, he “slew a tribe of giants” and “fought
sea-monsters by night” (415-424). Beowulf requests of Hrothgar that he and his men
alone be allowed to fight Grendel and to do so in hand-to-hand combat, since as a “wild”
creature, Grendel “does not care for weapons” (426-440).
Beowulf also requests that his possessions be sent on to Hygelac if he should perish in the
battle against Grendel. He ends his speech by asserting that “wyrd always goes as it
must!” (455). This is only one of several references to fate made by Beowulf or the
narrator. In Germanic mythology, one’s fate is fixed from the moment of birth. The only
control a warrior has over his fate is whether to meet it bravely or not. As Beowulf
himself states: “wyrd often spares/an undoomed man, when his courage endures!”
(572-3).
We find out that Beowulf’s underlying reason for coming to Heorot is to honor an oathdebt made by Ecgtheow to Hrothgar in exchange for a time when Hrothgar paid wergild
to settle a blood-feud begun by Ecgtheow (457-472). When his father died, Beowulf
became honor-bound to repay Ecgtheow’s debt.
When Beowulf declares before witnesses his intention to best Grendel and to do so in
hand-to-hand combat, he is making a kind of promise. A boast, such as he makes in lines
421-424, in 601-606, in 677-687, etc., may be viewed as grandstanding or arrogance by a
modern audience, but to Anglo-Saxon audiences, it is another type of promise. In contrast
to Beowulf’s boast, note lines 480-487 of Hrothgar’s speech. As long as he keeps his
word, Beowulf will remain an honorable and lauded man who wields “good” words. This
will be more noticeable in Beowulf’s discussion with Unferth in sections 8 and 9. Unferth
provokes Beowulf with his “battle-runes” (“ill-thoughts”) and begins flyting, a contest of
words, with Beowulf. A mighty warrior wields both weapons and words well, and
Beowulf exhibits skill with each. His ability to best Unferth in flyting is not unlike a
scop’s ability to improvise verse, as there is artistry in both. Beowulf later demonstrates
his own abilities as a scop when he regales Hygelac and Hygd with his adventures in
Denmark.
After the flyting, Wealhtheow is introduced (612). Generally speaking, the roles of
women in Anglo-Saxon poetry tend to be more verbal or symbolic than active: they act as
hostesses and passers of the mead-cup, they counsel, they egg men on or remind them to
behave appropriately, and they lament. They may also be given as brides to members of a
tribe engaged in blood-feud with their kin. In this way, a woman is said to act as a freo∂uwebbe, a “peace-weaver.” Although this word is used only once in Old English (in line
1942 in reference to Thryth), the act of marrying off women as a means of preventing
blood-feud and establishing ties between tribes is mentioned in several places, including
once by Beowulf himself when he mentions its futility (2022-2131). The story of
Hildeburh, a digression, details the difficulties experienced by a woman with familial ties
to two feuding tribes (1071-1158). The elements of Wealhtheow’s name, wealh
“foreigner” and theow “slave” or “servant,” may be indicative of her own role as a
“peace-weaver.” Indeed, Beowulf later refers to her as a “bond of peace to nations”
(2017). Wealhtheow could be considered part of a system—exogamy—that exchanges
women in order to form kinship ties between men. Does this seem to be the case for the
other women in Beowulf?
When Wealhtheow makes her first appearance in Beowulf, she is acting as a hostess and
bearer of the mead cup. Is there significance in passing the mead-cup first to Hrothgar
and last to Beowulf (615-624)? Although early scholarship diminished the importance of
the role played by women in Beowulf, more recent scholarship accords it more
significance. Consider the ways in which women in Beowulf are described. Wealhtheow
is the only woman who actually speaks in the poem; consider the impact her words may
have.
After enjoying a merry feast at Heorot, Beowulf and his men bed down for the night.
During the night, Grendel makes his appearance (703-745) and makes the mistake of
grabbing Beowulf (748-754), who “pinned him fast” (788). Beowulf’s men draw their
weapons, unaware that Grendel “had worked a curse upon weapons” (794-805).
Beowulf’s mighty grip tears off Grendel’s arm, and Grendel flees Heorot and heads to the
fens, knowing that he is mortally wounded (815-823). Grendel’s “claw” is retained as “a
clear sign” of his doom (833-836). This is just one of many tacen (literally “token,” a
sign) present within Beowulf (the head of Holofernes in Judith is also called a tacen).
Thus, Beowulf fulfills his boasts.
Sections 13-26 (to Beowulf’s departure): After Grendel’s defeat at the hands of
Beowulf, people come to view the wundor (“marvelous thing, marvel, the object of
astonishment,” 840) that is Grendel’s trail. (What else in this text is accounted
“marvelous”? The presence of these marvels may be why Beowulf became bound with
other texts filled with wondrous creatures, places, and adventures.) Although Grendel’s
dead body is not visible, the men see the blood in the water as a sign of his death (841852). While the men ride back to Heorot, one of the king’s thanes acts as scop and
extemporaneously composes a song recounting Beowulf’s deeds (867-876). Beowulf is
then indirectly praised when the scop begins a digression in which he tells the tale of
Sigemund the dragon-slayer (874-900). As a negative example in contrast to Sigemund
(and thus to Beowulf), part of the story of Heremod is also told (901-915). Clearly the
Sigemund digression foreshadows Beowulf’s fight with the dragon later in the poem. Is
the story of Heremod foreshadowing as well?
By morning, the men have returned to Heorot, and people crowd to see Grendel’s hand,
“the strange wonder” (920). Note that Hrothgar emerges from “the woman’s chambers”
(922). In The Germania (late first century), the Roman historian Tacitus notes that old
men are in the same social category as women. Does his observation square with how
Hrothgar functions in the text once Beowulf arrives? Holding up Grendel’s hand for all to
see, Hrothgar begins an important speech in section 14. In front of the witnesses, he tells
Beowulf that he will now “cherish you … like a son in my heart” (946-947). Are there
implications in this speech? Among the treasures with which Hrothgar rewards Beowulf
is his own father’s sword (1020) and a horse saddled with Hrothgar’s own war-saddle
(1035-1045). Could these objects be viewed as tacens by the people witnessing the
reward-giving? Can we tell how Wealhtheow reads Hrothgar’s action and his speech
when she speaks to him (1169-1187)? She reminds Hrothgar that though he may have
adopted Beowulf, verbally and symbolically, he has two fine sons to inherit his kingdom.
She then turns to Beowulf and offers him rewards as well, including Freyja’s necklace
(1195). (Freyja—her day becomes Friday—is the Norse goddess of love and sexuality,
comparable to the Roman goddess Venus. Freyja is also associated with war and battles.)
After rewarding Beowulf before the occupants of the mead-hall, Wealhtheow rises and
makes a speech (1215-1231) in which she praises him. She also offers him a subtle
warning to not attempt to take over the kingdom.
In contrast to the mead-hall at the beginning of Judith¸ the warriors at Heorot do not
drink to excess; they remain ready for battle (1246-1250). After the men fall asleep,
Grendel’s mother makes her appearance and is called “an avenger” and “monsterwoman” (1256). In the Old English, she is introduced as Grendles modor, ides, aglæcwif. Note that in Old English, the term ides (“woman”) is applied to her as it is also
ascribed to Wealhtheow and Hildeburh, for example. She is a mother, a woman, and
lastly, a monster-woman. To what effect or purpose is her gender emphasized by the
Beowulf-poet? Whereas the reason for Grendel’s attacks on Heorot are ambiguous, the
poet specifies that revenge is the reason for Grendel’s mother’s attack on Heorot: she
kills one of Hrothgar’s men in retaliation for the death of her son, a job that would
ordinarily be performed by male kin. The poet comments on the weakness of “women’s
warfare” in lines 1279-1287.
Hrothgar laments the death of Æschere at the hands of Grendel’s mother, and he
acknowledges that Æschere was a blood-feud casualty—that Grendel’s mother was
avenging the death of her son. Hrothgar then describes to Beowulf all that he knows of
Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and their home (1345-1376). He offers Beowulf more
treasure if Beowulf avenges Æschere’s death by killing Grendel’s mother. This is the
type of blood-feud wergild is supposed to prevent. Is Hrothgar behaving like a good
Christian in that moment? Is Beowulf when he tells Hrothgar that “it is better to avenge
one’s friend than to mourn … let him who can bring about fame before death—that is
best for the unloving man after he is gone” (1384-1385)? What values does Beowulf
articulate in these lines?
As Beowulf is preparing to leave for the fens, Unferth lends to Beowulf the sword
Hrunting, an ancient weapon that had never before failed in battle. In lines 1465-1471 the
poet comments on how Unferth lost honor and reputation, since he made boasts that he
could not uphold. In contrast, Beowulf remains steadfast throughout the text and follows
through with his boasts and promises (1529-1530).
After making provisions for his men and his treasure should he perish in the battle against
Grendel’s mother, Beowulf makes his way to the fens. In contrasts to the poet’s earlier
comment about the weakness of women’s strength, Grendel’s mother is strong enough to
grapple with Beowulf and force him into her abode, where he is unable to utilize his
weapons (1501-1512). Once in the dwelling, Beowulf discovers that his weapons are
useless against her. However, he takes one of her weapons, a special one made by giants,
and “angry and resolute” he beheads her with it (1557-1569). Then, spying Grendel’s
body, Beowulf beheads Grendel’s corpse and carries Grendel’s head—another
tacen—back with him in victory to Heorot (1634-1654). Note that Beowulf does not
bring back Grendel’s mother’s head: why not?
Hrothgar thanks Beowulf and praises him (1700-1708) However, he also cautions
Beowulf not to become overly proud nor to allow pride to get in the way of being a good
leader of men. Hrothgar again picks up the story of Heremod, a Danish leader who was
too proud, who slew his own men when enraged, who did not reward his men with rings,
and who thus did great harm to his people (1709-1724). Heremod’s name, here “ire” +
mod, “mood,” may be allegorical. Hrothgar then continues with a didactic speech on the
evils of pride (1740-1784). Note in particular the lines 1758-1768, wherein Hrothgar
humbly talks about getting old. He infers that he himself had to let go of pride in order to
allow a young man like Beowulf to resolve the issues plaguing his people (1769-1781).
The feasting and celebrating commences. Beowulf announces that he and his men wish to
return home, then he pledges to return to aid Hrothgar should Hrothgar ever again require
it. Beowulf also pledges friendship with Hrothgar’s sons. Hrothgar gives Beowulf more
treasures.
Section 27-31 (Beowulf’s return home): Beowulf and his men return home by ship and
go to Hygelac’s mead-hall. The Beowulf-poet introduces and praises Hygd, Hygelac’s
queen. Her name is probably also allegorical and may be glossed as “mindful.” Her name
may be a statement about the proper behavior of queens, much like Heremod’s name may
be a comment on the improper behavior of kings. As a contrast to the good queen Hygd,
the poet begins a digression about the queen Thryth, whose own name may be glossed as
something like “strong-minded” or “willful.” Thryth committed “terrible crimes”: she
had men who looked at her put to death (1931-1940). As the poet states, that is
inappropriate behavior for a woman—women should weave peace, not cause strife
(1940-1943). Incidentally, the word “queen” comes from the Old English cwen, a word
that could also simply mean “woman.” As a result, the text is ambiguous, as it could
indicate that Thryth’s behavior is inappropriate for a queen, or inappropriate for women
in general. Regardless, once Thryth is given as a bride to Offa in an exogamous union,
she “caused less calamity to the people” (1944-1962). The implication is that marriage
tames a woman.
Beowulf greets Hygelac (1976-1980) upon his return, and Hygd passes around the meadcup. Most of sections 28-31 consists of Beowulf’s speech recounting his adventures
among the Danes. Beowulf states that Hrothgar “assigned [him] a seat with his own sons”
(2013). He praises Wealtheow (2016-2019) and Freawaru, Walhtheow and Hrothgar’s
daughter (2022-2024). Beowulf then makes a very astute comment on the futility of
marrying off daughters to heal blood-feuds (2024-2031 and 2063-2066). As a scop and a
good leader of men, Beowulf is a good speaker and story-teller. Whereas we previously
heard the stories of Grendel’s death as well as that of his mother from the poet’s point of
view, we now hear them from Beowulf’s. Beowulf takes slightly longer to recount the
death of Grendel (2069-2100) than he does the death of Grendel’s mother (2117-2140),
for which his version is significantly shorter than that of the poet’s. Beowulf could
perhaps be read as somewhat sympathetic to her situation when he states: “There, quickly
ready with revenge for her griefs, Grendel’s mother journeyed sorrowful; death took her
son” (2117-2119). Beowulf colorfully embroiders his encounter with Grendel, but his
encounter with Grendel’s mother seems matter-of-fact.
In fealty to Hygelac, Beowulf gives him some of the treasure Hrothgar gave to him
(2144-2162). Here Beowulf’s first-person narration ends, and the poet comments on
Beowulf’s appropriate behavior (2165-2176) and on how through this good behavior, the
Geats now thought him to be a good man (2177-2189). This passage echoes the lines in
the prologue about how a prince should behave (20-25). Hygelac rewards Beowulf with
treasure: he gives him his own father’s sword, land, and a hall (2190-2199). This passage
recalls the one wherein Hrothgar gives to Beowulf his battle-gear and symbolically
adopts him as a son. In effect, Hygelac also adopts Beowulf and symbolically makes him
his heir by passing down the heirloom weapon. [If reading Judith along with Beowulf,
then consider the implications of the passage (334-341) wherein Judith receives
Holofernes’ war-gear.] After Hygelac dies, his son Heardred perishes in battle, and
Beowulf becomes the Geatish king (2200-2208). Beowulf rules well for 50 years before a
dragon begins to trouble his people (2208-2220).
Sections 32-43 (to the death of Beowulf and the end): A man discovers the dragon’s
hoard and steals a jeweled cup from it. The dragon soon discovers the theft and repays it
by terrorizing the local people with his fire. Note the many different kennings and
metaphors used to identify the dragon. The dragon burns down Beowulf’s mead-hall, and
Beowulf “devised revenge” (2324-2336). As a result of his many successes throughout
his lifetime, Beowulf “scorned” to fight the dragon with an army (2345-2353). Instead, he
takes with him 11 men plus the thief to lead the way (2400-2412). Beginning in section
34, the Beowulf-poet foreshadows Beowulf’s death at the hands of the dragon. The poet
also makes it clear that Beowulf senses his own demise (2417-2424). As he did before the
fight against Grendel, Beowulf boasts he will slay the dragon or die trying, if wyrd should
so decree (2510-2537). At this point, Beowulf is at least as old as Hrothgar was when
Beowulf went to aid him: compare Beowulf’s behavior as king with that of Hrothgar.
Beowulf then singlehandedly begins to fight the dragon (2538-2591). Fate does not
decree a win for Beowulf in this challenge (2573-2575), and his sword fails him (25842586). When the dragon breathes flames at Beowulf (2594-2595), his thanes run away in
fear, leaving Beowulf alone there (2596-2601). Is this appropriate behavior for members
of the comitatus? What could this signal?
One of Beowulf’s thanes, Wiglaf, remembers the loyalty owed to his liege lord. He
reprimands his companions (2631-2660) and returns to stand by Beowulf (2661-2678).
We are told that Nægling, Beowulf’s sword, shatters, since it was Beowulf’s fate to have
weapons fail him; Beowulf should battle with his hands (2678-2687). The dragon grabs
Beowulf in his jaws (2688-2693). Wiglaf aids Beowulf and strikes the dragon with his
sword; working together, they fell the dragon (2694-2711). Beowulf realizes that he has
been poisoned by the dragon (2712-2715) and that he will die from it (2720-2725).
Beowulf tells Wiglaf he wishes he might have had an heir to whom he could bequeath his
war-gear, though fate did not allot him a son (2728-2732). What are the implications of
this? Beowulf asks Wiglaf to get the dragon’s hoard so that he might look upon it before
he dies (2743-2751). Wiglaf does so and returns to Beowulf (2752-2793). Beowulf gives
thanks for the treasure, as it will be an aid to his people (2794-2801), and calls for a
tomb, “Beowulf’s Barrow,” to be built above his funeral pyre (2802-2808). Beowulf
gives to Wiglaf the circlet from his neck, his helmet, his ring, and his byrnie, and then he
dies (2809-2820).
Ashamed of themselves, the 10 cowardly thanes return to find Beowulf dead (28462855). Wiglaf reprimands them again (2863-2891). Beowulf’s death is announced (29002910), as is the fact that strife may come to the people as a result (2911-3007). The
Franks, Frisians, Merovingians, and Swedes may all attack now that Beowulf is dead. As
his people prepare for Beowulf’s funeral, they look on his dead body as well as that of the
dragon, and the hoard is divided among all (3028-3136). His people prepare Beowulf’s
pyre (3137-3149). A Geatish woman sings a lament for him and sings of her fears of the
dark days to come (3150-3155). This is an important and evocative passage, one that
foreshadows the wretched future of Beowulf’s people. It also connects the lamenting
woman with Hildeburh, as they both perform a lament, a role carried out by women and
poets. As Beowulf wished, his people build a barrow for him and place some of the
dragon’s treasure within it, “where it yet remains, just as useless to men as it was before”
(3156-3166). Compare the descriptions and significance of treasures and goods in the
first 31 sections with those in the dragon episode. Beowulf’s thanes encircle the barrow
and offer words of praise (3169-3182). Consider the last words of the text: “of all the
kings of the world … [he] was the most eager for fame” (3180-3183). What does this say
about Beowulf?
Questions for Discussion
1.
Does Beowulf go to Heaven or to Valhalla? According to his culture and the
examples given to us by the text, is Beowulf a good warrior? A good king?
2.
What is the significance of lineage and kinship in the poem?
3.
What is the importance of armor and weaponry in the poem? How might it connect
to ideas about lineage and kinship?
4.
Why might a Christian poet write a poem about a pagan culture? How is
Christianity contrasted with paganism in the poem? Are some practices, elements,
terminology, values, or characters clearly Christian or clearly pagan? Which are
ambiguous? What is the effect upon the reader?
5.
What does the text present as “good” and “evil”? Are we able to feel any empathy
for any of the three monsters, or are they unambiguously “evil”?
6.
How do women fit into the heroic world? How do they comment upon it?
The publisher gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Allisandra Paschkowiak, of
Westfield State College, for the preparation of the draft material.