THE PRESENTATION OF SELF
1
IN
EVERYDAY LIFE
ERVING GOFFMAN
University o f Edinburgh
Social Sciences Research Centre
Price : Ten Shillings
THE PRESENTATION OF SELF
IN
EVERYDAY LIFE
ERVING GOFFMAN
University o f Edinburgh
Social Sciences Research Centre
$9 George Square, Edinburgh S
Monograph No. 2
1956
o
M a s k s are a r r e s t e d e x p r e s s i o n s and a d m irab le e c h o e s of
f e e lin g , a t o n c e f a ith fu l, d i s c r e e t , a n d s u p e r l a t i v e .
L iv in g
t h i n g s in c o n t a c t with th e a ir must a c q u i r e a c u t ic l e , and it i s
not u rg e d a g a i n s t c u t i c l e s th a t th e y are not h e a r t s ; y e t som e
p h i l o s o p h e r s s e e m to be a ngry w ith im a g e s for not b ein g th in g s ,
a n d w ith w ords for no t b e in g f e e lin g s . Words and im a g e s are
l ik e s h e l l s , no l e s s in te g r a l p a r t s o f n a tu re th a n a re th e su b ­
s t a n c e s th e y c o v e r , but b e t te r a d d r e s s e d to the e y e a n d more
o p e n to o b s e r v a tio n . I w ould not sa y th a t s u b s t a n c e e x i s t s for
th e s a k e of a p p e a r a n c e , or f a c e s for the s a k e of m a sk s, or the
p a s s i o n s for the s a k e o f p o etry a n d virtu e . N oth in g a r i s e s in
n a tu re for th e s a k e o f a n y th in g e l s e ;
a ll t h e s e p h a s e s and
p r o d u c ts are in v o lv e d e q u a l l y in th e round o f e x i s t e n c e .............
G eorg e S a n ta y a n a 1
1 S o lilo q u ie s in E n g la n d
1922), p p . 131-132.
and
L a te r S o lilo q u ie s
(New York: S cribners,
A CK N O W LED G EM EN T S
T h e re p o r t p r e s e n t e d h ere w a s d e v e lo p e d in c o n n e c tio n with
a stu d y of i n te r a c t io n u n d e r ta k e n for th e D epartm ent of Social
A n th ropolo gy and t h e S ocia l S c i e n c e s R e s e a r c h Com m ittee of
th e U n iv e r s ity of E dinbu rgh and a stu d y o f s o c i a l s tr a t i f i c a t i o n
s u p p o r te d by a F o rd F o u n d a tio n gran t d ir e c te d by P r o f e s s o r
E. A. S h i l s a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C h ic a g o . I am grateful to t h e s e
s o u r c e s of g u i d a n c e an d support.
I would l i k e to e x p r e s s
t h a n k s to my t e a c h e r s C. W. M .H a rt, W. L. Warner, an d E. C.
H u g h e s . [ w ant, too, to th a n k E l i z a b e t h B ott, J a m e s L itt le jo h n ,
a n d E d w ard B a n fie ld , who h e lp e d me at the b eg in n in g of th e
stu d y , and f e ll o w - s tu d e n ts o f o c c u p a t i o n s a t th e U n iv e r sity o f
C h ic a g o who h e l p e d me la te r . Without th e c o l la b o r a t io n of my
w ife, A n g e lic a S. Goffman, t h i s rep ort would not h a v e been
w ritten.
PREFACE
1
m ean t h i s report to s e r v e a s a sort of handbook d e t a il in g
o n e s o c io lo g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e from w hich s o c ia l lif e c a n be
s t u d i e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h e kind o f s o c i a l lif e th a r i s o r g a n is e d
w ith in t h e p h y s i c a l c o n f in e s of a b u ild in g or p lant. A s e t of
f e a t u r e s w ill be d e s c r ib e d w hich to g e th e r form a framework th a t
c a n be a p p l ie d to any c o n c r e te s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n t, be it
do m e s tic , i n d u s t r i a l , or com m ercial.
T h e p e r s p e c t i v e em ployed in t h i s report i s th a t of th e t h e a t ­
rical p erfo rm an ce ; th e p r i n c i p l e s deriv e d a r e dram aturgical
o n e s . I s h a ll c o n s i d e r th e way in which th e in d iv id u a l in ordin ­
ary work s i t u a t i o n s p r e s e n t s h im s e lf and h i s a c t i v i t y to o th e rs ,
th e w a y s in w hich he g u id e s and c o n t r o l s th e im p r e s s io n th e y
form of him, and th e k in d s o f t h i n g s h e may an d may not do
w hile s u s t a i n i n g h i s p erform ance before them . In u sin g t h i s
model I will attem p t not to make lig h t of i t s o b v io u s in a d e q u a ­
c i e s . T h e s t a g e p r e s e n t s t h i n g s th a t are m a k e - b e lie v e ; p resum ­
ab ly life p r e s e n t s th i n g s th a t are rea l a n d s o m e tim e s not well
rehearsed.
More im portant, p e r h a p s , on th e s ta g e one p la y e r
» r e s e n t s h im s e lf in th e g u is e of a c h a ^ . c t e r to c h a r a c t e r s pro­
je c te d by o th e r p l a y e r s ; th e a u d i e n c e c o n s t i t u t e s a th ird party
to t h e i n t e r a c t i o n —o n e that i s e s s e n t i a l and yet, if t h e s t a g e
perfo rm an ce were re a l, o n e th a t would not be th e re . In re a l life,
th e t h r e e p a r t i e s are c o m p re s s e d into t w o ; th e p a rt o n e in d i­
v id u a l p l a y s i s ta ilo r e d to th e p a r ts p la y e d by th e o t h e r s pre­
s e n t , and yet t h e s e o th e rs a l s o c o n s t i t u t e t h e a u d i e n c e . Still
oth e r i n a d e q u a c i e s in t h i s model will be c o n s id e r e d la ter.
T h e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia ls u se d in t h i s stu d y are of mixed
s t a t u s : som e are ta k e n from r e s p e c t a b l e r e s e a r c h e s w here q u a l­
ified g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s are given c o n c e r n in g r e li a b ly re c o rd e d
r e g u l a r i t i e s ; some are ta k e n from informal mem oirs w ritten by
colourful p e o p l e ; many fall in betw een. T h e j u s t if i c a tio n for
t h i s ap p ro a c h ( a s I t a k e to be th e ju s t i f i c a t i o n for Simmei’ s
also) i s th a t th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s to g e th er fit into a co h e ren t frame­
work that t i e s to g e th e r b i t s of e x p e r ie n c e the r e a d e r h a s a lre a d y
had and p r o v id e s th e stu d e n t with a guide worth t e s t i n g in c a s e s t u d i e s ’of i n s t itu ti o n a l s o c ia l life.
T h e framework i s p r e s e n te d in lo g ic a l s t e p s .
T h e intro­
duction i s n e c e s s a r i l v a b s t r a c t and may be skip ped.
TABLE
OF CO N TEKTS
PA G E
A ck n o w led g em en ts
P reface
'N T R O D U C T IO N
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1
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10
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47
CHAP.
i
II
PERFORMANCES
TEAMS
ill
REGIONS
iV
DISCREPA N T
V
VI
VII
AN D
REGION
ROLES
C O M M U N IC A TIO N
THE
ARTS
OF
CON CLU SION
BEHAVIOUR
OUT
OF
...
66
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87
...
107
MANAGEMENT ...
132
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152
I M P R E S S IO N
CHARACTER
IN T R O D U CTIO N
When a n in d iv id u a l e n t e r s t h e p r e s e n c e of o th e r s , th e y
com m only s e e k to a c q u i r e inform atio n a b o u t him or to bring in to
p la y inform ation a b o u t him a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e d . T h e y w ill be
i n t e r e s t e d in h i s g e n e r a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , h is c o n c e p t io n
o f s e l f , h i s a t t i t u d e tow ard them , h i s c o m p e te n c e , h i s tr u s t­
w o r t h in e s s , e t c . A lthough so m e of th is in form ation s e e m s to be
s o u g h t a lm o st a s a n end in i t s e l f , th e re a r e u s u a lly q u ite p r a c ­
t i c a l r e a s o n s for a c q u ir in g it. Inform ation a b o u t th e in d iv id u a l
h e l p s to d e f in e th e s i t u a t i o n , e n a b l i n g o th e rs to know in ad­
v a n c e w hat he w ill e x p e c t of them and w h a t th e y may e x p e c t of
him. Inform ed in t h e s e w a y s , th e o t h e r s w ill know how b e s t to
a c t in o r d e r to c a ll forth a d e s ir e d r e s p o n s e from him.
F o r t h o s e p r e s e n t , many s o u r c e s of in fo rm atio n bec om e
a c c e s s i b l e an d many c a r r i e r s (or ' s i g n - v e h i c l e s ’) bec om e a v a i l ­
a b l e for c o n v e y in g t h i s inform ation. If u n a c q u a i n te d w ith th e
in d iv id u a l, o b s e r v e r s c a n g le a n c l u e s from h i s c o n d u c t an d
a p p e a r a n c e w h ich a llo w them to a pp ly th e ir p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e
with i n d i v i d u a l s roughly s im ila r to th e o n e befo re them or, more
im portant, to a p p ly u n t e s t e d s t e r e o t y p e s to him. T h e y c a n a l s o
a s s u m e from p a s t e x p e r ie n c e th a t only i n d i v i d u a l s o f a p a r ti c ­
u la r kind a r e l ik e ly to be found in a g iv e n s o c i a l s e ttin g . T h ey
c a n r e ly o n w h a t th e in d iv id u a l s a y s ab o u t h i m s e l f or on do c­
u m e n tary e v i d e n c e he p r o v id e s a s to who and w hat he i s . If
ttiey know, or know of, th e in d iv id u a l by v irtu e of e x p e r ie n c e
prior to t h e in te r a c t io n , th e y c a n r e ly on a s s u m p t i o n s a s to th e
p e r s i s t e n c e an d g e n e r a lit y o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l t r a i t s a s a m e a n s
of p r e d ic tin g h i s p r e s e n t an d future beh a v io u r.
H o w ev er, d u rin g th e p e r io d in w hich th e in d iv id u a l i s in th e
im m e d ia te p r e s e n c e of t h e o th e r s , few e v e n t s may o c c u r w hich
d i r e c t l y p ro v id e the o t h e r s w ith the c o n c l u s i v e in fo n n a tio n they
will n e e d if th e y a r e to d i r e c t w is e ly th e ir own a c t i v i t y . Many
c r u c ia l f a c t s l i e b e yond th e tim e and p l a c e of i n te r a c t io n or l i e
c o n c e a l e d w ithin it.
For- ex a m p le , th e ' t r u e ’ o r ’ r e a l ’ a t t i ­
tu d e s , b e l ie f s , a n d e m o tio n s o f th e in d iv id u a l c a n be a s c e r t ­
a i n e d o n ly in d ir e c tly , through h i s a v o w a l s or through what
1
a p p e a r s t o be in v o lu n ta ry e x p r e s s i v e behaviour.
S im ilarly,
if th e in d iv id u a l o f f e r s t h e o t h e r s a p ro d u c t or s e r v ic e , they w ill
o f te n find th a t d u rin g the in te r a c t io n th e re will be no tim e an d
p l a c e im m e d ia te ly a v a i l a b l e for e a t i n g th e pudd in g t h a t the
p roof c a n b e found in. T h e y will b e fo rc ed to a c c e p t s o m e
e v e n t s a s c o n v e n tio n a l or n a tu ra l s i g n s of s o m e th in g not d i r e c t ­
l y a v a i l a b l e to th e s e n s e s . In I c h h e i s e r ’ s t e r m s 1, t h e in d i­
vidu al w ill h a v e to a c t so th a t h e in te n tio n a lly or u n in te n tio n ­
a l ly expresses h im s e lf , and th e o t h e r s will in turn h a v e to be
impressed in so m e way by him.
We find, th e n , th a t w hen th e ind iv id u al i s in t h e im m e d ia te
p r e s e n c e o f o th e rs , h is a c t i v i t y w ill h a v e a p r o m isso r y c h a r ­
a c te r. T h e o t h e r s a r e l i k e l y to find th a t th e y m u st a c c e p t the
in d iv id u a l o n f a ith , offe rin g him a ju st retu rn w h ile h e i s p re ­
s e n t before them in e x c h a n g e for s o m e th in g w h o s e tru e v a lu e
w ill not be e s t a b l i s h e d u n til afte r h e h a s left th e ir p r e s e n c e .
(Of c o u r s e , th e o t h e r s a l s o liv e by in f e r e n c e in th e ir d e a l i n g s
with th e p h y s i c a l world, but it i s only in th e world of s o c i a l
i n te r a c t io n th a t th e o b j e c t s ab o u t which th e y m ak e i n f e r e n c e s
will p u r p o s e ly f a c i l i t a t e a n d h inde r t h i s in f e r e n tia l p r o c e s s .)
T h e s e c u r i t y th a t they j u s t i f i a b l y feel in m aking in f e r e n c e s
ab o u t th e in d iv id u a l w ill vary, of c o u r s e , d e p e n d in g on suc h
f a c t o r s a s th e am ount of p r e v io u s inform ation th e y p o s s e s s
a b o u t him, but no am ount of s u c h p a s t e v i d e n c e c a n e n t ir e ly
o b v i a t e th e n e c e s s i t y of a c tin g on th e b a s i s o f i n f e r e n c e s .
L e t u s now tu rn from t h e o t h e r s to th e p o in t of v iew of the
in d iv id u a l who p r e s e n t s h im s e lf before them . H e may w is h them
to th in k highly of him, or t o think th a t he th i n k s h ighly of them,
or to p e r c e iv e how in f a c t h e f e e ls toward them, or to o b ta in no
c le a r - c u t i m p r e s s i o n ; he may w ish to e n s u r e s u f f i c ie n t harmony
s o th a t the i n te r a c t io n c a n be s u s t a i n e d , or to d efrau d , g e t rid
of, c o n f u s e , m is le a d , a n t a g o n iz e , or in s u lt them . R e g a r d l e s s o f
th e p a r ti c u la r o b j e c t i v e w hich th e in d iv id u al h a s in mind and of
h i s m otive for h a v in g t h i s o b j e c t i v e , it will be in h i s i n t e r e s t s
to c o n tro l the c o n d u c t of th e o th e r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e ir r e s p o n s i v e
t r e a tm e n t of him. 2 T h i s control is a c h ie v e d la rg e ly by in flu ­
e n c in g t h e d e f in itio n of th e s i t u a t i o n w hich the o th e r s com e to
fo rm u late , and h e c a n in f lu e n c e t h i s d e f in itio n by e x p r e s s i n g
h im s e lf in s u c h a way a s to g iv e them th e kind o f im p r e s s io n
' G u s t a v I c h e i s e r , ‘ M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in Human R e l a t i o n s ' , S u p plem en t
to T h e A m e r ic a n J o u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , LV, (S e ptem b er, 1949) p p . 6- 7.
a i ! e r e 1 o w e m uch t o an u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r by Tom B u r n s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of
E din burgh, w h ere the argum en t i s p r e s e n t e d r h at in a l l i n t e r a c t i o n a b a s i c
u n d e r ly in g th em e i s th e d e s i r e of e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t to g u i d e a n d co n tro l th e
r e s p o n s e m ad e by the o t h e r s p r e s e n t .
2
th a t w ill l e a d them to a c t v o lu n ta r ily in a c c o r d a n c e with h i s
ow n pla n . T h u s , w hen an i n d iv i d u a l a p p e a r s in th e p r e s e n c e of
o t h e r s , t h e r e w ill u s u a l l y be so m e r e a s o n for him to m o b iliz e
h i s a c t i v i t y s o th a t it w ill c o n v e y a n im p r e s s io n to o t h e r s w hich
it i s in h i s i n t e r e s t s to c o n v e y .
I h a v e s a i d th a t when an in d iv id u a l a p p e a r s before o t h e r s
h i s a c t i o n s w ill in f lu e n c e th e d e f in itio n of th e s it u a ti o n w hich
th e y c o m e to h a v e .
S o m etim es th e in d iv id u a l will a c t in a
th o roughly c a l c u l a t i n g manner, e x p r e s s i n g h im s e lf in a given
way s o le ly in o rd e r to giv e th e kind of im p r e s s io n to o t h e r s th a t
i s lik e ly to e v o k e from them a s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e he is c o n c e r n ­
ed to o b ta in . Som etim es th e in d iv id u a l w ill be c a l c u l a t i n g in
h i s a c t i v i t y but be r e l a t i v e l y u n a w a re t h a t t h i s is th e c a s e .
Som etim es he w ill in te n tio n a lly an d c o n s c i o u s l y e x p r e s s him­
s e l f in a p a r ti c u la r way, but c h i e f ly b e c a u s e the tr a d itio n of h is
group or s o c i a l s t a t u s r e q u ir e t h is kind of e x p r e s s i o n an d not
b e c a u s e o f an y p a r ti c u la r r e s p o n s e (o th e r th a n v ag ue a c c e p t ­
a n c e or approval) th a t i s l ik e ly to be e v o k e d from th o s e im­
p r e s s e d by t h e e x p r e s s i o n .
S om etim es the tr a d i tio n s o f an
i n d iv i d u a l’s ro le w ill l e a d him to g iv e a w e ll-d e s ig n e d im p r e s s ­
ion of a p a r t i c u l a r kind and y e t he may be n e i th e r c o n s c i o u s l y
nor u n c o n s c io u s l y d i s p o s e d to c r e a t e s u c h an im p re ssio n . T h e
o t h e r s , in th e ir turn, may be s u i t a b l y im p r e s s e d by th e in d iv i d ­
u a l ’s e ff o rts to c o n v e y s o m e th in g , or may s c e p t i c a l l y ex am ine
a s p e c t s of h i s a c t i v i t y o f w h o se s i g n i f i c a n c e he i s not a w a re ,
o r may m is u n d e r s ta n d th e s i t u a t i o n and com e to c o n c l u s i o n s
t h a t are w arra n te d n e ith e r by th e in d iv i d u a l’s in te n t nor by the
f a c t s . In an y c a s e , in s o far a s the o t h e r s a c t as i f th e in d iv i d ­
ual had co n v e y e d a p a r t i c u l a r im p r e s s io n , we may ta k e a f u n c t­
ional or p r a g m a tic view an d s a y t h a t th e in d iv id u a l h a s ’ e f f e c t ­
i v e l y ’ p r o je c te d a g ive n d e f in i tio n of th e s i t u a t i o n and ' e f f e c t ­
i v e l y ’ f o s te r e d th e u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t a g iv e n s t a t e o f a f f a ir s
o b ta in s .
When w e a llo w th a t t h e in d iv id u a l p r o j e c t s a d e f in itio n o f
the s i t u a ti o n w hen he a p p e a r s before o th e rs , w e must a l s o s e e
chat th e o th e r s , how ever p a s s i v e their ro le may s e e m to be, will
t h e m s e l v e s e f f e c t i v e l y p r o j e c t a d e f in itio n of the s i t u a t i o n by
v irtu e o f th e ir r e s p o n s e to t h e in d iv id u a l and by virtu e of any
l i n e s of a c tio n th e y i n i t i a t e to him. O rd in arily we find th a t th e
d e f in i tio n s of th e s i t u a t i o n p r o je c te d by th e s e v e r a l d iffe ren t
p a r t i c i p a n t s are s u f f i c i e n t l y a ttu n e d to o n e a n o th e r s o t h a t open
c o n t r a d ic t io n will not occ u r. I do not mean th a t th e re will be
th e kind of c o n s e n s u s th a t a r i s e s w hen e a c h in d iv id u a l p r e s e n t
c a n d id ly e x p r e s s e s w hat he r e a l l y f e e l s an d h o n e s tly a g r e e s
3
with th e e x p r e s s e d f e e l i n g s of th e o t h e r s p r e s e n t. T h i s kind o f
harm ony i s an o p ti m i s t i c id e a l an d in a n y c a s e n o t n e c e s s a r y
for th e sm ooth w orking of s o c i e t y . R a the r, e a c h p a r ti c ip a n t i s
e x p e c t e d to s u p p r e s s h i s im m e d ia te h e a r t f e l t f e e lin g s , c o n v e y ­
in g a view of the s i t u a t i o n w hich he f e e l s th e o t h e r s w ill be
a b l e to find a t l e a s t te m p o rarily a c c e p t a b l e . T h e m a in te n a n c e
o f t h i s s u r f a c e of ag re em e n t, th is v e n e e r of c o n s e n s u s , i s
f a c i l i t a t e d by e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t c o n c e a l i n g h i s own w a n ts b e h in d
s t a t e m e n t s w hich a s s e r t v a l u e s to w hich ev e ry o n e p r e s e n t is
l i k e l y to g iv e l i p - s e r v i c e . F u rth e r, th e r e i s u s u a lly a k in d of
d iv is io n of d e f in itio n a l la b o u r. E ac h p a r ti c ip a n t i s a l lo w e d to
e s t a b l i s h th e t e n t a t i v e o f f ic ia l ru lin g r e g a r d in g m a tte rs w hich
a r e v ita l to him b a t not im m e d ia te ly im portant to o th e rs , e .g .,
th e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s by w hich he a c c o u n t s for
h i s p a s t a c t i v i t y ; in e x c h a n g e for t h i s c o u r t e s y h e r e m a in s
s i l e n t or non-com m ittal on m a tte r s im p o rta n t to o th e r s but not
im m e d ia te ly im p ortant to him. We h a v e th e n a kind of i n t e r ­
a c t i o n a l modus vivendi.
T o g e t h e r t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c o n t r i b u te to
a s i n g l e o v e ra ll d e f in i tio n o f th e s i t u a t i o n w hich in v o lv e s n o t
s o much a r e a l a g re e m e n t a s to w hat e x i s t s but r a th e r a r e a l
ag r e e m e n t a s to w hose c l a i m s c o n c e r n in g what i s s u e s w ill b e
tem porarily honoured. R e a l a g r e e m e n t will a l s o e x i s t c o n c e m the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a v o id in g an o pen c o n f li c t o f d e f i n i t i o n s of
the s i t u a t i o n . 1 L e t u s refer to t h is le v e l of a g re e m e n t a s a
' w o r k i n g c o n s e n s u s ’. It i s to be u n d e r s to o d t h a t t h e w orking
c o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d in o n e i n te r a c t io n s e t t i n g will be q u i t e
d if fe r e n t in c o n t e n t from th e w orking c o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d in a
d iffe ren t ty p e o f s e ttin g . T h u s , b e tw e e n two f r ie n d s a t lu n c h , a
r e c ip ro c a l show of a f f e c tio n , r e s p e c t , and c o n c e r n for t h e o th e r
i s m a in ta in e d . In s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s , on t h e o th e r hand, th e
s p e c i a l i s t o f te n m a i n t a i n s a n im a g e of d i s i n t e r e s t e d in v o lv e ment in th e problem o f t h e c l i e n t , w hile t h e c l i e n t r e s p o n d s with
a show of r e s p e c t for th e c o m p e t e n c e and in te g r ity of t h e s p e c ­
i a l i s t . R e g a r d l e s s o f s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s in c o n t e n t, h o w ev e r, t h e
g en e ral form of t h e s e w orking a r r a n g e m e n ts i s th e sam e.
In n o tin g th e te n d e n c y for a p a r t i c i p a n t to a c c e p t th e d e f in ­
i t i o n a l c l a i m s m a d e by t h e o t h e r s p r e s e n t , we c a n a p p r e c i a t e
the c r u c ia l im p o r ta n c e of t h e -information t h a t th e in d iv id u a l
initially p o s s e s s e s or a c q u i r e s c o n c e r n in g h i s fellow p a r t i c i ­
1 An in t e r a c t i o n c a n be p u r p o s e l y s e t up a s a tim e a n d p l a c e for v o i c i n g
d i f f e r e n c e s in o p in io n , but in s u c h c a s e s p a r t i c i p a n t s m ust be c a r e f u l to
a g r e e no t to d i s a g r e e o n t h e proper t o n e o f v o i c c , v o c a b u l a r y , a n d d e g r e e o f
s e r i o u s n e s s in w h i c h a l l a r g u m e n t s a r e to b e p h r a s e d , an d up on t h e m u tu al
r e s p e c t w h ic h d i s a g r e e i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s m u s t c a r e f u l ly c o n t i n u e to e x p r e s s
to w a r d o n e a n o t h e r . T h i s d e b a t e r s ' or a c a d e m i c d ef i n i ti o n of th e s i t u a t i o n
may a l s o be s u d d e n l y a n d j u d i c i o u s l y in v o k e d a s a way of t r a n s l a t i n g a
s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t o f v i e w s into o ne t h a t c a n be h a n d l e d w i th in a framework
a c c e p ta b le to all p re se n t.
4
p a n t s , for it i s o n th e b a s i s o f t h i s in i t i a l in fo rm ation th a t t h e
in d i v i d u a l s t a r t s to d e f in e t h e s i t u a t i o n and s t a r t s to build up
l i n e s o f r e s p o n s i v e a c t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l ’s in it ia l p r o je c tio n
c o m m its him to w h a t h e i s p r o p o s i n g to be a n d r e q u i r e s him to
drop a ll p r e t e n c e s of b e in g o th e r th in g s . ■ A s t h e i n te r a c t io n
am ong th e p a r t i c i p a n t s p r o g r e s s e s , a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d if ic a ti o n s
i n t h i s in i t i a l in fo rm atio n al s t a t e w ill of c o u r s e o c c u r, -but i t i s
e s s e n t i a l th a t t h e s e l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n ts be r e l a t e d withouc c o n ­
tr a d i c t i o n to, and even b u ilt up from, t h e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s ta k e n
by t h e s e v e r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . It would seem th a t a n in d iv id u a l
c a n more e a s i l y m a k e a c h o i c e a s to w hat l i n e of tre a tm e n t to
dem and from an d e x te n d to th e o th e r s p r e s e n t a t th e b e g in n in g
o f a n e n c o u n te r th a n h e c a n a l te r t h e l i n e of tr e a tm e n t t h a t i s
b e in g p u r s u e d o n c e t h e in t e r a c t i o n i s u n derw ay.
In e v e r y d a y life , of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s a c l e a r u n d e r s ta n d in g
th a t f irs t i m p r e s s i o n s a r e im portan t. T h u s , t h e work a d j u s tm e n t
o f t h o s e in s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s will o fte n h in g e upon a c a p a c i t y
to s e i z e and hold t h e i n i t i a t i v e in t h e s e r v i c e r e la tio n , a c a p ­
a c i t y th a t w ill r e q u ir e s u b t l e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s o n th e p a rt of t h e
s e r v e r w hen h e i s of lo w e r s o c io - e c o n o m ic s t a t u s th a n h is
c l ie n t . W. F. Whyte s u g g e s t s th e w a i t r e s s a s a n e x a m p le :
T h e firs c p o i n t t h a t s t a n d s o u t i s t h a t t h e w a i t r e s s who b e a r s up
u n d e r p r e s s u r e d o e s n o t s im p ly r e s p o n d ro her c u s t o m e r s . S h e a c t s with
s o m e s k i l l to c o n tr o l t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . ] T h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n t o a s k when
w e l o o k a t t h e c u s t o m e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s , “ D o e s t h e w a i t r e s s g e t t h e jump
o n t h e c u s t o m e r , o r d o e s t h e c u s t o m e r g e t t h e jump on t h e w a i t r e s s ? ' 1
T h e s k ille d w a itr e s s r e a l i z e s the cru cial nature o f th is q u es tio n . . . .
T h e s k i l l e d w a i t r e s s t a c k l e s t h e c u s t o m e r w ith c o n f i d e n c e and
w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n .
Fo r e x a m p l e , s h e may find t h a t a n e w c u s t o m e r h a s
s e a t e d h i m s e l f b efo re s h e c o u l d c l e a r off t h e d irty d i s h e s a n d c h a n g e rhe
cloth.
He i s now l e a n i n g on t h e t a b l e s t u d y i n g t h e m enu .
She greets
h im , s a y s , “ May I c h a n g e th e co v e r , p l e a s e
and, w ith o u t w a itin g for
an a n s w e r , t a k e s h i s m e n u a w a y from him s o t h a t he m o v e s b ack from t h e
t a b l e , a n d s h e g o e s a b o u t h er work. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i s h a n d l e d p o lite ly
but firmly, a n d t h e r e i s n e v e r a n y q u e s t i o n a s to who i s in c h a r g e . 1
When t h e i n t e r a c t i o n th a t i s i n i t i a t e d by " f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s ”
i s i t s e l f m e re ly t h e in it ia l i n t e r a c t i o n in a n e x t e n d e d s e r i e s o f
i n t e r a c t i o n s in v o lv in g t h e s a m e p a r t i c i p a n t s , we s p e a k of
' 'g e t t i n g o ff on t h e right f o o t ” a n d feel th a t it i s c r u c ia l th a t we
do so . T h u s , o n e l e a r n s th a t s o m e t e a c h e r s t a k e t h e follow ing
v iew :
You c a n ' t e v e r ler th e m g e t t h e u p p e r h and on y ou o r y o u 'r e through.
So I s ta rt out tough.
T h e f i r s t day I g e t a new c l a s s in, I l e t them
know w h o ’s b o s s . . . .
Y ou 'v e go t to s t a r t oil t ou gh , t h e n y o u c a n e a s e
u p a s y ou go a l o n g .
If y o u s t a r t o u t e a s y - g o i n g , w h e n y ou t r y to g e t
t o ug h, t h e y ’ll j u s t l o o k a t y o u a nd l a u g h . 2
1 W. F . Whyte, 11 When Workers an d C u s t o m e r s M e e t , ” C h a p . VII, In d u stry
a m i S o c ie ty , e d . W . F . Whyte (N ew Y o r k : M cGraw-H ill, 1946), pp. 132-133? T e a c h e r i n t e r v ie w q u o te d by H ow ard S . B e ck er, " S o c i a l C l a s s V a r i a t i o n s
in r h e T e a c h e r - P u p i l R e l a t i o n s h i p , " Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l S o c io lo g y ,
XXV, 459.
5
S im ilarly, a t t e n d a n t s ih m ental i n s t i t u t i o n s may feel th a t if t h e
new p a t i e n t i s s h a rp ly put in h i s p l a c e th e f irs t day on th e ward
a n d m a d e to s e e who i s b o s s , much future d iffic u lty w ill be
p r e v e n te d . 1
G iv en t h e fac t th a t th e in d iv id u a l e f f e c tiv e ly p r o j e c t s a
d e fin itio n o f t h e s it u a ti o n when h e e n t e r s th e p r e s e n c e of
o th e r s , w e c a n a s s u m e th a t e v e n t s may o c c u r within th e in te r­
a c t i o n w hich c o n t r a d ic t , d is c r e d it, o r o th e r w is e throw doubt
upon t h i s p ro je c tio n . When t h e s e d i s r u p tiv e e v e n t s o cc u r, th e
in te r a c t io n i t s e l f may com e to a c o n f u s e d and e m b a r ra s s e d h a lt.
Some o f t h e a s s u m p tio n s upon which the r e s p o n s e s of the p a r­
t i c i p a n t s h ad b e e n p r e d ic a te d becom e u n te n a b le , and th e p a r ­
t i c i p a n t s find t h e m s e l v e s lo d g e d in a n in te r a c t io n for which th e
s i t u a t i o n h a s been wrongly d e fin e d and i s now no lo n g e r de­
fined. At s u c h m om ents th e in d iv id u a l w h o s e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a s
b ee n d is c r e d ite d may feel a s h a m e d w hile th e o t h e r s p r e s e n t may
f e e l h o s t i l e , and all th e p a r t i c i p a n t s may co m e t o feel ill at
e a s e , n o n p lu s s e d , our of c o u n te n a n c e , e m b a r ra s s e d , e x p e r ie n c ­
in g th e kind of an o m ie th a t i s g e n e ra te d w hen th e m inute social
s y s t e m o f f a c e - to - f a c e in te r a c tio n b r e a k s down.
In s t r e s s i n g t h e fact th a t th e in it ia l d e fin itio n of the s i t ­
u a tio n p r o je c te d by a n in d iv id u al t e n d s to p ro v id e a p la n for th e
c o - o p e ra tiv e a c tiv i ty th a t f o llo w s —in s t r e s s i n g t h i s a c tio n po in t
o f v ie w —we m u st n o t overlook th e c r u c ia l fac t th a t any pro­
j e c t e d d e f in itio n o f th e s i t u a ti o n a l s o h a s a d i s t i n c t i v e moral
c h a r a c t e r . It i s t h i s moral c h a r a c t e r of p r o je c tio n s t h a t will
c h i e f ly c o n c e r n u s in t h i s report. S o cie ty is o r g a n iz e d on th e
p r in c i p le th a t any in d iv id u a l who p o s s e s s e s c e r ta in s o c i a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s a moral right to e x p e c t th a t o t h e r s will
v a l u e a n d tr e a t him in a co rre sp o n d in g ly a p p r o p r ia te way.
C o n n e c te d with t h i s p r in c ip le i s a se c o n d , nam ely th a t an indi­
v id u a l who im p lic itly .o r e x p l ic i tly s i g n i f i e s th a t he h a s c e r ta in
s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ought to h a v e th is claim honoured by
o t h e r s a n d o u g h t in f a c t t o be w hat h e c l a i m s h e is. In c o n ­
s e q u e n c e , when a n in d iv id u al p r o j e c t s a d e f in itio n of th e s i t ­
u a tio n and th e re b y m a k e s an im p licit or e x p l ic i t claim to be a
p e r s o n of a p a r ti c u la r kind, he a u t o m a tic a lly e x e r t s a moral
dem and upon th e o th e rs , o b lig i n g them to v a l u e and tr e a t him in
t h e m anner th a t p e r s o n s of h i s kind h a v e a right to e x p e c t. H e
a l s o im p lic itly fo rg o e s all c l a im s to b e th in g s h e d o e s not
a p p e a r to b e 2 and h e n c e fo rg o e s th e treatm ent th a t would be
1 H arold T a x e l , 'A u th o r ity S tru c tu re in a Mental H o s p it a l Ward’, U n p u b lish e d
M a s t e r ’ s t h e s i s , D ep artm en t o f S ociolo gy , U n iv e r sity o f C h i c a g o , 19532 T h i a r o l e o f th e w i t n e s s in l im itin g what i t i s th e i n d i v i d u a l c a n b e h a s
b e e n s t r e s s e d by E x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , who s e e ic a s a b a s i c th r e a t ro i n d iv id u a l
fre edom . S e e J e a n - P a u l S artre ; L ’e tr e e t le n e a n t ( P a r i s : Gallim ard, 1948),
p. 319 ff.
6
ap p r o p r ia te for s u c h in d i v i d u a l s TKv. o t h e r s find, t h e n , c h i t th e
in d iv i d u a l h a s inform ed them a s to whac i s and a s to what ^hey
ought to s e e a s t h e ' i s ’.
We c a n n o t ju d g e th e im p o rta n c e of d e f in itio n a l d is r u p tio n s
by th e fre<|'iency w ith w hich th e y occ ur, for a p p a r e n tly they
n-rmld o c c u r more fre q u e n tly w ere noc c o n s t a n t p r e c a u t i o n s
ta k en .
We find th a t p r e v e n tiv e p r a c t i c e s a r e c o n s t a n t l y em­
p lo y e d to u.void t h e s e e m b a r r a s s m e n ts and th a t c o r r e c t i v e p r a c ­
t i c e s a re c o n s t a n t l y e m p lo y e d to c o m p e n s a t e for d i s c r e d i t i n g
o c c u r r e n c e s th a t h a v e not been s u c c e s s f u l l y a v o id e d . When th e
i n d iv id u a l e m p lo y s t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s to p r o t e c t h i s
own p r o je c tio n s , we m ay refer to them a s ' d e f e n s i v e p r a c ­
t i c e s ’ ; w hen a p a r t i c i p a n t e m p lo y s them to s a v e th e d e f in i tio n
of th e s i t u a t i o n p r o j e c t e d by a n o th e r , we s p e a k o f ' p r o t e c t i v e
p r a c t i c e s ’ o r ' t a c t ’. T o g e t h e r , ’d e f e n s i v e and p r o te c tiv e p r a c ­
t i c e s c o m p ris e th e t e c h n i q u e s em plo yed to s a fe g u a r d th e im­
p r e s s i o n f o s te r e d by a n in d iv id u a l d uring h i s p r e s e n c e b efo re
o th e rs . It s h o u ld be a d d e d th a t w hile we a r e p e r h a p s re a d y to
s e e th a t no f o s te r e d i m p r e s s io n would s u r v iv e if d e f e n s i v e
p r a c t i c e s w ere not e m p lo y e d , we a re p e r h a p s l e s s r e a d y to s e e
t h a t few i m p r e s s i o n s c o u ld s u r v iv e i f t h o s e who r e c e iv e d th e
i m p r e s s io n did n o t e x e r t t a c t in th e ir re c e p tio n of it.
In a d d itio n to th e f a c t th a t p r e c a u t i o n s a re t a k e n to p re v e n t
d isr u p tio n of p r o je c te d d e f in i tio n s , we may a l s o n o te th a t an
i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t in t h e s e d i s r u p t i o n s co m e s to p la y a s ig n i f i ­
c a n t role in t h e s o c i a l lif e of th e group. P r a c t i c a l j o k e s an d
s o c i a l g a m e s a re p la y e d in w hich e m b a r r a s s m e n ts which a r e to
b e ta k e n u n s e r i o u s l y a r e p u r p o s e ly e n g i n e e r e d . 1 P h a n t a s i e s
a r e c r e a t e d in w hich d e v a s t a t i n g e x p o s u r e s o c c u r . A n e c d o te s
from th e p a s t —re a l, em b ro id ered, or f i c t i t i o u s —a r e to ld and re­
to ld , d e t a il in g d i s r u p t i o n s w hich o cc u rre d , a lm o s t o c c u r re d , o r
o c c u rre d and w ere a d m irab ly re s o lv e d . T h e r e s e e m s to be no
grouping which d o e s not hav e a r ea d y su p p ly of t h e s e gam es,
r e v e r ie s , an d c a u tio n a r y t a l e s , to be u s e d a s a s o u r c e of hum­
our, a c a t h a r s i s for a n x i e t i e s , and a s a n c ti o n for in d u c in g in d i­
v id u a ls to be m o d e st in th e ir c la im s an d r e a s o n a b l e in th e ir
p r o je c te d e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e in d iv id ual m a y te ll h im s e lf through
d re a m s o f g e t tin g in to i m p o s s ib le p o s i t i o n s . F a m i l i e s te ll of
th e tim e a g u e s t got h i s d a t e s mixed and a rriv e d when n e i th e r
th e h o u s e nor an y o n e in it w a s r ea d y for him. J o u r n a l i s t s te ll
of tim e s when a n a ll-to o -m e a n in g fu l m is p rin t o cc u rre d , an d th e
p a p e r ’s a s s u m p tio n of o b j e c t i v i t y or decorum w a s hum orously
d i s c r e d ite d . P u b l i c S e r v a n ts te ll of tim es a c l i e n t r id ic u lo u s ly
1 E rv in g G o f fm in , 'C o m m u n i c a ti o n C o n d u c t in an I s l a n d C o m m u n i t y ’ (Un­
p u b l i s h e d P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D ep artm en t of S o c i o l o g y , U n iv e r sity of
C h i c a g o , 1953), p p . 319-327.
7
m is-u n d e rsto o d form i n s t r u c t i o n s , g iving a n s w e r s which im plied
;m u n a n t ic i p a te d a n d b iz a r r e d e f in itio n of t h e s i t u a t i o n . 1 S e a ­
men, w h o se hom e aw ay from home i s r ig o ro u s ly he-m an, te ll
s t o r i e s of com ing bac k home and in a d v e rte n tly a s k in g mother to
" p a s s th e f-cking b u t t e r ” . 2 D ip lo m a ts tell of the tim e a n e a r ­
s ig h t e d Q uee n a s k e d a r e p u b li c a n a m b a s s a d o r about th e h e a lth
of h i s K ing. 3
T o su m m arize , th e n , I a s s u m e that when an in d iv id u al
a p p e a r s before o t h e r s h e will h a v e many m o tiv e s for trying to
control t h e im p r e s s io n they r e c e iv e of the s itu a tio n .
T h is
report i s c o n c e r n e d with so m e of the common te c h n iq u e s th a t
i n t e r a c t a n t s em ploy to s u s t a i n su c h i m p r e s s io n s and with so m e
o f th e common c o n t i n g e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d with the em ploym ent of
t h e s e te c h n iq u e s . T h e s p e c if ic c o n t e n t of any a c tiv i ty p r e s e n t ­
ed by t h e in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a n t , o r the role it p l.\y s in th e
in te r d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t i e s of an on-going s o c ia l s y s t e m , will not
be at i s s u e ; I s h a ll be c o n c e r n e d on ly with th e p a r t i c i p a n t ’s
d ram a turg ica l p ro b le m s of p r e s e n tin g the a c tiv ity before o th e rs .
T h e i s s u e s d e a lt with by s ta g e - c r a f t an d s ta g e - m a n a g e m e n t a re
s o m e tim e s triv ia l but th e y a r e q u ite g e n e r a l ; they seem to
o c c u r e v e ry w h e re in so c ia l life, prov id in g a c le a r- c u t d im e n sion
for formal s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s .
It will be c o n v e n ie n t to end t h i s in troduc tion with som e
d e f in i tio n s th a t a r e im plied in whac h as gone befo re an.) r e ­
quired for what i s to follow. For t h e pu rp o se of th is report,
i n te r a c t io n ( th a t .is, f a c e - to - f a c e in te r a c tio n ) may be roughly
•Jctined a s th e r e c ip r o c a l in f lu e n c e of i n d iv i d u a ls upon one
a n o t h e r ’s a c t i o n s when in one a n o t h e r ’s im m edia te p h y s ic a l
p r e s e n c e . An in te r a c t io n may be defin e d a s all th e in te r a c t io n
which o c c u r s th rou ghout any one o c c a s io n when a given s e t of
in d iv i d u a ls a r e in one a n o t h e r ’s c o n t in u o u s p r e s e n c e ; the term
' a n e n c o u n t e r ’ would do a s well.
A ‘ p e r f o r m a n c e ’ may be
d e fin e d a s all th e a c tiv i ty of a given p a rtic ip a n t on a given
o c c a s i o n which s e r v e s to in f lu e n c e in any way any of th e o th e r
p a r t i c i p a n t s . T a k in g a p a r t i c u l a r p a r tic ip a n t and h i s perform ­
a n c e a s a b a s i c point of r e f e r e n c e , we may refer ro t h o s e who
c o n trib u te t h e o th e r p e rf o rm a n c e s a s th e a u d i e n c e , o b s e r v e r s ,
or c o - p a r ti c ip a n ts . T h e p r e - e s t a b lis h e d p a tte r n of a c tio n which
i s unfolded during a p e rfo rm an ce and which may be p r e s e n t e d or
1 P e t e r lilau , ' D y n a m ic s of B u r e a u c r a c y ' ( P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . D epartm ent of
Socio lo g y , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r sity , forthcoming, U n iv er sity of C h i c a g o P t c s s ) ,
pp. 127-129.
2 ^’n l t e r M. b e a t t i e , J r . , ' T h e M erchant S e a m a n ' (U n p u b l i s h e d M.A .
Report, D ep artm en t of S o c io lo g y , U niv ersity of Cliic.iRo, 1950), |>. 35.
3 Sir l-'redcrick P o n s o n b y ,
D utton, 1952), p. 46.
R e c o lle c tio n s
8
o f T h ree
R e ie n s
(N ew York:
p la y e d through on o th e r o c c a s i o n s may be c a l l e d a ' p a r t ’ or
‘ r o u t i n e ’. 1 T h e s e s i t u a ti o n a l te rm s c a n e a s i l y be r e l a t e d to
c o n v e n tio n a l s tr u c t u ra l o n e s . When an in d iv id u al or perform er
p l a y s th e s a m e part to t h e s a m e a u d i e n c e o n d iffe ren t o c c a s ­
io n s , -a s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s l ik e ly to a r i s e . D efining s o c ia l
ro le a s t h e e n a c tm e n t o f r ig h ts and d u t i e s a t ta c h e d to a given
s t a t u s , 'We ca n sa y th a t a s o c i a l role will in v o lv e one or more
p a r t s and th a t e a c h o f t h e s e diffe ren t p a r t s may be p r e s e n t e d by
th e perform er on a s e r i e s o f o c c a s i o n s to th e s a m e k i n d s of
a u d i e n c e or to an a u d i e n c e o f th e s a m e p e r s o n s .
1 F o r c o m m e n ts on t h e i m p o rta n c e of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n a ro u tin e o f
i n t e r a c t i o n and any p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e when t h i s r o u tin e i s p l a y e d through,
s e e J o h n von Neu m an n a n d O s k a r M o rgenstern, T he T h eo ry o f G am es ana
E c o n o m ic B e h a v io u r (2nd e d . ; P .- i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1947), p. 49.
CHAPTER I
PER F O R M A N C ES
Belief in the Part One is Playing
When a n in d ividu al p l a y s a part h e im p lic itly r e q u e s t s h is
o b s e r v e r s to ta k e s e r io u s ly th e im p r e s s io n that i s fo ste r e d
before them . T h e y a r e a s k e d to b e l ie v e th a t th e c h a r a c t e r they
s e e a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s e s th e a t t r i b u t e s h e a p p e a r s to p o s s e s s ,
th a t the t a s k h e perform s will h a v e th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t a re
im p lic itly c l a im e d for it, a n d tha t, in g e n e r a l, m a tte rs are w hat
th e y a p p e a r to be. In lin e with t h is , th e re i s the p o p u la r view
that the in d iv id ual o f fe rs h is p erfo rm an ce an d p u t s on h is show
' for the b e n e fit of o th e r people.' It will be c o n v e n ie n t to begin
a c o n s id e r a tio n of p e r f o rm a n c e s by turning t h e q u e s tio n aroun d
and lo oking a t the in d iv id u a l’s own b e lie f in th e im p re ssio n of
r e a l i t y th a t he a t te m p ts to e n g e n d e r in th o s e am ong whom h e
f in d s h im self.
At one extrem e, ■we find th a t th e perform er c a n be fully
taken in by h i s own a c t ; he c a n be s in c e r e l y c o n v in c e d th a t th e
im p re ssio n o f r e a l i t y which h e s ta g e s i s th e real r e a lity . When
h i s a u d i e n c e i s a l s o c o n v in c e d in t h i s way a bo ut th e show he
p u t s o n —a n d t h i s s e e m s to be the ty p ic a l c a s e —then for the
moment, anyw ay, only th e s o c i o l o g i s t o r t h e s o c i a l l y d is ­
g ru n tle d will h a v e a n y d o u b ts abo u t th e ' r e a l n e s s ’ of what i s
p r e s e n te d .
At the oth e r ex tre m e, we find th a t th e performer may n o t be
ta k e n in a t all by h is own ro utine.
T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s under­
s t a n d a b l e , s i n c e no o n e i s in q u ite a s good an o b s e rv a tio n a l
p o s itio n to s e e through the a c t a s th e p erso n who p u ts it on.
C o u p led with th i s , th e perform er may be moved to .guide the
co n v ic tio n of h i s a u d i e n c e only a s a m e a n s to o th e r e n d s ,
ha v in g no u ltim ate co n c ern in th e c o n c e p t io n th a t th e y hav e of
him o r of th e s it u a ti o n .
When the ind iv id u al h a s no b e lie f in
h i s own a c t a n d no u ltim a te concern with th e b e l ie f s o f h i s
a u d i e n c e , we may ca ll him c y n ic a l, r e s e r v i n g th e term s i n c e r e
for i n d iv i d u a ls who b e lie v e in th e im p r e s s io n f o s te r e d by th e ir
own perform ance.
It shou ld be u n d e rsto o d th a t th e c y n ic , with
a ll h i s p r o f e s s io n a l d isin v o lv e m e n t, may o b ta in u n p r o fe s s io n a l
p l e a s u r e s from his m a sq u e ra d e , e x p e r ie n c in g a kind of gleeful
s p ir itu a l a g g r e s s io n from th e fac t that h e c a n toy a t will with
som ething h i s a u d i e n c e m ust ta k e s e r i o u s l y . 1
’ P e r h a p s the real cr im e of th e c o n f i d e n c e man i s n o t th at he t a k e s money
from h i s v i c t i m s buc chat he r o b s all of u s o f the b e lie f chat m i d d l e - c l a s s
m a n n e r s an d a p p e a r a n c e c a n be s u s t a i n e d o n ly by m i d d l e - c l a s s p e o p l e . A
10
It i s not a s s u m e d , of c o u r s e , th a t all c y n i c a l perform ers a re
i n t e r e s t e d in d e lu d in g th e ir a u d i e n c e s for p u r p o s e s of what i s
c a l l e d ' s e l f - i n t e r e s t ' o r p r iv a t e gain. A c y n i c a l in d ividual may
d elu d e h i s a u d i e n c e for what he c o n s i d e r s to be th e ir own good,
or for the good o f the com munity, e t c . F o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s of th is
we n e e d not a p p e al to s a d ly e n l ig h te n e d showmen s u c h a s
M arcus A u re liu s or H sun T z u . We know that in s e r v i c e o c c u ­
p a t io n s p r a c t i t i o n e r s who may o th e rw is e be s in c e r e are s o m e ­
tim e s forced to d elu d e th e ir c u s t o m e r s b e c a u s e th e ir c u s to m e r s
show s u c h a h e a r tf e lt dem and for it. D o c to r s who are led into
giving p l a c e b o s , f illi n g - s t a tio n a t t e n d a n t s who r e s ig n e d ly
c h e c k and r e c h e c k tire p r e s s u r e s for a n x i o u s women m o to r is t s ,
sh o e c l e r k s who s e ll a sh o e th a t fits but t e l l the cu s to m e r it i s
th e s i z e s h e w a n ts to h e a r —t h e s e a r e c y n i c a l perform ers w hose
a u d i e n c e s will not a llow them to be s in c e r e . Similarly, we find
th a t s y m p a th e tic p a t i e n t s in m ental w ards will s o m e tim e s feign
b iz a r re sym ptom s so th a t s tu d e n t n u r s e s will not be s u b je c t e d
to a d is a p p o in ti n g ly s a n e perform ance. 1 So a ls o , when infer­
i o r s e x ten d th e ir most la v is h r e c e p tio n for v i s i tin g s u p e rio r s ,
th e s e l f i s h d e s i r e to win favour may not be the c h i e f m o tiv e;
the inferio r may be ta c tf u lly attem p tin g to put the su p e rio r at
e a s e by s im u la tin g the kind of world the s u p e r io r i s thought to
ta k e for gran ted.
I hav e s u g g e s te d two e x t r e m e s : an in d iv id u a l may be taken
in by h i s own a c t or be c y n i c a l abo u t it. T h e s e e x tre m e s are
so m e th in g a l i t t l e more th a n ju s t the e n d s of a continuum . E ach
p r o v id e s the in d iv id u a l with a p o s itio n which h a s i t s own par­
tic u la r s e c u r i t i e s and d e f e n c e s , s o th e re will be a te n d e n c y for
th o s e who have tr a v e lle d c l o s e to o n e of t h e s e p o l e s to com­
p le te the voyage. S tartin g with la c k of inward b e lie f in o n e ’s
role, th e in d iv id u a l may follow the natural movement d e s c r ib e d
by P a r k :
It i s probably no mere h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t t h a t the word p e r s o n , in i t s
f i rs t m e a n in g , ts a m a s k .
It i s r a t h e r a r e c o g n i t i o n of th e f a c t t h a t
d i s a b u s e d p r o f e s s i o n a l c a n be c y n i c a l l y h o s t i l e 10 t h e s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n h i s
c l i e n t s e x p e c t him to e x t e n d to t h e m ; the c o n f id e n c e man is in a p o sitio n
to hol d the whole 1 le g i t * world in t h i s co ntem pt.
' S e e L'dxel, op. c i t ., p. 4. Marry S t a c k Sullivan h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e t a c t
of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p er fo r m er s c a n o p e r a t e in th e ocher d i r e c t i o n , r e s u l t i n g
in a kind of n o b le s s c ^ o b lig e s a n i ty .
bee h i s ‘ S o c i o - P s y c h i a t r i c
Research
A m e ric a n Jo u rn a l o f P s y c h ia tr y , X, pp. 987*988.
M A study of ’ .social r e c o v e r i e s 1 in o n e of our large m en tal h o s p i t a l s so m e
y e a r s a g o caught me t h a t p a t i e n t s were often r e l e a s e d from c a r e b e c a u s e
they had l earn ed noc to m a n i f e s t sym ptom s t o the e n v i r o n i n g p e r s o n s ; in
o th er words, had i n t e g r a t e d en ou g h of the p e r s o n a l e n v iro nm en t to r e a l i z e
the p r e j u d i c e o p p o s e d to th e i r d e l u s i o n s . It s e e m e d a l m o s t a s i f they grew
w is e en o u g h t o be t o l e r a n t of th e tm b eciliry su rro u n d in g them, hav in g
fin ally d i s c o v e r e d t h a t it was s t u p i d i t y and not m a lic e . T h e y c o u l d then
s e c u r e s a t i s f a c t i o n from c o n t a c t with o t h e r s , while d i s c h a r g i n g a p ar t of
th e i r c r a v i n g s by p s y c h o t i c m ean s .
11
e v e r y o n e i s a l w a y s a nd e v e r y w h e r e , more or l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y , p l a y i n g a
role . . .
I t i s in t h e s e r o l e s t h a t w e know e a c h o t h e r ; it i s in t h e s e
r o l e s th a t w e k n ow o u r s e l v e s . 1
In a s e n s e , a n d in s o Jar a s t h i s m a s k r e p r e s e n t s the c o n c e p t i o n we
h a v e formed of o u r s e l v e s —t h e r o l e we are s t r i v i n g t o live up t o —tli i s
m a s k i s o u r truer s e l f , the s e l f we would l i k e to be. In t h e end, our
co n c e p t i o n of our r o l e b e c o m e s s e c o n d n a tu r e an d a n in t e g r a l p a r t of our
personality.
co m e i n t o t h e world a s i n d i v i d u a l s , a c h i e v e c h a r a c t e r ,
and become p e r s o n s .2
T h i s may be illu s c r a te d from t h e w riter’ s stu d y of an is l a n d
com m unity o f c r o f t e r s , th a t i s , s m a ll- h o ld in g farm ers. 3 F o r t h e
l a s t four or five y e a r s th e i s l a n d ' s to u r is t ho te l h a s bee n o w ned
an d o p e r a te d by a m arried c o u p le of c ro f te r o r ig in s . From th e
beginning , th e o w n e r s w ere forced to s e t a s i d e th e ir own c o n ­
c e p t i o n s a s to how lif e ought to be led, d is p l a y in g in th e hotel
a full round of m i d d l e - c l a s s s e r v i c e s and a m e n i t i e s . L a t e l y ,
how eve r, it a p p e a r s th a t the m a n a g e rs h a v e b ec o m e l e s s c y n ­
ic a l a b o u t th e perform ance th a t they s t a g e ; they t h e m s e l v e s a r e
becom ing m iddle c l a s s an d more and more ena m o u red of th e
s e l v e s th e ir c l i e n t s impuce to them. Another il l u s t r a t i o n may
be found in th e raw re c ru it who in it ia l ly fo llo w s army e t iq u e t te
in o rd e r to a v oid p h y s ic a l punish m en t and who e v e n tu a lly co m es
to follow th e r u l e s s o th a t h is o r g a n iz a tio n will not be sh a m e d
and h i s o f f i c e r s a n d f e ll o w - s o ld i e r s will r e s p e c t him.
A s s u g g e s t e d , th e c y c l e of d i s b e lie f - to - b e l ie f c a n be fo ll­
owed in the o th e r d ir e c tio n , s t a r t i n g with c o n v ic tio n or i n s e c u r e
a s p ir a tio n and e n d in g in c y n ic is m .
P r o f e s s i o n s w hich the
p u b lic h o ld s in r e l i g i o u s aw e often allow th e ir r e c r u i t s to
follow th e c y c l e in t h i s d ir e c tio n , anti o fte n r e c r u i t s follow it in
t h i s d ir e c tio n not b e c a u s e of a slo w r e a l i z a t i o n that th e y are
d e lu d in g th e ir a u d i e n c e —for by ordinary s o c i a l s t a n d a r d s th e
c l a i m s th e y m ake may be q u ite v a l id —but b e c a u s e they c a n u s e
t h is c y n i c is m a s a m e a n s of i n s u l a ti n g th e ir in ner s e l v e s from
c o n t a c t with th e a u d i e n c e . ■ And we may e v e n e x p e c t to find
t y p ic a l c a r e e r s o f faith , w ith the in d iv id u a l s t a r t i n g out with
o n e kind of in v o lv e m e n t in the p erform an ce he i s r e q u ir e d to
giv e , then moving bac k and forth s e v e r a l tim e s b etw e en s i n c e r ­
ity an d c y n i c is m before c o m p le tin g all th e p h a s e s an d turningp o in ts of s e l f - b e l i e f for a p e r s o n of h is s ta tio n .
While we c a n e x p e c t to find n a tu ra l movement bac k and
forth b e tw e e n c y n i c is m a n d s in c e r ity , s t i l l we m ust n o t r u le out
t h e k in d o f t r a n s i t i o n a l p o in ts th a t can b e s u s t a i n e d , on th e
l R o b e r t E z ra P a r k , R a c e a n d C u ltu re ( G l e n c o e . | l l l . :
p. 249.
T h e F r e e P r e s s , 1950),
3 H i d . , p . 2 50.
3 T h e s t u d y w a s f in a n c e d by t h e D e p a r tm e n t of S o c i a l Anthropology And t h e
S o c i a l S c i e n c e s R e s e a r c h Com m ittee of the U n iv e r sity of Kdinburgh a n d
re p o rt e d i o p a r t in Goffm an, o p . c it.
12
stre n g th o f a l i t t l e s e lf - il lu s io n . We find th a t the in d iv id u a l
may a tte m p t to in d u c e th e a u d ie n c e to judge him and th e s i t ­
u a tio n in a p a r ti c u la r way, and h e may s e e k t h i s judg e m en t a s
an u ltim a te en d in i t s e l f , and yet he may not c o m p le te ly b e l i e v e
th a t he d e s e r v e s th e v a lu a tio n of s e lf which he a s k s for or that
th e im p r e s s io n of r e a lity which he f o s t e r s i s v a lid . Another
m ixture of c y n i c is m an d b e l ie f is s u g g e s t e d in K ro e b er’s d i s ­
cussion of sham anism :
N e x t , t h e r e i s the o ld q u e s tio n of d e ceptio n« P ro b a b l y m o s t s h a m a n s
or m e d i c i n e men, the world over , h e l p a l o n g with sl e ig h t - o f - h a n d in cu rin g
an d e s p e c i a l l y in e x h i b i t i o n s o f p o w er. T h i s s l e ig h t - o f -h a n d is s o m e ­
ti m e s d e l i b e r a t e ; in many c a s e s a w a r e n e s s i s p e r h a p s no t d e e p e r chan
the f o r e c o n s c i o u s . T h e a t t i t u d e , w h e th e r th e r e h a s b een r e p r e s s i o n or
n ot, s e e m s to b e a s to w ard a p i o u s frau d.
F i e l d e t h n o g r a p h e r s seem
q u i t e g e n e r a l l y c o n v i n c e d th at ev en s h a m a n s who know t h a t they add
fraud n e v e r t h e l e s s a l s o b e l i e v e in th eir p o w e r s , an d e s p e c i a l l y in t h o s e
o f o t h e r s h a m a n s : they c o n s u l t them whet! th ey t h e m s e l v e s or theLr
c h i l d r e n a r e il l . 1
Front
We h a v e bee n u s in g the term ' p e r f o r m a n c e ' to refer to all
t h e a c tiv i ty of an in d iv i d u a l which o c c u r s during a period
marked by h i s c o n t in u o u s p r e s e n c e before a p a r ti c u la r s e t of
o b s e r v e r s a n d w hich h a s so m e in flu e n c e on the o b s e r v e r s . It
will be c o n v e n ie n t to la b el a s ' f r o n t ’ th a t part of the in d iv id ­
u a l ’s perfo rm an ce which re g u la rly f u n c ti o n s in a general and
fixed fash io n to d e fin e th e s i t u a t i o n for t h o s e who o b s e r v e the
perform ance.
F ro n t, th e n , i s th e e x p r e s s i v e e quipm ent of a
s ta n d a r d kind i n t e n t io n a lly or unw ittin g ly em ployed by the
ind iv id u al during h is perform ance. F or p relim in ary p u r p o s e s , it
v.ill be c o n v e n ie n t to d i s t i n g u i s h and la b e l what s e e m to be the
sta n d aril p a r t s of front.
F i r s t , th e re is th e ' s e t t i n g ’, in v o lv in g furniture, decor,
p h y s ic a l lay-out, and o th e r backgroun d ite m s w hich su p p ly th e
s c e n e r y and s t a g e p r o p s for th e s p a t e of human a c tio n p la y ed
out before, w ithin, or upon it.
A s e ttin g t e n d s to s ta y put,
g e o g r a p h ic a lly s p e a k in g , so th a t th o s e who would u s e a par­
tic u la r s e t t i n g a s p a rt of th e ir perform ance c a n n o t b eg in th e ir
a c t until they have brought t h e m s e lv e s to the ap p ro p ria te p l a c e
and must te rm in a te th e ir p erform ance when th e y le a v e it. It i s
only in e x c e p t io n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s that the s e t t i n g , in a s e n s e ,
fo llo w s a lo n g with the p e r f o rm e r s ; we s e e th is in th e fu n eral
c o rte g e, the c i v i c p a r a d e , and th e d ream -like p r o c e s s i o n s that"
k in g s an d q u e e n s are made of. In th e main, t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s
seem to offer so m e kind of ex tra p ro te c tio n for p erform ers who
; A . I .. K ro c b e r , T h e feature o f C u ltu re ( C h i c a g o :
P r e s s , l l)^2), p. 3 N .
13
U n iv e r sity o f C h i c a g o
are , or who h a v e m om entarily b ec o m e , highly s a c r e d .
I hese
w o rth ie s are to be d is t in g u is h e d , of c o u r s e , from quite profane
perform ers o f the p e d d le r c l a s s who move th e ir pl;ice of work
b e tw e e n p e r f o rm a n c e s, o ften b eing forced to do so.
In th e
m a tte r of h avin g on e fix ed p la c e for o n e ' s s e t t i n g , a ru ler may
be too s a c r e d , a p e d d le r too p rofa ne.
In th in k in g about th e s c e n i c a s p e c t s of front, we te n d to
think of the liv i n g room in a p a r t i c u l a r h o u s e and th e small
number of p erform ers who ca n thoroughly id e n tify t h e m s e l v e s
with it. We h ave g iv e n in s u f f ic i e n t a t te n t io n to a s s e m b l a g e s of
of s ig n - e q u ip m e n t w hich larg e n u m b e rs of perform ers c a n ca ll
th e ir own for s h o rt p e r io d s of tim e.
It i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
Western E u ro p e a n c o u n t r i e s , and no doubt a s o u r c e o f s t a b i l i t y
f o r ^ , 1" th a t a la rg e num ber of lu x u r io u s s e t t i n g s a r e a v a i l a b l e
for hire to a n y o n e of th e right kind who can afford them.
One
i ll u s tr a ti o n of t h is may be c i te d from a stu d y of the h ig h e r
c iv il s e rv a n t in B r ita in :
T h e q u e s t io n liow far the men who r i s e t o the top in the C i v i l S e r v ic e
t a k e on t h e ' t o n e * or ' c o l o u r * of a c l a s s other than t h a t to w h i c h they
b e l o n g by birth is d e l i c a t e a nd d if fic u lt. T h e only d e f i n i te inf ormation
b e a r in g on th e q u e s t i o n i s th e f i g u r e s re l a t i n g to th e m em b ersh ip of the
g r e a t London c l u b s . More than t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of our high a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
o f f i c i a l s b elo n g to one or more c l u b s of high s t a t u s an d c o n s i d e r a b l e
Luxury, where the e n t r a n c e fee might be tw en ty g u i n e a s or more, a n d rhe
an n ual s u b s c r i p t io n from t w elv e to tw en ty g u i n e a s . T h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s
a r e of t h e u p p e r c l a s s (not ev en of t h e upp er-m idd le) in th e i r p r e m i s e s ,
th e i r equ ip m en t, t h e s t y l e of livin g p r a c t i s e d t h ere, their whole a t ­
m osphere.
Tho ug h many of the m em b er s would not be d e s c r i b e d a s
w e a l t h y , onl y a w ealth y man would u n a i d e d pro vid e for h i m s e l f a nd h is
f am ily s p a c e , food an d d rin k, s e r v i c e , and o ther a m e n i t i e s of life to the
s a m e s t a n d a rd a s h e will find at t h e Uruon, the T r a v e l l e r s ’, or th e
Reform. 1
A n o th er e x a m p le c a n be found in th e re c e n t d evelopm ent of th e
m e d ic a l p r o f e s s io n w here we find th a t it i s i n c r e a s i n g ly im­
p o rta n t for a doctor to h a v e a c c e s s to the e l a b o r a t e s c i e n t i f i c
s t a g e p rovided by la rg e h o s p i t a l s , so th a t few er an d few er
d o c t o r s are a b le to feel th a t th e ir s e t t i n g i s a p l a c e th a t they
c a n lock up at night. 2
If we ta k e th e term ' s e t t i n g ’ to refer to th e s c e n i c p a r t s ol
e x p r e s s i v e eq uipm ent, -we may ta k e th e term ' p e r s o n a l f r o n t ’ to
refer to the oth e r ite m s of e x p r e s s i v e e q u ip m en t, th e ite m s th a t
we most in tim a te ly id e n tify with th e perform er him s elf and th at
we n a t u r a lly e x p e c t will follow t h e perform er w herever he g o e s .
As part of p e r s o n a l front we may i n c l u d e : in s ig n ia of o ffic e or
r a n k ; c l o t h i n g ; s e x , age, and r a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; s i z e and
l o o k s ; p o s t u r e ; s p e e c h p a t t e r n s ; f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n s ; bodily
1 U . K . D a l e , T k e H igher C iv il S e r v ic e
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1941), p. 50.
o f G reat ftrita in (O x fo r d : Oxford
2 D a v id Solomon, ' C a r e e r C o n t i n g e n c i e s ol C h ic a g o P h y s i c i a n s ' (U npub­
l i s h e d P h . IX d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r tm e n t ol S o cio lo gy , U n iv e r sity of C h i c a a o .
1952). p. 74.
14
g e s t u r e s ; an 1 the lik e . Some of t h e s e v e h i c le s for c o n v e y in g
s i g n s , su c h a s r a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , are r e l a t i v e l y fixed and
over a spa n of tim e Jo not vary for th e ind iv id u al from o n e
s itu a tio n to another. On t h e orhcr hand, s o m e of t h e s e sig n
v e h i c l e s are r e la tiv e ly m obile or tr a n s ito r y , su c h a s facial
e x p - e s s io n , an 1 ca n vary .luring a perform ance from one moment
to th e next. It i s so m e tim e s c o n v e n ie n t to d iv id e th e stimuli
which make up p e r so n a l front into ' a p p e a r a n c e ’ and ’ m a n n e r ’,
a c c o rd in g to th e function perform ed by the inform ation that
t h e s e stim uli convey. ' A p p e a r a n c e ’ may be ta k e n to refer to
t h o s e stim uli which function at th e tim e to tell u s of th e
perform er’s s o c ia l s t a t u s e s .
T h e s e stimuli also te ll u s o f
th e i n d i v i d u a l 's tem porary ritu a l s t a t e , th a t i s , w hether he i s
e n g a g in g in formal s o c ia l a c tiv i ty , work, or informal re c re a tio n ,
w h eth e r or not he is c e le b r a tin g a new p h a s e in the s e a s o n
c y c le or in h is lif e -c y c le . ' M a n n e r ' may be ta k e n to refer to
th o s e stim uli w hich fu n ction at the tim e to warn u s of th e inter­
a c tio n ro le th e performer will e x p e c t to play in th e on-coming
s it u a ti o n .
T h u s a haughty a g g r e s s i v e manner may give th e
im p r e s s io n th a t the perform er e x p e c t s to be the one who will
i n i t i a t e th e verbal in te r a c tio n and d ir e c t i t s c o u r s e . A meek,
a p o lo g e tic manner may give th e im p re ssio n th a t the perform er
e x p e c t s to follow the le a d of o th e r s , or at l e a s t th a t he can 1>e
g o tte n to do so. Sim ilarly, if an ind iv id u al i s angry h is manner
will te ll u s upon whom he i s lik e ly to be in a p o s itio n to vent
h i s anger.
We o fte n e x p e c t , of c o u r s e , a c o n firm ing c o n s i s t e n c y be­
tw e e n a p p e a r a n c e and m a n n er; we e x p e c t th a t th e d if f e r e n c e s
in s o c i a l s t a t u s e s among th e i o t e r a c t a n t s will be e x p r e s s e d in
s o m e way by c o ng ru e nt d if f e r e n c e s in th e in d i c a t i o n s that a r e
m ade of e x p e c t e d in te r a c tio n role. T h i s ty pe of co h e re n c e of
front may be ill u s tr a te d by the follow ing d e s c r ip tio n o f th e
p r o c e s s io n of a m andarin through a C h i n e s e c i ty :
Co m ing c l o s e l y behind . . . the l u x u r io u s c h a i r o f the man darin,
c a r r ie d by e i g h t b e a r e r s , f i ll s the v a c a n t s p a c e in the s t r e e t . Me is
mayor of the town, and for a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s die s u p r e m e p o w e r in
it. lie is an i d e a l- lo o k in g o f ficial, for he is large a n d m a s s i v e in a p p e a r ­
a n c e , w h i l s t he h a s th at ste rn a n d u nco m p risin g look th at is s u p p o s e d to
be n e c e s s a r y in any m a g i s t r a t e who wou ld hop e t o k eep h is s u b j e c t s in
o rder, lie lias a s t e m and forb idding a s p e c t , as though h e w ere on h is
way t o the e x e c u t i o n ground t o h a v e som e crim in al d e c a p i t a t e d . T h i s i s
t h e k in d of air t h a t the m an d arin s p u t on when th ey a p p e a r in p u b l i c . In
t h e c o u r s e of many y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e . 1 h ave n e v e r o n ce s e e n a ny of
them , from the h i g h e s t to the l o w e s t , w ith a sm ile on h i s fa cc or a look
of sy m p a th y for the p e o p l e w h i l s t he w a s b e in g c a r r ic d o f fic ia lly through
the s t r e e t s . 1
b u t , of c o u r s e , a p p e a r a n c e and m anner may tend to c o n tra d ic t
e a c h o th e r, a s when a perform er who a p p e a r s to be of h ig h e r
1J . Macgowart, S id e lig h ts on C h in e s e L i fe ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : L ip pincoct, 1908),
p. 187.
15
e s t a t e than h i s a u d i e n c e a c t s in a m anner th a t i s u n e x p e c te d ly
e q u a lit a r ia n , or in tim a te , or a p o l o g e t i c , or when a perform er
d r e s s e d in th e g arm e n ts o f a high p o s it io n p r e s e n t s h im s e lf to
an in d iv id u al of ev e n higher s t a t u s .
In a d d itio n to th e e x p e c te d c o n s i s t e n c y b e tw e en a p p e a r ­
a n c e and manner, we e x p e c t, of c o u r s e , so m e c o h e r e n c e among
s e ttin g , a p p e a r a n c e , and manner. 1 In a s e n s e , s u c h c o h e r e n c e
r e p r e s e n t s an id e al type th a t p r o v id e s u s w ith a m e a n s of s tim ­
u la tin g our i n t e r e s t in and a t te n t io n to e x c e p t i o n s . In th is th e
stu d e n t i s a s s i s t e d by th e jo u r n a l is t, for e x c e p t io n s to e x p e c ­
ted c o n s i s t e n c y am ong s e ttin g , a p p e a r a n c e , .and manner p ro v id e
the p iq u a n c y and glamour of many c a r e e r s and th e s a l e a b l e
a p p e a l of many m a g a z in e a r t i c l e s . 2
In o rd e r to ex p lo re more fully the r e l a t i o n s am ong the s e v e r ­
al p a r t s of s o c ia l front, it will be c o n v e n ie n t to c o n s id e r here a
s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the inform ation c o n v e y e d by front,
nam ely, i t s a b s t r a c t n e s s and g e n e r a lity .
H o w ev er s p e c i a l i z e d and u niq ue a r o u tin e i s , i t s s o c ia l
front, with c e r ta in e x c e p t io n s , will te n d to claim f a c t s th a t can
be e q u a lly claim ed and a s s e r t e d of o th e r, som ew hat d ifferent
r o u tin e s . ; F o r exa m ple , many s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s offer th e ir
c l i e n t s a p erfo rm an ce that i s illu m in a te d with dram a tic ex­
p r e s s i o n s of c l e a n l i n e s s , m odernity, c o m p e te n c e , in te g r ity , e tc .
While in f a c t t h e s e a b s t r a c t s t a n d a r d s h a v e a different s ig n i f i ­
c a n c e in d iffe re n t o c c u p a t io n a l p e rfo rm a n c e s, the o b s e rv e r i s
en c o u r a g e d to s t r e s s the a b s t r a c t s im ila r it ie s . F o r the o b s e rv e r
t h is i s a w onderful, chough s o m e tim e s d i s a s t r o u s , c o n v e n i e n c e .
I n s te a d o f h a v in g to m a in ta in a d iffe re n t p a tte r n of e x p e c ta tio n
an d r e s p o n s i v e tr e a tm e n t for e a c h s li g h tly d iffe re n t perform er
and p erform ance , he c a n p la c e the s i t u a ti o n in to a broad c a t ­
egory aro und which it i s e a s y for him to m o b iliz e h is p a s t ex­
p e r ie n c e and s te r e o - ty p ic a l think ing. O b s e r v e r s then n e e d only
be f a m ilia r with a sm a ll and h e n c e m a n a g e a b le v oca bula ry of
f r o n ts and know how to resp o n d to them in order to o rie n t them­
s e l v e s in a wide v a r ie ty of s i t u a t i o n s . T h u s in L ond on th e
cu rren t te n d e n c y for chim ney s w e e p s 3 an d perfume c l e r k s to
w ear w hite l a b c o a t s t e n d s to provide th e c l ie n t with an u nd er­
s ta n d i n g th a t th e d e l i c a t e t a s k s perform ed by t h e s e p e r s o n s
1 C l. Kenneth B u r k e 's c o m m e n t s on t h e ' s c e n e - a c t - a g e n t r a t i o ’, A Grammar
o f M o tiv es (N ew York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1945) pp. 6-9.
^ F o r ex am p le, th e N e w Y o rke r P r o f i l e on R o g e r S t e v e n s (the r e a l e s t a t e
a g e n t who e n g i n e e r e d the s a l e of the E m p ire S t a t e B u ildin g ) com m en ts
on the s t a r t l i n g fact t h a t S t e v e n s h a s a sm a ll h o u s e , a m eag re o f f i c e ,
a nd n o l e t t e r h e a d s t a t i o n e r y .
S ee E. J . K a h n , J r . , ' C l o s i n g s and
O p e n i n g s ' , T h e N e w Y o rke r, F e b r u a ry 13 an d 20, 1954.
3 S e c Mervyn J o n e s , 'W h i t e a s a S w e e p ' , T h e N e w S ta te s m a n a n d N a tio n ,
D ece m b e r 6, 1952.
16
will be perform ed in what h a s becom e a s ta n d a r d iz e d , c l i n i c a l ,
c o n f id e n tia l manner.
T h e r e a r e g ro u n d s for b e lie v in g th a t the te n d en c y for a
l a r g e number of d if fe re n t a c t s to be p r e s e n te d from b eh in d a
sm all number of f ro n ts i s a n a tu ra l dev e lo p m e n t in s o c ia l o r ­
g a n iz a tio n .
K adcliffe-H row n h a s s u g g e s t e d t h i s in h is claim
th a t a d e s c r i p t i v e k in s h ip s y s te m w hich g i v e s e a c h p e rso n a
u n iq u e p l a c e may work for very small c o m m u n itie s, but, a s the
num ber o f p e r s o n s b e c o m e s la rg e , clan s e g m e n ta tio n b ec o m e s
n e c e s s a r y a s a m e a n s of providing a l e s s c o m p lic a te d system
of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and tr e a tm e n ts . 1 We s e e t h i s te n d e n c y i l l u s ­
tr a te d in f a c t o r i e s , b a r r a c k s, and other l a r g e s o c ia l e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n ts.
T h o s e who o r g a n iz e t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s find it im­
p o s s i b l e to p ro v id e a s p e c ia l c a f e te ria , s p e c i a l m o d e s of p a y ­
ment, s p e c i a l v a c a tio n rig h ts , and s p e c i a l s a n ita r y f a c i l i t i e s
for evc-ry lin e and s t a f f s t a t u s c a te g o ry in th e o r g a n iz a tio n ,
and at the sa m e tim e they feel th a t p e r s o n s o f d i s s i m i l a r s t a t u s
ought not to be in d is c r im in a te ly thrown to g e th e r or c l a s s i f i e d
to g e th e r. As a com prom ise, th e full ran g e of d iv e rs ity is cut
at a few crucial p o in ts , and all t h o s e w ithin a given brac ket
are allo w ed or o b lig e d to m a in ta in the sam e s o c ia l front in
ce r ta in s it u a t i o n s .
In a d d itio n to th e fact t h a t d iffe ren t r o u tin e s may em ploy
the s a m e front, it i s to be noted th at a g iv e n s o c ia l front
te n d s to bec om e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in te rm s of t h e a b s t r a c t
s t e r e o t y p e d e x p e c t a t i o n s to which it g iv e s r i s e , and te n d s to
t a k e on a m eaning and s t a b i l i t y ap art from the s p e c i f i c t a s k s
which h a p p e n at the tim e to be performed in i t s nam e. T h e front
b e c o m e s a ' c o l l e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ’ and a fa c t in i t s own
right.
When an a c t o r t a k e s on an e s t a b l i s h e d s o c ia l role, u s u a lly
he fin d s th a t a p a r tic u la r front h a s a lre ad y been e s t a b l i s h e d for
it. Whether h is a c q u i s i t i o n of th e role w a s prim arily m otivated
by a d e s ir e to perform th e given t a s k or by a d e s ir e to m aintain
the co rre sp o n d in g front, th e a c to r will find that he must do both.
F u rth e r, if t h e in d iv id u a l t a k e s on a ta sk th a t i s not only
new to him but a l s o u n e s t a b l i s h e d in th e s o c i e t y . - o r if he
a t te m p ts to c h a n g e the light in which h is ta s k is vie w e d , he i s
lik e lv to find th a t th e re are a lre a d y s e v e r a l w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d
fro n ts am ong which he must c h o o s e .
T h u s , when a ta s k i s
g ive n a new front we seldom find that the front it is g iv e n is
i t s e l f new.
Since f ro n ts tend ro be s e l e c t e d , not c r e a te d , we may e x p e c t
tr o u b le to a r i s e when t h o s e who perform a g iv e n ta s k are forced
1 A. U. Ra dcliffe-ftro wn,
O c e a n ia , 1, 440.
’ The
S o c ia l O rg an izatio n
17
of A u s tr a l i a n T r i b e s ’,
to s e l e c t a s u i t a b l e front for t h e m s e l v e s from am ong s e v e r a l
q u ite d i s s i m i l a r o n e s . T h u s , in m ilitary o r g a n iz a ti o n s , t a s k s
a re a l w a y s d e v e lo p in g w hich (it i s felt) re q u ire too much a uthor­
ity an d s k ill to be c a r rie d out behind th e front m a in ta in e d by
o n e g ra d e of p e r s o n n e l an d too l i t t l e a u th o rity an.) s k i ’l to be
ca r rie d o u t behind th e front m a in ta in e d by th e ne-'r ;ra.l<* in
the h ie ra rc h y . S in c e th e re are r e la tiv e ly la r g e ju r m s b e tw e e n
g r a d e s , th e r a s k w ill co m e to ' c a r r y too much . a r k 1 or to
carry too l it tle .
An i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e dilem m a of s e l e c t i n g an
a p p r o p r ia te front from s e v e r a l not q uite f ittin g o i'e s may be
found to d a y in A m erican m e d ic a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s with r e s p e c t to
th e t a s k o f a d m in is t e r in g a n e s t h e s i a . 1
In s o m : h o s p i t a l s
a n e s t h e s i a i s s ti ll a d m in is te r e d by n u r s e s b e h in d th e front th a t
n u r s e s a r e a llo w e d to h a v e in h o s p i t a l s r e g a r d l e s s of th e t a s k s
th e y p e rfo rm —a front in v o lv in g c e re m o n ia l su b o r d in a tio n and a
r e l a t i v e l y low r a t e of pay. In order to e s t a b l i s h a n e s t h e s i o l o g y
a s a s p e c i a l i t y for g r a d u a te m e d ic a l d o c t o r s , i n t e r e s t e d
p r a c t i t i o n e r s h a v e had to a d v o c a t e stro n g ly th e id e a that
a d m in is t e r in g a n e s t h e s i a i s a s u f f i c ie n tly c om plex an d v i ta l
t a s k to ju s t if y i n g g iv in g to th o s e who perform it the c e rem onia l
and f in a n c ia l rew ard g iv e n to d o c t o r s . T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
th e front m a in ta in e d by a n u r s e a n d th e front m a in ta in e d by a
d octo r i s g r e a t ; many t h i n g s th a t are a c c e p t a b l e for n u r s e s
a r e infra dignitatem for d o c to rs .
Some m e d ica l p e o p l e h a v e
felt th a t a n u r s e 'u n d e r - r a n k e d ' fo r th e t a s k of a d m in is te r in g
a n e s t h e s i a and th a t d o c t o r s ' o v e r - r a n k e d ; ’ were th e re an
e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t u s midw ay b e tw e e n n u r s e and doctor, an e a s i e r
so lu tio n to th e p roblem co uld p e r h a p s be found. 2 S im ila d y ,
had t h e C a n a d i a n Army h ad a rank h alfw ay betw een lie u te n a n t
and c a p t a i n , two and a h a l f p i p s i n s t e a d of two or th re e , then
D ental Corp’s c a p t a i n s , many of them of a tow e th n ic origin,
c ou ld h a v e b e e n g iv e n a rank th a t would p e r h a p s hav e been
more s u i t a b l e in the e y e s of t h e Army than the c a p t a i n c i e s
they w ere a c t u a l l y giv en.
I do n o t m ean h ere to s t r e s s t h e p o in t of view of a formal
o r g a n i z a t i o n o r a s o c i e t y ; th e in d iv id u a l, a s so m e o n e who
p o s s e s s e s a lim ite d r a n g e o f s ig n - e q u ip m e n t, m ust a l s o m ake
u n happy c h o i c e s . T h u s , >in the c r o ftin g com munity s tu d i e d by
J S e e t h e thorough t r e a tm e n t of t h i s pr o b le m io Dan C . L o r t i e , ‘ D o c t o r s
Without P a t i e n t * : T h e A n e s t h e s i o l o g i s t , a N ew M edical S p e c i a l t y
Un­
p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ’s t h e s i s , D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o ,
1950.
S e e a l s o Mark Murphv*s tliree -p art P r o f i l e o f Dr. R o v e n s t i n e ,
1 A n e s t h e s i o l o g i s t The New Y o rke r. O c t o b e r 25, N o v e m b e r 1, a n d Novem ­
b er 8, 1947.
? l r s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t in s o m e h o s p i t a l s t h e in tern and t h e m e d i c a l s t u d e n t
p erfo rm t a s k s th at are b e n e a t h a d o c t o r a n d a b o v e a n u r s e . P re s u m a b l y
su c h t a s k s d o n o t r e q u ire a l arg e amount o f e x p e r ie n c e an d p r a c t i c a l
trainin g» for w hile t h is i n t e r m e d ia t e s t a t u s o f d o c t o r -i n - t ra i n i n g » i s a
p e r m a n e n t pare of h o s p i t a l s , a l l t h o s e who h o ld it do so tem p o rarily .
18
th e writer, 'h o s t s o fte n marked the v is i t of a friend by offering
him a dram o f s p i r i t s , a g l a s s of wine, so m e (home-made) brew,
o r a cup of te a . T h e h ig h e r the rank or temporary ce rem o n ia l
s t a t u s of th e v is ito r, the more lik e ly he w as to r e c e iv e an offer­
in g n ea r t h e s p i r i t s end o f th e continuum. Now o n e problem
a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s range o f s ig n -eq u ip m en t w a s th a t som e
c r o f te r s c o u ld not afford to k e e p a b o ttle of s p i r i t s a v a ila b le ,
so th a t w ine tended to b e th e most indulg ent g e s tu r e th e y c ould
employ. But p e r h a p s a more common d ifficu lty w as th e f a c t th a t
c e r ta in v i s i t o r s , g ive n th e ir perm anent and temporary s t a t u s a t
th e tim e, o u tra n k e d one pota b le and under-ran ked th e n ex t on e
in line . T h e r e w a s often a d a n g e r th a t th e v i s i t o r would f e e l
j u s t a l i t t l e affronted or, on the oth e r hand, th a t th e h o s t ’s
c o s t l y a n d lim ite d sig n equipm ent would b e m is u s e d . In our
middle c l a s s e s a sim ila r s it u a ti o n a r i s e s when a h o s t e s s h a s to
d ec id e w h eth e r or not to u s e the good s il v e r , o r w hich w ould b e
the more a p p r o p r ia te to wear, her b e s t afterno on d r e s s or her
p l a i n e s t ev e n in g gown.
[ h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t s o c ia l front c a n be d iv id e d into
tr a d itio n a l p a r ts , suc h a s s e ttin g , a p p e a r a n c e , an d manner, an d
th a t ( s i n c e different r o u tin e s may be p r e s e n te d from behind the
sa m e front) we may not find a p e rfe c t fit b e tw e en the s p e c i f i c
c h a r a c t e r of a perform ance and the gene ral s o c i a l i z e d g u is e in
w hich it a p p e a r s to us. T h e s e two f a c ts , ta k e n to g e th er, le ad
u s to a p p r e c ia te th a t ite m s in the s o c ia l front of a p a r tic u la r
rou tin e are not only found in the s o c i a l fronts of a whole range
o f r o u tin e s but a l s o th a t th e whole range of r o u tin e s in w hich
one item of sign equipm ent i s found will differ from th e ra n g e of
r o u tin e s in which an o th er item in the s a m e s o c i a l fro nt will be
found. T h u s , a la w y e r may talk to a c l ie n t in a s o c ia l s e ttin g
th a t he e m ploys only for th is pu rp o se (or for a stu d y ), but th e
c l o t h e s he w e a r s on su c h o c c a s i o n s , 'and which are s u i t a b l e for
suc h o c c a s i o n s , he w ill a l s o employ, with equal su ita b ility , .at
d inne r with c o l l e a g u e s and at the th e a tr e with h is wife. Simil­
arly, t h e p r in ts th a t hang on h i s wall and the c a r p e t on h is floor
may be found in d o m e s tic s o c i a l e s ta b l is h m e n ts . Of c o u r s e , in
h ighly cerem o nial o c c a s i o n s , se ttin g , manner, a n d a p p e a r a n c e
may all be r e la tiv e ly unique and s p e c if ic , u s e d only for per­
form a nce s of a s in g l e ty p e of routine, but su c h e x c l u s i v e u s e of
sign equipm ent i s the e x c e p tio n rath er than the rule.
Dramatic Realization
While in the p r e s e n c e of o th e rs , the in d iv id u al ty p ic a lly
i n f u s e s h is a c tiv i ty with s i g n s which d ra m a tic a lly h ig hlight an d
portray confirm atory f a c ts th a t might o th e rw is e rem ain unap p a re n t or o b s c u r e .
F o r if th e in d iv id u a l’s a c tiv ity i s to
19
becom e s ig n i f i c a n t to o th e r s , 'he must m o b il iz e h i s a c tiv i ty so
th a t it w ill e x p r e s s during the interaction w hat h e w i s h e s to
convey.
In f a c t, t h e perform er may b e r e q u ir e d n o t only to
e x p r e s s h i s c l a im e d c a p a c i t i e s d uring t h e in te r a c t io n but a l s o
to do so d u ring a s p l i t s e c o n d in t h e in te r a c t io n .
T h u s, if a
b a s e b a ll um pire i s to g iv e th e im p r e s s io n t h a t he i s su r e o f h is
ju d g e m en t, he m ust forgo the moment o f thoug ht w hich m ight
m ake him su re of h i s ju d g e m e n t; h e must give an i n s t a n t a n e o u s
d e c i s i o n so th a t th e a u d i e n c e will b e s u r e th a t h e i s s u r e o f
h i s jud g e m en t. 1
It may be n o te d th a t in th e c a s e o f s o m e s t a t u s e s dram a­
tiz a t io n p r e s e n t s no problem , s in c e som e of th e a c t s w hich are
in s t r u m e n ta lly e s s e n t i a l for th e c o m p letio n o f th e c o r e ta s k of
th e s t a t u s are a t th e sam e tim e w onderfully a d a p te d , from the
p o in t of view o f c o m m u n ic atio n , a s m e a n s o f v ividly c o n v e y in g
th é q u a l i t i e s and a t t r i b u t e s c la im e d by t h e perform er.
The
r o l e s o f p r i z e f i g h t e r s , s u r g e o n s , v i o l i n i s t s , a n d p o lic e m e n are
c a s e s in p oint.
T h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a llo w for so much d r a m a tic
s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n th a t e x e m p la ry p r a c t i o n e r s —w h eth e r re a l or
f i c t i o n a l —becom e fam o us and are g iven a s p e c i a l p la c e in the
c o m m ercially o rg a n iz e d p h a n t a s i e s o f th e natio n .
In many c a s e s , h ow ever, d r a m a tiz a tio n o f o n e 's work d o e s
c o n s t i t u t e a problem .
An il l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s may be c ite d from
a r e c e n t stu d y by E d ith L e n t z , w here th e m e d ica l n u rs in g s t a f f
in a h o s p ita l i s shown to have a problem th a t th e s u r g ic a l
n u rsin g s t a f f d o e s no t h a v e :
T h e t h i n g s which a n u r s e d oes for p o s t - o p e r a t i v e p a t i e n t s on th e
su r g i c a l floor a r e freq u e n tly of r e c o ^ n iz a b l e im p o rta n c e , even to p a t i e n t s
who a r e s t r a n g e r s t o h o s p i t a l a c t i v i t i e s .
Fo r e x a m p le , th e p a r i e n t
s e e s h i s n u r s e c h a n g i n g b a n d a g e s , s w in g i n g o rt h o p e d i c f ra m e s into
pla c e , and can r e a lise that th e s e are purposeful a c tiv itie s.
E ven if
s h e c a n n o t be a t h i s s i d e , he c a n r e s p e c t h e r p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t i e s .
M e d ical n u r s i n g i s a l s o hig hly s k i l l e d work . . . .
The p h y s ic ia n 's
d i a g n o s i s m u st r e s t upon ca r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n of sy m p t o n s o v e r tim e
w here t h e s u r g e o n 's a r e in la r g e r p a r t d e p e n d e n t on v i s i b l e t h i n g s .
T h e l a c k of v i s i b i l i t y c r e a t e s p r o b l e m s on the m e d i c a l .
A patient
will s e c h i s n u r s e s t o p a t the n e x t bed a n d c h a t for a moment o r
two with t h e p a t i e n t t h e r e .
He d o e s n ’t k now chae s h e i s o b s e r v i n g
t h e s h a l l o w n e s s of the b r e a th in g an d c o lo r an d t o n e of the sk i n .
He
t h i n k s s h e i s j u s t v i s i t i n g . So, a l a s , d o e s h i s family who may t h ereu po n
d e c i d e t h a t t h e s e n u r s e s a r e n ' t very i m p r e s s i v e .
If th e n u r s e s p e n d s
m ore time «u t h e n e x t bed chan a t h i s own, t h e p a t i e n t may feel s l i g h t e d .
. . •
T he n u r s e s a r e “ w a s t i n g r i m e 0 u n l e s s they a r e d a r t i n g ab ou t
d oin g so m e v i s i b l e t h i n g s u c h a s a d m i n i s t e r i n g h y p o d e r m i c s . 2
S im ilarly, we find c h a t.th e p ro p rie to r o f a s e r v i c e e s t a b l is h m e n t
may find it d iffic u lt to d r a m a tiz e w hat i s a c tu a lly b e in g done
* S ee B a b e P i n e l l t , a s told t o J o e King. Mr Ump ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W es tm in s ter
P r e s s , 1953), p . 75.
2 E d ith L e n c 2 " A C o m p arison of M edical an d S u rg ical F l o o r s * 1 (Mim eo:
New York S ta r e School of I n d u s t r i a l a nd L a b o u r R e l a t i o n s , C o r n e ll Uni­
v e r s i t y , 1954), p p . 2-3.
for c l i e n t s b e c a u s e t h e c l i e n t s ca n not " s e e ” t h e overh e ad
c o s t s of th e s e r v i c e rendered them.
T h u s trustw orthy under­
ta k e r s m ust ch a rg e a g re a t d e a l for th e ir high ly v is i b le p ro d u ct—
a coffin th a t h a s been transform ed into a c a s k e t —b e c a u s e
many of th e other c o s t s of c o n duc ting a funeral, a r e not o n e s
th a t ca n be re a d ily d r a m a tiz e d . 1
M erchan ts, too, often find
th a t they must cha rge hig h p r i c e s for th in g s that look intrin­
s i c a l l y e x p e n s iv e in order to c o m p e n s a te the e s ta b l is h m e n t
for e x p e n s iv e t h in g s lik e in s u r a n c e , s la c k p erio d s, e tc ., that
never a p p e a r before th e c u s to m e rs ’ e y e s.
T h e problem of d ram a tiz in g o n e ' s work i n v o lv e s more than
merely making i n v is ib le c o s t s v is ib le .
T h e work th a t must be
done by th o s e who fill c e r ta in s t a t u s e s i s often s o poorly
d e s ig n e d a s an e x p r e s s io n o f a d e s ire d meaning, th a t if th e
incum bent would d ram a tiz e th e c h a r a c t e r of h is role, 'h e must
divert an a p p r e c ia b le am ount o f h is energy to do so.
And
t h i s a c tiv i ty d iv e rted to communication will o ften re q u ire
different a t t r i b u t e s from th e o n e s which are being d ram atized.
T h u s to furnish a h o u s e so that it will e x p r e s s sim ple, qu iet
dignity, th e h o u s e h o ld e r may h a v e to r a c e to a u c tio n s a l e s ,
h a g g l e with a n tiq u e d e a le rs , an d doggedly c a n v a s s a ll th e
lo c al s h o p s for proper w allp ap e r an d cu rta in m a te ria ls.
To
g iv e a rad io talk that will sound genuin ely informal, spon­
t a n e o u s , a n d r ela x ed , th e s p e a k e r may hav e to d es ig n h is
s c r ip t with p a i n s ta k in g care, t e s t i n g o n e p h r a s e after another,
in order to follow th e c o n te n t, lang uage, rhythm, and p a c e of
everyday talk. 2 Similarly, a Vogue model, by her clo th in g ,
s ta n c e , and f ac ial e x p r e s s io n , i s a b le e x p r e s s iv e ly to portray
a c u l tiv a te d u n d e rsta n d in g of the book s h e p o s e s in her h a n d ;
but th o s e who troub le to e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s s o ap p rop riately
will h a v e very l i t t l e tim e left o v e r 'f o r reading.
And so in­
d iv id u a ls often find t h e m s e lv e s with the dilemma of e x p r e s s io n
versus a c tio n .
T h o s e who hav e th e time and ta len t to perform
a t a s k well may not, b e c a u s e of th is , h av e the tim e or ta le n t
to make it apparenc that they are perform ing well.
It may be
s a i d th a t so m e o r g a n iz a ti o n s r e s o lv e t h is dilemma for t h e s e
m em bers by d e le g a tin g th e dram a tic function to a s p e c i a l i s t
who will s p e n d h is tim e e x p r e s s in g th e m eaning o f the ta s k
and spend no tim e a c tu a lly doing it.
If we a l te r our frame of referen c e for a moment and turn
from a p a r tic u la r perform ance to th e in d iv id u a ls who p r e s e n t it,
' M a t e r i a l on the burial b u s i n e s s use d ' h r o n i h o u t t m s repo rt i s t ak en from
a forthcoming d i s s e r t a t i o n on the f u n e t a l d irecto r by R o b e rt H a b e n s te in .
I h av e a l s o drawn on Mr Hafcenstein's se m in ar rep o rt d e s c r i b i n g the
u n d e r t a k e r ’s work a s th e s t a g i n g of a perfo rm ance.
2 John Hilton, " C a l c u l a t e d S p on caniety,” O xford B o o k o f E n g lish T a lk
fOx ford : C laren do n P r e s s , 1953), p p . 399-404.
21
we c a n c o n s i d e r an in t e r e s t i n g fac t ab o u t th e round of d iffe ren t
r o u tin e s which a n y group or c l a s s o f in d iv i d u a l s h e l p s to
perform. When we e x a m in e a group or c l a s s , we find th a t the
m em bers o f it tend to in v e s t th e ir e g o s primarily in c e r ta in
r o u tin e s , g ivin g l e s s s t r e s s to th e o th e r o n e s w hich th e y p e r­
form.
T h u s a p r o f e s s io n a l man may b e w illin g to t a k e a very
m o d e st ro le in th e s t r e e t , in a shop, or in h i s home, but, in
th e s o c ia l s p h e r e which e n c o m p a s s e s h i s d is p l a y o f p r o f e s s ­
io n a l c o m p e te n c y , he w ill be much c o n c e rn e d to m ake an
e f f e c tiv e sh ow in g.
In m o b iliz in g h i s b eh a v io u r to m ake a
show ing, he w ill be c o n c e r n e d not so much with th e full round
of t h e d if fe r e n t r o u t i n e s he perform s but only w ith th e o n e
from which h i s o c c u p a t io n a l r e p u ta tio n d e r iv e s .
It i s upon
t h i s i s s u e th a t so m e w rite r s h a v e c h o s e n to d is t in g u is h g ro u p s
with a r i s t o c r a t i c • h a b i t s ( w h a te v e r their s o c i a l s t a t u s ) from
th o se of m idd le-class character.
T h e a r i s t o c r a t i c h ab it, •it
h a s b een s a id , i s one th a t m o b il iz e s all t h e minor a c t i v i t i e s of
l i f e w hich fall o u t s i d e th e s e r io u s s p e c i a l i t i e s of o th e r c l a s s e s
a n d i n j e c t s in to t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s an e x p r e s s io n of c h a r a c t e r ,
pow er, and high rank.
By w h a t Im portant a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i s the y o u n g no blem an i n s t r u c t e d
t o s u p p o r t th e d i g n i t y o f h i s rank , a n d t o r e n d e r h i m s e l f worthy of t h a t
s u p e ri o r i t y o v e r h i s fellow-c iti z e n s , to w h ich the v ir tu e of h i s a n c e s t o r s
h a d r a i s e d them ?
I s i t by k n ow ledg e, by in d u s t r y , by p a t i e n c e , by
s e l f - d e n i a l , or by virtu e o f any k i n d ?
As a l l h i s words, a s a l l h i s
m o tio n s are a t t e n d e d to, he l e a r n s an h a b i t u a l reg ard to every circu m ­
s t a n c e o f ordinary b e h a v io u r , a nd s t u d i e s to perform all t h o s e s m a ll
d u t i e s w ith t h e m o s t e x a c t p r o p ri e t y .
A s h e is c o n s c i o u s o l how
much h e i s o b s e r v e d , an d how much m ank ind arc d i s p o s e d t o favour ali
h i s i n c l i n a t i o n s , he a c t s , upon t h e m o st i n d iff e r e n t o c c a s i o n s , with
that, fre edom a n d e l e v a t i o n w hich t h e th o u g h t of t h i s n a t u r a l l y i n s p i r e s .
H is air, h i s manner, h is d eportm ent, all m ark th at e l e g a n t , and g r a c e f u l
s e n s e of h i s own su p e rio rity , w h i c h t h o s e who a r e bom to i nferio r
s t a t i o n s c a n hard ly e v e r a r riv e a t .
T h e s e are t h e a r t s by w hich he
p r o p o s e s to m ake mankind more e a s i l y sub m it t o h i s au th o rity , a n d to
go vern t h e i r i n c l i n a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to h i s own p l e a s u r e ; an d in t h i s
h e i s se ldo m d i s a p p o i n t e d .
T h e s e a r t s , s u p p o r t e d by rank a nd p re­
e m i n e n c e , a r e , upon ord in ary o c c a s i o n s , s u f f i c i e n t to govern the world. 1
If s u c h v irtu o si a c tu a lly e x i s t , th e y would p rovid e a s u i t a b l e
group in w hich to s tu d y t h e t e c h n i q u e s by which a c t i v i t y i s
tra n sfo rm e d into a show.
Idealization
It w a s s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r th a t a p erform ance of a rou tin e
p r e s e n t s through i t s front som e ra th e r a b s t r a c t c l a i m s upon th e
a u d i e n c e , c l a im s th a t a r e lik e ly to be p r e s e n te d to them during
th e p erfo rm an ce o f other r o u tin e s .
T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s on e way
in w hich a p erfo rm an ce i s , in a s e n s e , ' s o c i a l i s e d , ’ m oulded
a n d m od ified to fic in to t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g an d e x p e c t a t i o n s
l Adam Smith,
1853), p . 75.
The
T h e o ry o f M oral S e n tim e n ts ( L o n d o n : Henry Bohn,
22
o f t h e s o c ie ty in which it is prt-senred.
V!'e c o n s id e r here
an o th er im portant a s p e c t o f t h i s s o c ia liz a tio n p r o c e s s —the
te n d e n c y for perform ers to offer th e ir o b s e r v e r s an im p re ssion
th a t i s i d e a l i z e d in s e v e r a l different w ays.
T h e notion th a t a perform ance p r e s e n t s an id e a l i z e d view
o f th e s itu a tio n i s , o f c o u r s e , q u ite common. C o o l e y 's view
may be ta k e n a s an i l l u s tr a ti o n :
U we n e v e r cried to seem a little b e tte r than we ar e, how co uld
we improve or ' t r a i n o u r s e l v e s from the o u t s i d e i n w a r d ? '
And the
siituc i m p u lse to sh ow the world a better or i d e a l i z e d a s p e c t o f o u r s e l v e s
fin ds an o r g a n iz e d e x p r e s s i o n in the v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n s and c l a s s e s ,
cacli of w hich h a s to som e e x t e n t a can t or pose» which i t s members
lissom e u n c o n s c i o u s l y , for the m o st part, but w h ich h a s the effe ct
o f ,t c o n s p i r a c y to work upon t h e c r e d u lity of (he r e s t of t h e world.
T h e r e i s a c a n t not onl y of theology and of p hilanth ro py , bu t a l s o of
law, m e d i c i n e , t e a c h i n g , e ven of s c i e n c c —p e r h a p s e s p e c i a l l y o f s c i e n c e ,
ju st now sin c e th e more u p a r tic u la r kind o f m erit i s r eco g n izcd a n d
admired, the more it I s likely to be a s s u m e d by t h e u n w o r t h y . 1
T h u s , when t h e individual p r e s e n t s h im self before o th e rs,
liis p erform ance will te n d to in c o rp o rate and exemplify th e
o ffic ia lly a c c r e d i te d v a l u e s ot th e s o c ie t y , more so , in fact,
limn d o e s h i s behavio ur a s a whole.
To th e d e g r e e that a perform an ce h ig h lig h ts th e common
o ffic ia l v a l u e s o f th e s o c ie t y in which it o c c u r s , >we may look
upon it, in th e manner of Durkheim and 1<adcl iffe-Brown, a s a
ce rem o n y —a s an e x p r e s s i v e reju v e n atio n and reaffirm ation of
t h e moral v a l u e s of th e community.
Furtherm ore, in so f a r
a s the e x p r e s s iv e b ia s o f p e rfo rm a n c e s co m e s to be a c c e p t e d
a s r e a lity , then th a t which i s a c c e p te d at th e moment a s re a lity
will hav e some o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c e le b ra tio n .
To
sta y in o n e ’s room aw ay from the p la c e where t h e party i s
given, o r aw ay from where th e p r a c titio n e r a t t e n d s to h i s c l ie n t ,
i s to sta y aw ay from where r e a lity i s being perform ed.
The
world, in truth, i s a wedding.
O ne of th e r ic h e s t s o u r c e s of d a ta on th e p r e s e n ta tio n
of id e a li z e d p e rfo rm a n c e s i s th e lite r a tu r e on s o c ia l m obility.
!Dn most s o c i e t i e s there s e e m s to be a major or general sy ste m
of s tr a t if ic a tio n , and in m ost s tr a t if ie d s o c i e t i e s th e re i s an
id e a liz a tio n of th e higher s tr a t a and some as p ira tio n on th e
part of t h o s e in low p l a c e s to move to higher o n e s . (We m ust
be careful to a p p r e c ia te that t h i s in v o lv e s not merely a d e s ir e
for a p r e stig e fu l p la c e but a l s o a d e s ir e for a p la c e c l o s e to
th e s a c r e d c e n tr e of t h e common v a l u e s of the so c ie ty .)
Commonly we find that upward mobility in v o lv e s th e p r e s e n t­
atio n of proper p erform ances and that effo rts to move upward
and e ffo rts to keep from moving downward a re e x p r e s s e d in
te rm s of s a c r i f i c e s made for the m a in te n a n c e of front. O n c e
1 C h a r l e s II. C o o ley , Human .\a lu re tiad th e S n e ia l Order (New York- S crib­
n e r ’s , 1922), pp. 352-353.
23
t h e p ro p e r s ig n -eq u ip m en t h a s bee n o b ta in e d and fam iliarity
g a in e d in t h e m an ag e m en t of it, then t h i s equipm ent c a n be
u s e d to e m b e llis h and illu m in e o n e ’s daily p e rfo rm a n c e s w ith
a fa v o u r a b le s o c ia l s ty le .
P e r h a p s th e m ost im p o rta n t p i e c e o f s ig n equipm ent
a s s o c i a t e d w ith s o c ia l c l a s s c o n s i s t s o f th e s t a t u s sy m b o ls
through w hich m a te r ia l w e a lth i s e x p r e s s e d .
A m erican s o c ie t y
i s s im ila r to o t h e r s in t h i s r eg a rd but s e e m s to have been
sin g l e d out a s a n e x tre m e e x a m p le o f w e a lth -o rie n te d c l a s s
s t r u c t u r e —p e r h a p s b e c a u s e in A m erica th e l i c e n c e to em ploy
sy m b o ls o f w ea lth an d fin a n c ia l c a p a c ity to do so a r e so
w idely d is trib u te d .
I n d ia n s o c i e t y , on th e other hand, ’h a s
s o m e tim e s b e e n c i t e d n o t o n ly a s o n e in w hich m obility
o c c u r s in te rm s o f c a s t e groups, not in d iv id u a ls , but a l s o a s
o n e in w hich p e rf o rm a n c e s te n d to e s t a b l i s h favourable c l a i m s
re g a rd in g n o n-m aterial v a l u e s .
A r e c e n t stu d e n t o f India,
for exa m ple , h a s s u g g e s t e d t h e follo w ing:
T h e c a s t e 9ystem i s far from a r i g id s y s t e m in which t h e ' p o s i t i o n
o f e a c h co m p on en t i s fixed for a i i tim e.
Movement h a s a l w a y s been
p o s s i b l e , an d e s p e c i a l l y s o in the middle r e g io n s o f t h e hier archy,
A l o w c a s t e w a s a b l e , in a g e n e r a tio n o r two, to r i s e to a hi gher
by a d o p t i n g v e g e t a r i a n i s m a nd t e e t o t a l ) sm, a n d by S a n s k r i t i z i n g i t s
r i t u a l a n d p a n th e o n .
In s h o r t , i t to ok o v er, a s far a s p o s s i b l e , the
cu sco m sj r i t e s , a n d b e l i e f s of the B rah m in s, a n d the ado ptio n o f the
B r a h m i m c w ay o f l ife by a lo w c a s t e se e m s to h av e b een fre quent,
though t h e o r e t i c a l l y forb id den.............
T h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e l o w e r c a s t e s to im ita te t h e h igher h a s been
a p ow erfu l facto r i n - t h e s p r e a d o f S a n s k r i t i c r i tu a l a nd c u s t o m s , an d
in t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of a c e r t a i n am ount o f c u ltu r a l uniformity, no t on ly
th ro ug h ou t t h e c a s t e s c a l e but o v er the en tir e l e n g th and b read th of
I n d ia . 1
In f a c t, of c o u r s e , «there a re many Hindu c i r c l e s w h o se m em bers
a re much c o n c e r n e d with in j e c t i n g an e x p r e s s io n of w ealth,
luxury, an d c l a s s s t a t u s in to t h e p erfo rm ance of their daily
round a n d who think too l i t t l e o f a e s c e t i c purity to bother
a f f e c tin g it.
C o rrespo ndingly, there h a v e a l w a y s been in­
flu en tial g r o u p s in
A m erica w h o se m em bers h a v e felt th a t
some a s p e c t o f every p erfo rm an ce o u g h t to play down the
e x p r e s s io n o f s h e e r w ealth in o rd er to f o ste r th e im p re ssio n
th a t s ta n d a r d s reg a rd in g birth, c u ltu r e , or moral e a r n e s t n e s s
a r e t h e o n e s th a t p r e v a il.
P e r h a p s b e c a u s e of th e o r ie n t a tio n upward found in major
s o c i e t i e s to d a y , we te n d to a s s u m e th a t th e e x p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s
in a p erfo rm an ce n e c e s s a r i l y claim for th e performer a h ig he r
c l a s s s t a t u s than might o th e r w is e b e a c c o r d e d him.
For
exam ple, • we a r e not s u r p r i s e d to le arn the follow ing d e t a i l s
of p a s t d o m e s tic • p e r f o rm a n c e s in S c o tla n d :
1M . N . S r i n i v a s , R e lig io n an d S o c ie ty Among the C o o r g s of South India
( O xfo rd: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1952), p. 30.
24
O n e t h in g i s fairly c e r t a i n : t h e a v e r a g e la ir d an d h i s family l i v e d
far more fru gally in t h e ordinary way t h a n th ey di d when they w ere
entertaining visitors.
T h e y would r i s e to a grear o c c a s i o n a n d s e r v e
d i s h e s r e m i n i s c e n t o f th e b a n q u e t s o f t h e m e d ie v a l n o b i l i t y ; but, lik e
t h o s e s a m e n o b l e s , b etw een the f e s t i v i t i e s th ey would ‘ k e e p s e c r e t
h o u s e , ' a s the s a y i n g u s e d t o be, a n d liv e on the p l a i n e s t o f fare .
T h e s e c r e t w a s well gua rded.
E ven E d w ard Bure, with a il h i s know­
l e d g e o f rhe H i g h l a n d e r s , found it v er y d if fic u lt to d e s c r i b e th e ir
everyday m eals.
All h e cou ld s a y d e f i n i t e l y w a s that w h en ev e r they
e n t e r t a i n e d an E n g lis h m an t h e y pro vid ed far too much f o od ; “ a n d , " h e
rem a rk e d , " i t h a s often b een s a i d they w ill r a n s a c k a l l t h e i r t e n a n t s
r a t h e r than we s h o u l d th ink m ean ly of t h e i r h o u s e k e e p i n g ; but 1 h a v e
h e a r d i t from many whom t h e y h a v e e m p l o y e d ............. t h a t , alth o u g h
th ey h a v e been a t t e n d e d a t d in ner by five or s ix s e r v a n t s , y e t , with
all t h a t s t a t e , they h a v e often d i n e d upon o a t m e a l varied s e v era l
w a y s , p i c k l e d herring , or o th e r s u c h c h e a p an d i n d ifferen t d i e t ." 1
In fact, how ever, many c l a s s e s of p e r s o n s have had many
d ifferent r e a s o n s for e x e r c is i n g s y s t e m a tic m odesty and for
u nderp la y in g any e x p r e s s i o n s of w ea lth , sp ir itu a l stre n g th , or
self-respect.
T h e igno rant, s h i f t l e s s , h a p p y-go-lucky manner
which N e g r o e s in the Southern S t a t e s so m e tim e s felt o blig e d
to a f f e c t d uring in te r a c tio n with w h i t e s i l l u s t r a t e s how a
perform ance ca n play up ideal v a l u e s which a c c o r d to the
perform er a lower p o sitio n than he co v e rtly a c c e p t s for him­
s e l f . 2 I h a v e been told by S h e tla n d e r s th a t theic g ra n d f a th e rs
u s e d to refrain from improving t h e a p p e a r a n c e of th e c o t ta g e
le sc th e la ir d ta k e suc h im p rov em ents a s a sig n th a t in c r e a s e d
r e n t s could be e x t r a c te d from them.
A th ir d exam ple may
be q uoted from a r e c e n t stu d y o f t h e junk b u s i n e s s , in which
d ata are p r o v id ed on th e kind o f im p re ssio n th a t p r a c t i t i o n e r s
feel i t i s o p p o rtu n e for them to fo ster.
. . . . t h e junk p e d d l e r i s v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in k e e p i n g information
a s to t h e tr u e f in a n c ia l v a l u e o f j u n k ' from t h e g eneral p u b l i c .
He
w i s h e s t o p e r p e t u a t e the myth t h a t junk i s v a l u e l e s s an d t h a t the
i n d i v i d u a l s who d e a l in i t ar e down a n d o u t ’ an d sho uld be p i t i e d . 3
In a s e n s e su c h i m p r e s s i o n s a re i d e a li z e d , too, for if th e
perform er i s to b e s u c c e s s f u l h e m u st offer th e kin d of s c e n e
th a t r e a l i z e s t h e o b s e r v e r s ’ extrem e s t e r e o t y p e s o f h a p l e s s
pov erty. *
‘ Marjorie P l a n t , T h e D o m e s tic L ife o f S c o tla n d in th e E ig h te e n th C en tu ry
( E d i n b u r g h : Edin burgh U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1952), pp. 96-97.
2 A m odem v e r s i o n of t h i s m a s q u e r a d e i s d e s c r i b e d by C h a r l e s J o h n s o n ,
P a tte r n s o f N eg ro S eg reg a tio n (N ew Y o r k : Harper B t o s ., 1943), p. 2 7 3 :
'W h e re th ere i s a c t u a l c o m p e titio n a b o v e the u n s k i l l e d l e v e l s for
jo b s u s u a l l y tho ug h t of a s 1w h ite j o b s ' so m e N e g r o e s w ill o f th e i r own
c h o i c e a c c e p t sym bols of lo w er s t a t u s w hile perform ing work of h ig h e r
ra nk. T h u s a s n i p p in g c lerk will w e a r o v e r a l l s a n d a c c e p t t h e pay a n d
t i t l e of a p o r t e r ; a clerk will t a k e the t i t l e an d p a y of a m e s s e n g e r ;
a n u r s e w ill perm it h e r s e l f to b e c a l l e d a d o m e s t i c ; a n d a c h i r o p o d i s t
w ill e n t e r the h o m e s o f w h ite p e r s o n s by th e b a c k d o o r .’
3 1. B. R a lp h , ' T h e Ju n k B u s i n e s s a n d th e J u n k P e d d l e r ' ( U np u blish ed M.A.
R e p o rt, D ep artm en t o f S o cio lo g y , U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o , 1950), p. 26 .
A s i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f su c h r o u t i n e s th ere are p e r h a p s n o n e with s o much
s o c i o l o g i c a l char m a s the p erfo rm an ce m a i n t a i n e d by s t r e e t b e g g a r s .
In Western S o c ie ty , ho wever, s i n c e M ayhew’s tim e, t h e s c e n e s t h a t b e g g a r s
25
I f an in d iv id u a l i s to give e x p r e s s io n to id e a l s t a n d a r d s
during h i s p erform ance, th e n h e will h a v e to forgo or c o n c e a l
a c tio n w hich i s i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e s e s t a n d a r d s . When t h i s
in a p p ro p r ia te c o n d u c t i s i t s e l f s a t i s f y i n g in som e way, a s i s
often t h e c a s e , th e n o n e commonly f in d s ir in d u lg e d in s e c r e t l y ,
so th a t , in a s e n s e , th e perform er i s a b l e to forgo h i s c a k e an d
e a t i t too. F o r e x a m p le , in our own s o c ie t y we find th a t eig h ty e a r -o ld c h ild re n claim la c k of i n t e r e s t in th e te le v i s io n
program m es th a t a r e d ir e c te d to five- an d six - y e a r -o ld s , but
S o m etim es s u r r e p tit io u s ly w atch them. 1 We a ls o find th a t
m id d l e - c l a s s h o u s e w i v e s so m e tim e s e m p lo y —in a s e c r e t and
s u r r e p tit io u s w ay—c h e a p s u b s t i t u t e s for co ffee , ic e cream , or
b u tte r ; in t h i s way th e y can s a v e money, or effort, or time,
and s t i l l m ain ta in an im p r e s s io n th a t th e food they s e r v e i s of
high q u a lity . 2
T h e sam e women may l e a v e The Saturday
Evening Post on t h e i r lin in g room e n d - ta b le but k e e p a copy
o f True Romance ( " I t ' s so m e th in g the c l e a n in g woman must
h a v e le f t a r o u n d ” ) c o n c e a le d in th e ir bedroom. 3 It h a s been
s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e sa m e so rt of beh aviour, which we may refer
to a s ‘ s e c r e t c o n s u m p t i o n ’, ca n be found am ong the H indus.
T h e y conform to a i i th eir c u s t o m s , w h i l e t h e y are s e e n , but th ey
a r e n o t s o s c r u p u l o u s when in t h e i r r e tire m e n t. 4
I
h a v e been c r e d ib ly informed t h a t so m e Brah am s in sm a ll c o m p a n i e s ,
h a v e g o n e very s e c r e t l y to t h e h o u s e s of S u d ra s whom th ey c o u ld dep end
on, to p a r t a k e o f m eat an d stro ng l i q u o rs , w hich they in d u lg e d in w ithout
scruple. s
s t a g e s e e m to h a v e d e c l i n e d in d r a m a tic m erit. T o d a y we h e a r l e s s of
t h e ’c l e a n fam ily d o d g e ' in w hich a fam ily a p p e a r s in ta tte r e d but in­
c r e d i b l y c l e a n c l o t h e s , t h e f a c e s of t h e c h i l d r e n g l i s t e n i n g from a l a y e r
of s o a p t h a t h a s b e e n p o l i s h e d w ith a s o f t cioch. We n o lo n g e r s e e t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e s i n which a h a l f -n a k e d man c h o k e s o v e r a dirty c r u s t of
b r e a d t h a t he i s a p p a r e n tly to o w e a k to sw allo w , or the s c e n e i n which
a t a t t e r e d m an c h a s e s a sp a rro w from a p i e c e o f bread, w i p e s the m orsel
s l o w l y on h i s c o a t - s l e e v e , a n d , a p p a r e n d y o b l i v i o u s co the a u d i e n c e
t h a t i s now ar ound him, a t t e m p t s to e a t it. R are , too, h a s become t h e
* a s h a m e d b e g g a r 1 who m eek ly im p lo re s w ith h i s e y e s w h at h i s d e l i c a t e
s e n s i b i l i t i e s a p p a r e n t l y p r e v e n t him from s a y i n g .
I n c i d e n t a l l y , the
s c e n e s p r e s e n t e d by b e g g a r s h a v e b een v a r io u sly c a l l e d , in E n g lis h ,
g r ifts , d o d g e s , l a y s , r a c k e t s , l u r k s , p i t c h e s , a n d c a p e r s —p r o v i d in g u s
w ith rerm s w e l l s u i t e d to d e s c r i b e p e r fo r m a n c e s t h a t h ave g r e a t e r
l e g a l i t y a n d l e s s a r t . F o r d e t a i l s on b e g g a r s s e e H en ry Mayhew, L ondon
L a b o u r a nd th e L o n d o n P oor (4 v o l s . ; L o n d o n : Griffin, Bohn), I (1861),
p p . 415-417, and IV (1862), pp. 404-438.
* U n p u h lish e d r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s of S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , I n c . , C h i c a g o .
I am
g r atefu l t o S o c ia l R e s e a r c h , In c., for p e r m i s s i o n to u s e t h e s e an d other
o f t h e i r d a t a i n t h i s r ep o rt.
2 U n p u b lish e d r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s o f S o c ia l R e s e a r c h , Inc.
^ R e p o r t e d by P r o f e s s o r
s e m in a r, 1951.
W. L . Warner o f t h e
U niversity
of
C h ica go ,
in
V b,b* j - A - D u b o i s , C h a ra cter, M anners, an d C u sto m s o f the P e o p le o f
In d ia (2 v o l s . ; P h i l a d e l p h i a ': M 'C arey & Son, 1818), I, p. 235.
5 Ib id ,, p . 237.
26
T h e s e c r e t u s e of in t o x i c a t i n g drink i s s t i l l l e s s uncommon th an
t h a t of i n t e r d i c t e d food, b e c a u s e it i s l e s s d ifficu lt to c o n c e a l.
Yet
i t i s a thing un heard of to m eet a Brahmin drunk in p u b l i c . 1
It may be a d d e d that r e c e n tly th e K in se y r e p o r ts have added
new im p e tu s to the study a n d a n a l y s i s o f s e c r e t co nsum p tion. 1
It i s im portan t to note chat when an in d iv id u a l o f f e r s a
perform ance h e ty p ic a lly c o n c e a l s so m e th in g more than in­
a p p r o p r ia te p l e a s u r e s a n d ec o n o m ie s.
Some of t h e s e m a tte r s
for c o n c e a lm e n t may be s u g g e s te d here.
F i r s t , we s o m e tim e s find t h a t in ad d itio n to s e c r e t
p l e a s u r e s and ec o n o m ie s, the p erfo rm er may b e e n g a g e d in a
p ro fitab le form of a c tiv i ty th a t i s c o n c e a le d from h i s a u d ie n c e
an d th a t i s in co m p atib le with th e view o f h is a c tiv ity which
he h o p e s they will obtain.
T h e model h e r e i s to be found
with h ila r io u s c la r ity in the cig a r-s to re -b o o k ie -jo in r, but some­
th in g o f th e sp irit o f t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s can be found in
many p la c e s . A s u rp risin g number of w orkers seem to ju s t if y
th e ir jo b s to t h e m s e l v e s by th e to o ls that can be sto len , or
t h e fo o d -s u p p lie s that c a n be r e s o ld , or th e tr a v e llin g that
c a n be en jo y e d on com pany tim e, o r the propoganda th a t can
be d istrib u te d , or th e c o n t a c t s th a t can be made a n d properly
in flu e n c e d , e tc . 3
In a ll su c h c a s e s , p la c e o f work an d
o ffic ia l a c tiv ity come to be a kind o f s h e ll which c o n c e a l s
t h e s p ir ite d life of the performer.
S econdly, we find that erro rs an d m i s t a k e s are often
c o r r e c te d befo re th e p erform ance t a k e s p la c e and, at th e s a m e
tim e, te l l - t a l e s i g n s th a t errors have been m ade a n d c o rre c te d
are t h e m s e lv e s c o n c e a le d .
In t h i s way an im p re ssio n of
in f a l lib ili ty , so im portant in many p r e s e n t a t i o n s , may be
m a in ta in e d .
T h ere i s a fam ous remark th at d o c to rs bury
th e ir m i s ta k e s .
A nother exam ple i s found in a r e c e n t d is ­
s e rta tio n on s o c ia l in te r a c tio n in th r e e governm ent o f fic e s ,
w hich s u g g e s t s that o f f ic e r s d is l ik e d d ic ta t in g r e p o r ts to
a ste n o g ra p h e r b e c a u s e they lik e d to go back over their r e p o r ts
1 D u bo is, op. c i t ., p. 238.
2 A s Adam Smith s u g g e s t e d , op. c i t., p. 88, v i r tu e s a s w ell a s v i c e s may
be c o n c e a l e d :
' V a i n men often give t h e m s e l v e s a i r s of a f a s h i o n a b l e p r o flig a c y , which,
in t h e i r h e a r t s , they d o n o t approve of, a n d of w h ich , p e r h a p s , th ey are
r e a l l y n o t gu ilty .
T h e y d e s i re to be p r a i s e d for what t h e y t h e m s e l v e s
do n o t think p r a ise w o r th y , an d are a s h a m e d of u n f a s h io n a b le v i r tu e s ,
w h ich th ey s o m e ti m e s p r a c t i s e in s e c r e t , and for which they have s e c r e t l y
some d e g r e e o f r e a l v e n e r a t i o n .'
3 Two r e c e n t s t u d e n t s of t h e s o c i a l s e r v i c e worker s u g g e s t t h e term
'o u t s i d e r a c k e t ' to re fe r to s e c r e t s o u r c e s o f in com e a v a i l a b l e to th e
C h i c a g o P u b l i c C a s e Worker.
S ee Earl Bogdanoff a n d Arnold G l a s s ,
T h e S o c io lo g y o f th e P u b lic C a s e Worker in a n Urban A rea, u n p u b l i s h e d
M a s t e r 's R e p ort, D ep artm en t o f S o cio lo g y , U n iv er sity of C h i c a g o , 195327
a n d correcc th e f la w s b efo re a s te n o g ra p h e r , l e t a l o n e a
su p e rio r, sa w th e re p o r ts . 1
T h ird ly , in th o s e in t e r a c t i o n s w h ere th e in d iv id u a l p re­
s e n t s a p roduct to o th e rs, h e will tend to show them only
t h e en d -p ro d u ct, an d they will be le d i d c o judging him on th e
b a s i s of s o m e th in g th a t h a s been f in is h e d , p o lis h e d , a n d
packaged.
In som e c a s e s , if v ery l i t t l e effort w a s a c tu a lly
r e q u ir e d to c o m p le te th e o b je c t, t h i s f a c t will be c o n c e a le d .
In o th e r c a s e s , it will b e t h e long, t e d i o u s h o u rs of lonely
la b o u r th a t w ill be h id den.
F o r exam ple, th e u rbane s ty le
a f f e c t e d in so m e s c h o la r ly b o o k s can b e in s t r u c tiv e ly com pared
with th e f e v e r is h drudgery th e a u th o r may hav e end u re d in
o r d e r to c o m p lete th e in d e x on tim e an d the s q u a b b l e s h e
may h a v e h a d w ith h i s p u b lis h e r in o rd er to i n c r e a s e th e
s i z e o f the f irs t l e t t e r o f h i s l a s t nam e a s it a p p e a r s on the
c o v e r of h i s book.
A fourth d is c r e p a n c y betw een a p p e a r a n c e s and overall
r e a lity may be c i t e d . We find th a t there are many p e r f o rm a n c e s
which c o u ld not hav e bee n g ive n had not ca sk s been done
w hich w ere p h y s i c a l l y u n c le a n , s e m i- ille g a l , c ru e l, and de­
grading in ocher w a y s ; but t h e s e d is t u r b in g fac es are seldom
e x p r e s s e d during a p erfo rm an ce .
In H u g h e s ’ cerm s, we te n d
to c o n c e a l from our a u d i e n c e all e v i d e n c e of ' d i r t y work,’
w h e th e r we do t h i s work in p r iv a te or a l l o c a t e co a servanc,
co th e im p e rso n al m arket, co a le g itim ace s p e c i a l i s t , or co
an il l e g i t i m a t e one.
C l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d with th e notion o f dircy work i s a
fifth d is c r e p a n c y becween a p p e a r a n c e and ac tu a l accivicy.
We fin d chat if d ie accivicy of an in d iv id u a l i s co embody
s e v e r a l id e a l s c a n d a rd s, th e n in order to make a good show ing
i t i s lik e ly th a t some of t h e s e s c a n d a r d s will be s u s t a i n e d in
p u b lic by che privace s a c r i f i c e of so m e of che ochers. Ofcen,
of c o u r s e , che performer will s a c r i f i c e th o s e s t a n d a r d s w hose
l o s s can be c o n c e a l e d and will m ake ch is s a c r if ic e in order
co main'cain th o s e s t a n d a r d s w hose i n a d e q u a te applicacion
c ou ld not be c o n c e a le d .
T h u s , if a s e r v ic e i s judged on
che b a s i s of s p e e d a n d q u a lity , qualicy i s lik e ly co fall before
s p e e d b e c a u s e poor quality ca n be c o n c e a l e d but not slo w
serv ice.
Similarly, if a c ce n d an ts in a mental ward are to
m aintain order an d ac th e sa m e tim e noc hit paciencs, an d if
t h i s com binacion of sc a n d a rd s i s difficulc co maincain, chen
t h e unruly pacienc may b e ' n e c k e d ' wich a wet cowel and
c h o k e d into s u b m issio n in a way chac l e a v e s no v is i b le e v i­
d e n c e o f miscreacmenc.
A b s e n c e o f miscreacmenc can be
l B lau , o p. c i t ., p. 184.
28
fak ed, not order. 1
Here i t would be in c o rre c t to be too
c y n ic a l.
Often we find th at if the p rin c ip a l id e a l a i m s of
an o rg a n iz a tio n are to be a c h ie v e d , then it will be n e c e s s a r y
at tim e s to b y p a s s mom entarily o th e r i d e a l s of the o rg an iz atio n ,
w hile m a in ta in in g th e im p re ssio n th a t t h e s e o th e r i d e a l s
are s t i l l iti force.
In s u c h c a s e s , a s a c r i f i c e i s made not
for th e m ost v i s i b l e id e a l but rath e r for the most le g itim a te ly
im portant one. 2
F in a lly , we find perform ers ■often f o s te r the im p re ssio n
th a t th e y had id e a l m o tiv e s for a c q u irin g the role in which
th e y are perform ing, th a t th e y have id e a l q u a l if ic a tio n s for
t h e role, an d th a t it w a s not n e c e s s a r y for them to su ffe r
an y in d ig n i tie s , in s u l t s , an d h u m ilia tio n s, or make an y ta c it ly u n d e rsto o d ' d e a l s , ' in o rd er to a c q u ire th e role.
(While t h i s
g en e ral im p re ssio n of s a c r e d com p arability betw een th e man
an d h is job i s p e r h a p s most commonly fo ste re d by m em bers
o f the higher p r o f e s s io n s , a sim ila r ele m e n t i s found in many
o th e r fo ste re d i m p r e s s io n s . ) Reinforcing t h e s e id e a l i m p r e s s ­
i o n s we find a kin d of ' r h e t o r i c of tr a in in g ,' w hereby labour
unions, u n i v e r s i t i e s , tr a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s , and o th e r l i c e n s in g
b o d ie s re q u ire p r a c t i t i o n e r s to a b s o rb a m y s t ic a l rang e and
p e rio d of train in g , in p a rt to maintain a monopoly, but in
part to f o s te r th e im p r e s s io n th a t th e l i c e n c e d p r a c titio n e r
i s som eone s e t a p a r t from o th e r men. 3
And so we find that
1 R o be rt II.W illou gh by , T h e A tte n d a n t in th e S ta te M ental H o s p ita l (un­
p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r 's T h e s i s , D ep artm ent o f So cio lo gy , U n i v e r s i t y of C h ic a g o ,
1953), p. 4 4 . Willoughby a d d s , pp. 45-46 :
' T h o s e r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d o r d e r s w hich a r e m o s t e a s i l y e n f o r c e d
a r e t h o s e which l e a v e t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e of hav ing b een e i t h e r o b e y e d
or d i s o b e y e d , su c h a s r u l e s pe r ta in in g to the c l e a n i n g of the ward, lo ck in g
d oors, the u s e of in t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s while on d u t y , t h e u s e o f r e s t r a i n t s ,
e tc . ’
2 An il l u s t r a t i o n i s p r o vid ed in a r e c e n t p a p e r on t h e N a v y : C h a r l e s Hunt
P a g e , ' B u r e a u c r a c y ’s O ther F a c e , ’ S o c ia l f o r c e s , XXV, p. 9 0 :
' T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (gro up -im p osed s e c r e c y ) i s nor e n t i r e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e ,
by a n y m e a n s , to the f ear of the m em ber s th at u n sa v o u ry e l e m e n t s w ill
be brought to l i g h t .
While t h i s fear a l w a y s p l a y s so m e role i n k eep in g
o ff t h e reco rd t h e ’ i n s i d e p i c t u r e ’ of a n y bu re a u c r a c y , it i s to one of the
f e a t u r e s of rhe informal st r u c t u r e i t s e l f that more im portance must be
assigned.
F o r the informal s tru ctu re _s e r v e s the very s i g n i f i c a n t ro le
o f p rov id in g a ch a n n el o f circu m ven tio n of the formally p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s
an d m e t h o d s o f pro c e d u r e .
No o r g a n i z a t i o n f e e l s th a t it c a n afford
to p u b l i c i z e t h o s e m e th o d s (by w hich ce r ta in p r o b le m s are so lv e d , it
i s im po rtan t to n o te ) w hich arc a n t i t h e t i c a l to the o f fi c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d
an d , in t h i s c a s e , stro n g ly s a n c t i f i e d m eth o d s d e a r t o the t r a d i t i o n s of
th e group. ’
3 Anthony fteinle in, P h a rm acy a s a P r o fe s s io n in W isco n sin ( u n p u b lis h e d
M aster's T h e s i s , D epartm en t of S ocio lo g y , U n iv e r sity of C h i c a g o , 1943),
r e p o rts , p. 89, t h a t p h a r m a c i s t s fe el the f o u r y e a r u n i v e r sity c o u r s e re q u ire d
for l i c e n s e is 'g o o d for t h e p r o f e s s i o n ' but t h a t some admit t h a t a few
m onths of trainin g i s all th at i s re a lly n e e d e d . T h e Am er ican army during
World War 11 i nn ocen tly t r e a t e d t r a d e s s u c h a s phar m acy and_ w a t c h r e p a irin g in a pu rely in str u m e n ta l way and train ed e f f i c i e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s
in five or si x w e e k s to the horror of e s t a b l i s h e d m em bers of t h e s e tr a d e s .
29
clergym en g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t they e n te r e d th e church
b e c a u s e o f a c a ll o f fe lt v o c a tio n , in America te nding to
c o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in moving up s o c i a l l y , in B rita in te nding
to c o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in not moving to o far down.
And
ag ain, clergym en te n d to g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t they h a v e
c h o s e n th e ir cu rren t c o n g r e g a tio n b e c a u s e of w hat they c a n
o ffe r it s p ir itu a lly and not, a s may in f a c t be the c a s e , b e c a u s e
th e e l d e r s o ffe re d a goo d h o u s e or full paym ent o f moving
expenses.
S im ilarly, m edical s c h o o l s in Am erica te n d to
rec ru it th eir s t u d e n t s partly on the b a s i s o f e t h n i c orig in s,
an d c e r ta in ly p a t ie n t s , c o n s id e r t h i s fac to r in c h o o s in g th e ir
d o c t o r s ; but in t h e a c tu a l in te r a c t io n betw e en d o c to r and
p a tie n t the im p re ssio n i s a l lo w e d to d e v e lo p that th e d o ctor
i s . a d octor b e c a u s e o f s p e c i a l a p t i t u d e s a s well a s s p e c ia l
training .
Sim ilarly, e x e c u t i v e s often p r o je c t an a ir o f com­
p e te n c y an d general g ra sp of t h e s it u a ti o n , blinding th e m s e l v e s
a n d o t h e r s to the fact that they hold th e ir jo b s partly b e c a u s e
th e y look lik e e x e c u t i v e s , not b e c a u s e th e y c a n work like
e x e c u t iv e s . 1 P e rfo rm e rs may even attem pt to g iv e th e im­
p r e s s i o n th a t th e ir p r e s e n t p o is e a n d pro ficiency are s o m e th in g
they h a v e a l w a y s h ad an d that they h a v e n e v e r had to fumble
th e ir way through a le a r n in g period.
I n te r e s tin g ly enough, when th e s ig n i f i c a n c e of unofficial
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s b e c o m e s a s c a n d a l or p o litic a l i s s u e , then a
few i n d iv i d u a ls who are o b tr u s iv e ly la c k in g in th e informal
q u a l if ic a tio n s may be adm itted with fanfare and g ive n a highly
v i s i b l e ro le a s e v i d e n c e o f fair p la y .
An im p re ssio n of
le g itim a c y i s t h u s c r e a te d . 2
I h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t a performer te n d s to c o n c e a l or
un derplay th o s e a c t i v i t i e s , f a c t s , an d m o tiv e s which a re in ­
c o m p a tib le with an i d e a l i z e d v ersio n of h im s e lf and h is
pro d u cts.
In a d d itio n , a perform er often e n g e n d e r s in h i s
a u d i e n c e th e b e lie f that h e i s r e la te d to them in a more id e al
way than i s a l w a y s th e c a s e .
Two gene ral i l l u s t r a t i o n s
may be cited .
‘ S ee, for e x a m p le , P er rin S try ker, 'H o w E x e c u t i v e s G et J o b s , ’ F o rtu n e ,
A u g u s t, 1953, p. 1 8 2 :
F e w e x e c u t i v e s r e a l i z e how c r i t i c a l l y im p ortant t h e i r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e
m ay b e to an em p lo y er.
P l a c e m e n t e x p e r t Ann 11off o b s e r v e s th a t em­
p l o y e r s now se e m t o be lo ok ing for an i d e a l ’ H o lly w o o d t y p e . ’
O ne
com pany r e j e c t e d a c a n d i d a t e b e c a u s e he h ad ' t e e t h t h a t were to o s q u a r e ’
a n d o t h e r s h a v e b een d i s q u a l i f i e d b e c a u s e th e ir e a r s s t u c k out, or they
d rank a nd sm ok e d to o h e a v ily d u rin g an i n te r v ie w . R a c ia l an d r e l i g i o u s
re q u i re m e n t s a l s o a r e often frankly s t i p u l a t e d by e m p l o y e r s . 1
2 S ee, for e x a m p l e , William K o rn h au ser, ‘ T h e N eg ro Union O f f i c i a l : A stud y
o f S p o n s o r s h i p a n d C o n t r o l ,’ A m erican Jo u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , LV11,
p p. 443-452, and S cott Greer, ' S i t u a t e d P r e s s u r e s a nd F u n c tio n a l R ole
of E t h n i c L ab o r L e a d e r s , ’ S o c ia l F o r c e s , XXXU, p p .4 1 - 4 5 .
30
F i r s t , in d iv i d u a ls often f o s te r the im p r e s s io n chat th e
ro u tin e th e y a r e p r e s e n tly performing i s th e ir only r o u tin e or
ac l e a s t th e ir most e s s e n t i a l one.
A s p r e v io u sly s u g g e s te d ,
the a u d i e n c e , in th e ir turn, often a s s u m e th a t th e c h a r a c t e r
p r o je c te d before them i s all there i s to t h e in d iv id u a l who
a c t s out th e p ro je c tio n for them. A s s u g g e s te d in th e wellknown q u ota tion from William J a m e s :
. . . . w e may p r a c t i c a l l y s a y t h a t h e h a s a s many d ifferen t s o c i a l
s e l v e s a s t h ere a r e d i s t i n c t g ro u p s o f p e r s o n s ab o ut w h o s e opinion
he cares.
He g e n e r a l l y s h o w s a d if fe r e n t s i d e o f h im se lf to e a c h
o f t h e s e d ifferen t gro u p s.
Many a youth who i s dem ure e n o u g h before
h i s p a r e n t s a nd t e a c h e r s , s w e a r s and s w a g g e r s l i k e a p ir a te among
h i s ' t o u g h ' yo ung f rie n d s .
We do n o t show o u r s e l v e s to our ch ildren
a s to our c l u b co m p an io n s , to o u t cu s t o m e rs a s t o th e l abo u rers we
em ploy, to our own m a s t e r s a n d e m p lo y er s a s to our in tim ate frien ds. 1
As both e f fe c t an d e n a b lin g c a u s e o f t h is kind o f commitment to
th e part one i s currently performing, we find th a t a u d i e n c e s e g ­
re g a tio n o c c u r s ; by a u d ie n c e se g re g a tio n the ind iv id u al en­
s u r e s th a t th o s e before whom he p l a y s on e of h i s p a r t s will not
be th e s a m e in d iv i d u a ls before whom h e p l a y s a different
part in a n o th e r s e ttin g .
A u d ie n c e se g re g atio n a s a d e v ic e
for p ro te c tin g f o s te r e d i m p r e s s i o n s will be c o n s id e r e d later.
H ere I would lik e only to n o te that even if perform ers a tte m p te d
to break down t h i s s e g r e g a ti o n , a n d t h e ill u s io n t h a t i s
f o s te r e d by it, a u d i e n c e s would often p reve n t such ac tio n .
T h e a u d i e n c e ca n s e e a g r e a t s a v in g of tim e and em otional
energy in th e righ t to tr e a t th e performer a t o c c u p a tio n a l
fa e e - v a lu e , a s if t h e perform er w ere all a n d on ly what h i s
uniform c la im e d him to be. 2
Urb^n life would becom e un­
bea rab ly s tic k y for s o m e if every c o n t a c t b e tw e en tw o
in d iv i d u a ls e n t a i l e d a s h a r in g of personal tr ia ls , w orries,
an d s e c r e t s .
T h u s if a man w a n ts to be s e rv e d a restfu l
dinner, he may s e e k th e s e r v i c e of a w a it r e s s rath er th a n a
wife.
S econdly, perform ers te n d to f o s te r th e im p re ssio n that
their current perform ance of their r o u tin e a n d cheir re la tio n s h ip
to their current a u d i e n c e h a v e so m e th in g s p e c i a l a n d u niqu e
about them.
T h e r o u tin e c h a r a c t e r o f th e perform ance i s
o b s c u re d (th e performer h im s elf i s ty p ic a lly unaw are o f ju st
how r o u tin iz e d h i s perform ance r e a lly is ) and th e s p o n ta n e o u s
a s p e c t s o f th e situ a tio n a re s t r e s s e d .
T h e m e d ic a l perform er
p ro v id e s an o b v io u s exam ple. A s one w riter s u g g e s t s :
. . . . h e m ust s i m u l a t e a memory.
T h e p a t i e n t , c o n s c i o u s of the
u niq ue im p ortance of the e v e n t s o c c u r r in g within him, rem em bers
1 William J a m e s , T h e P h ilo s o p h y o f W illiam J a m e s (Modern Librar y ed .;
New York : Random H o u s e, n. d.), p p . 128-1292 1 am grateful to Warren P e t e r s o n for t h is a n d other s u g g e s t i o n s .
31
e v e r y t h i n g a n d , in b i s d e l i g h t in t e l l i n g the d o c to r a b o u t i t, s u f f e r s
from ' c o m p l e t e r e c a l l . ’
T h e p a t i e n t c a n ’t b e l i e v e t h a t the d o c t o r
d o e s n ’t rem em b er t o o , and h i s p r id e i s d e e p ly w o u nd ed if the la tr e r
a l l o w s him t o p e r c e i v e t h a t h e d o e s n ’t carry in t h e foref ront of h i s
mind p r e c i s e l y w h a t k ind of t a b l e t s he p r e s c r i b e d on h i s l a s t v i s i t ,
how many of them t o be t a k e n a n d when. 1
S im ila rly, a s a r e c e n t stu d y of C hica go d o c to rs s u g g e s t s , a
g e n e r a l p r a c titio n e r p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l i s t to a p a t ie n t a s th e
b e s t c h o i c e on te c h n ic a l g ro u n d s, but in fact the s p e c i a l i s t
may h a v e b e e n c h o s e n partly b e c a u s e of c o l le g i a l t i e s with
t h e referring do cto r, or b e c a u s e of a s p li t- f e e arran ge m ent, or
b e c a u s e o f so m e o th e r c l e a r l y defin e d quid pro quo b etw e en th e
tw o m edical men. 2 In our com m ercial lif e t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f p e rfo rm a n c e s h a s b een e x p lo ite d a n d maligned u nder th e
rubric ' p e r s o n a l i z e d s e r v i c e ; ’ in o th e r a r e a s of life we make
j o k e s about ' t h e b e d - s id e m a n n e r ’ o r ' t h e g la d h a n d . ’ (We
o fte n n e g l e c t to mention chat a s p erform ers in th e ro le of c l ie n t
we t a c tf u lly uphold t h i s p e r s o n a liz in g effec t by a tte m p tin g to
g iv e th e im p r e s s io n th a t we h a v e not ' s h o p p e d ’ for th e s e r v ic e
and would not c o n s i d e r o b ta in in g it e l s e w h e r e .)
P e r h a p s it
i s our g u ilt th a t h a s d ir e c te d our a t te n t io n to t h e s e a r e a s of
c r a s s p s e u d o - gem einschaft, for th e re i s hardly a perform ance,
in w h ate v er a r e a of life , which d o e s not rely on th e p e r s o n a l
touch to e x a g g e r a t e th e u n iq u e n e s s of the t r a n s a c t i o n s betw e en
perform er and a u d i e n c e .
F o r exam p le, we feel a s lig h t d is a p p o in tm e n t when we h e a r a c l o s e friend, w hose s p o n ta n e o u s
g e s t u r e s o f warmth w e fe lt w e re o u r own p r e s e rv e , ta lk
in ti m a t e ly with an o th er of h i s f rie n d s ( e s p e c i a l l y o n e whom
we do not know). 3
^ . E i M . J o a d , 'O n
1953, pp. 255-256.
D octors,'
2 Solomon,
p. 146.
op.
c i l .,
T h e N e w S ta te sm a n a n d N a tio n , March 7,
3 An e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t of t h i s i s g i v e n in a n ea r ly American guide to
m a n n e r s , T h e C a n o n s o f G ood B r e e d in g : or the H andbook o f th e Man o f
F a sh io n ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : L e e an d B lan c h ard , 1839), p. 8 7 :
' I f y o u h a v e p a i d a co m p lim en t to o n e m an, or h a v e u se d to ward h im any
e x p r e s s i o n of p a r t i c u l a r c i v i l i t y , you sh ou ld not sh o w t h e s a m e c o n d u c t
to any o t h e r p e r s o n i n h i s p r e s e n c e . Fo r ex am p le, if a g e n t l e m a n c o m e s
to your h o u s e a n d y ou t e l l him with warmth an d i n t e r e s t t h a t you ' a r e
glad to s e e h im ,’ h e will be p l e a s e d w ith t h e a t t e n t i o n , an d will prob ab ly
t h a n k y o u ; bu t if he h e a r s y ou s a y t h e s a m e t h in g t o tw en ty o th e r p e o p l e ,
he will no t only p e r c e i v e that y ou r c o u r t e s y w a s wor th n o t h i n g , bur he
will f e e l som e r e s e n t m e n t a t h a v i n g b een i m p o s e d o n . '
32
Maintenance of Expressive Control
It h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d th a t th e perform er c a n rely upon
h is a u d ie n c e to a c c e p t minor c u e s a s a sign of som ething
im portant about h i s perform ance. T h i s c o n v e n ie n t fa c t h a s an
in c o n v e n ie n t im plica tio n . By v irtu e of th e same sig n -ac ce p cin g
ten d en c y , th e a u d ie n c e may m is u n d e r s ta n d th e m eaning th a t a
c u e w a s d e s ig n e d to con vey, or may r e a d an e m b a rra ssin g
m eaning into g e s t u r e s or e v e n t s that were a c c i d e n t a l , in­
a d v e r te n t, in c id e n t a l or not meant by the perform er co carry
any m eaning w h ats o ev e r.
In r e s p o n s e to t h e s e com m unication c o n t in g e n c ie s , p e r ­
formers commonly attem pt to exert a kind of sy n e c d o c h ic
r e s p o n s i b ilit y , making su re th a t a s many a s p o s s i b l e o f th e
minor e v e n t s in th e perform ance, how ever in stru m e n ta lly in­
c o n s e q u e n tia l t h e s e e v e n t s may be, will o c c u r in s u c h a way
a s to con v e y eith er no im p re ssio n or an im p re ssio n th a t i s
c o m p a tib le and c o n s i s t e n t with th e overa ll d e finition of th e
s itu a tio n that i s being fo ste re d . When th e a u d i e n c e i s known
to be s e c r e tl y s c e p ti c a l of the r e a lity that i s being im p r e sse d
upon them, we have been ready to a p p r e c ia te their te n d e n c y
to poun ce on triflin g f l a w s a s a sign th a t the whole sh ow i s
f a l s e ; but a s s t u d e n t s of so c ia l life we h a v e been l e s s ready
to a p p r e c ia te that eve n sy m p a th e tic a u d i e n c e s c a n be moment­
a r il y d istu rb e d , s h o c k ed , and w e a k e n e d in th e ir faith by th e
d isc o v e ry of a p ic a y u n e d is c r e p a n c y in th e i m p r e s s io n s
p r e s e n te d to them. Some of t h e s e minor a c c i d e n t s a n d 'u n m e a n t
g e s t u r e s ' happ en to be so a p tly d e s ig n e d to give an im p re ssio n
th a t c o n t r a d i c t s th e one fo ste re d by th e perform er that t h e
a u d ie n c e c a n n o t help but be s ta r t le d from a proper d e g re e of
invo lv e m e n t in th e in te r a c tio n , even though th e a u d ie n c e may
r e a l i z e th a t in the l a s t a n a l y s i s th e d is c o rd a n t ev e n t i s rea lly
m e a n in g l e s s a n d ought to be co m p letely overloo ked.
The
c r u c ia l po int i s not th a t th e f le e tin g d e finition o f th e s itu a tio n
c a u s e d by an unmeant g e s tu r e i s i t s e l f so blameworthy but
ra th e r merely that it i s different from the definition o ffic ia lly
pro jec ted .
T h i s d if fe r e n c e f o rc e s an a c u te ly e m b a rra ssin g
w edge betw een the offic ia l p r o je c tio n and r e a lity , for it i s part
o f the o ffic ia l pro jec tio n th a t it i s the only p o s s i b l e one under
th e c i r c u m s ta n c e s .
P e r h a p s , then, w e shou ld not a n a l y z e
pe rfo rm a n c e s in te rm s of m e c h a n ic a l s t a n d a r d s , by w hich a
la rg e gain ca n o f fs e t a sm all l o s s , •or a la rg e weight a sm a lle r
one. A rt is tic imagery would be more a c c u r a te , for it p r e p a re s
u s for th e fac t th a t a s in g le n o te off key can disru p t che tone
of an e n t ir e perform ance.
33
In our s o c ie ty , some unmeant g e s t u r e s ock'ur in such ;i
wide variety of perfo rm an ce s and c o n v e y i m p r e s s io n s th a t a re
in g en e ral so inc o m p atib le with the o n e s being fo ste re d th a t
t h e s e ino p p o rtu n e e v e n t s h a v e a c q u ire d c o l le c tiv e sym b olic
sta tu s.
T h r e e rough g ro u p in g s o f t h e s e e v e n t s may be
m e ntio ned.
F i r s t , a performer may a c c i d e n t a l l y co n v e y in ­
c a p a c ity , im propriety, or d i s r e s p e c t by momentarily lo s in g
m u sc u la r control of him self.
He may trip, stu m b le , fall ; h e
may b elch , yaw n, make a s lip of th e tongue, s c r a t c h h im self,
o r . b e f l a t u l e n t ; he may a c c i d e n t a l l y im pinge upon th e body
of an other p a rtic ip a n t.
Secondly, the performer may net in
such a way a s to give th e im p re ssio n th a t he i s to o much or
too l i t t l e c o n c e rn e d with the in te r a c tio n .
lie may stu tte r ,
forget h i s li n e s , a p p e a r n erv o u s, or g uilty, or s e l f c o n s c i o u s ;
he may give way to in a p p ro p ria te o u t b u r s t s of laughter, anger,
o r o th e r k i n d s of affect which m om entarily i n c a p a c i t a t e him
a s an in te r a c t ant ; he may show too much s e r io u s involvement
an d i n t e r e s t , or too lit tle .
D iir ily , the perform er may allow
h i s p r e s e n ta t io n to su f fe r from in a d e q u a te dram aturgical
ilirection. T h e s e ttin g may not have been put in order, or may
h a v e becom e rea d ied for th e wrong perform ance, or may become
d era n g ed during the p erfo rm a n c e ; u n fo re se e n c o n t in g e n c ie s
may c a u s e improper tim ing of die perform er’s arrival or
d ep a rtu re or may c a u s e e m b a r ra s s in g lu ll s to occur during th e
in te r a c t io n . 1
P e r f o r m a n c e s differ, of c o u r s e , in th e d e g r e e of item by
item e x p r e s s i v e c a r e required o f them.
In th e c a s e of som e
c u l t u r e s foreign to us, we are rea dy to s e e a high d e g r e e of
e x p r e s s iv e c o h e re n c e . G ra n et, for exam ple, ' s u g g e s t s t h i s of
filial p e rfo rm a n c e s in C h i n a :
T h eir fine t o i l e t i s i n i t s e l f a hom ag e. Tlicir good J e p o n m c n t will
be a c c o u n t e d an offering of r e s p e c t . In the p r e s e n c e of p a r e n t s , gravity
i s r e q u i s i t e : one m ust th erefo re be c a r e f u l no t to be lc h , to s n e e z e , to
c o u g h , to yawn, to b low o n e ' s n o s e n o r t o s p it. It.very e x p e c to r a tio n
would run rlie r i s k of s o i l i n g rhe p arern al s a n c t i t y . It would be a crime
to sh o w the l in in g of o n e ' s g a r m e n ts,
l o sh o w the fath er t h a t one i s
t r e a t i n g him a s a c h i e f , one o ught a l w a y s to s t a n d in h is p r e s e n c e , the
r y e s right, the body u pright upon the two l e g s , ne v e r d aring to l e a n
1 One way of h a n d l i n g i n a d v e r t e n t d i s r u p t i o n s is for the i n t c r a c t a n t s to
lau gh a t them a s a s i^ n thar rhe e x p r e s s i v e im p l i c a t i o n s of t h e d is r u p t i o n s
h av e been u n d e r s t o o d but n o t tak en s e ri o u s l y . A ssu m in g t h i s , U c r ^ s o n 's
e s s a y on lau g h ter can be rak en a s a d e s c rip tio n o f the w ay s in w hich we
e x p e c t the perform er ro a d h e r e to human c a p a c i t i e s for m ovem ent, of the
te n d en cy for t h e a u d i e n c e t o impu re t h e s e c a p a c i t i e s t o th e performer
from t h e s t a r t of th e i n f r a c t i o n , an d of the w ay s in w hich t h i s e f f e c t i v e
pro jectio n i s d i s r u p t e d when t h e performer m o v e s in a non-human fash io n .
Sim ilarly, F re u d ’s e s s a y on wit a nd t h e p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y of e v ery d ay life
ca n be t a k e n , a t one l e v e l , a s a d e s c ri p t i o n of the w a y s in w h i c h we
e x p e c t p erfo rm ers ro h ave a c h i e v e d ce r ta in s t a n d a r d s of t a c t , m o d es ty ,
a n d v ir tu e , a nd a s a d e s c r i p t i o n of w ay s in which t h e s e e f f e c t iv e pro*
j e c t i o n s can be d i s c r e d i t e d by s l i p s th at are h i l a r io u s to the la ym an hut
sy m p tom atic to a n a l y s t s .
34
up o n any o b j e c t , nor to bend, nor t o s t a n d on o ne foot.
It i s tlgus t h a t
with the low ami humble v o i c e which b e c o m e s a fo llo w er, one c o m es
n i g h t an d morning to pay hom age. After w hich, o n e w a i t s for o r d e rs . 1
Vte a r e a l s o to s e e that In s c e n e s in vo lv in g high p e r s o n a g e s
in sy m b o lic a lly im portant a c tio n s , 'c o n s i s t e n c y , too, will be
dem anded. ■
Sir F re d e r ic k P o n s o n b y , l a t e Equerry a t th e
B r itis h Court, -writes:
'Vhen 1 a t t e n d e d a ' C o u r t ' 1 w a s a l w a y s struck by t h e in co n g ru o u s
m u sic the b an d p la y e d , a nd d e te r m in e d to do what 1 c o u ld to h a v e t h i s
re m e d ie d .
T h e m ajo rity o f the H o u s e h o l d , b e in g q uite u n m u s i c a l,
clam o u red for p o p u lar a i r s . . . .
1 a rgu ed that t h e s e p o p u la r a i r s
ro b b ed th e cerem ony o f all d ig nity.
A p r e s e n t a t i o n at C o u r t w a s often
a gr e a r e v e n t in a l a d y ' s l i f e , but if sh e went p a s t the King a n d Queen
to the tune of ' H i s n o s e ’«as r e d d e r than it w a s , ' the w hole i m p re ss io n
w as spoilr.
1 m a in ta in e d t h a t m in u e ts an d o l d - fa s h i o n e d airs» o p e r a t i c
m u sic with a ' m y s te r io u s 1 to uch, wer e w h a t w as w a n te d . 2
1 a l s o took up t h e q u e s t io n of th e m u sic p l a y e d by th e band o f
t h e guard of honour at i n v e s t i t u r e s a nd wrote to the Senior B a n d m a ste r ,
C a p ta in R o ga n, on t h e s u b j e c t .
What I d i s l i k e d w as s e e i n g em in en t
men b e in g k n ig h ted w h ile com ic s o n g s wer e bein g p l a y e d by the band
o u t s i d e ; a l s o when the Home S e c r e ta r y w as r e a d i n g ou t im p re ss iv e ly
so m e p a r t i c u l a rl y h ? r o i c d e e d w h ich had b een performed by a man who
w a s to r e c e i v e rhe A lb ert Medal, th e b au d o u t s i d e p l a y e d a tw o -step ,
which rob bed rhe w h ole cerem on y o f an y d ig n ity .
I s u g g e s t e d o p e r a tic
m u sic of a d r a m a t i c n a tu r e b e in g p l a y e d , a n d he e n tir e ly a g r e e d . . . .■*
Similarly, at m i d d l e - c l a s s A m erican f u n e r a ls , a h e a r s e driver,
d e c o r o u s ly d r e s s e d in bla ck and ta c tf u lly l o c a t e d a t th e ou t­
s k i r t s of th e c e m e te ry during t h e s e r v ic e , -may be a llo w e d to
sm oke, but h e i s lik e ly to shock and a n g e r the b e r e a v e d ' i f
he h a p p e n s to flick h i s c i g a r e t t e s t u b into a b ush, le t t i n g i t
d e s c r i b e an e l e g a n t arc, ■i n s t e a d o f c irc u m s p e c tly dropping
i t at h i s f e e t. 4
In a d d itio n to our a p p re c ia tio n of th e c o n s i s t e n c y req u ired
on s a c r e d o c c a s i o n s , we re a d ily a p p r e c i a t e th a t during s e c u l a r
c o n f l i c t s , e s p e c i a l l y h ig h -le v e l c o n f li c ts , e a c h p ro ta g o n is t
w ill hav e to w a tc h h i s own co n d u c t c a re fu lly l e s t h e g iv e
t h e o p p o sitio n a v u ln e ra b le po in t a t which to d ir e c t c r itic is m .
T h u s , D ale , in d i s c u s s i n g th e work c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f h ig h e r
c iv il s e r v a n t s , s u g g e s t s :
An e v e n c l o s e r s c ru tin y ( th a n that a c c o r d e d to st a te m e n ts ) i s
a p p l i e d to d r a f t s o f o f f i c i a l l e t t e r s : for an i n c o r r e c t s t a te m e n t o r an
u nh ap py p h r a s e in a l e t t e r of which t h e s u b s t a n c e i s p e r fe c t ly h a r m l e s s
an d rhe s u b j e c t unim portant may cover t h e D ep artm ent w ith co o f u sio n
i f it h a p p e n s to be s e i z e d on by on e o f t h e many p e r s o n s to whom
th e m ost triv ial m ist ke of a Governm ent D epartm ent i s a d ainry d i s h
ro s e t before the p u b l i c . T h r e e or four y e a r s of t h i s d i s c i p l i n e du ring
the s t ill r e c e p t i v e y e a r s from twenty «four ro t w e n t y - e i g h t s u f f u s e t h e
mind and c h a r a c t e r p erm anently with a p a s s i o n for p r e c i s e f a c t s and
c l o s e i n f e r e n c e s , an d wirh a grim d i s t r u s t o f v a g u e g e n e r a l i t i e s . 5
1 Marcel G r a n e t, C h in e s e C iv iliz a tio n , t r a n s . t n n e s an d B r a i l s f o r d ( L o n d o n :
K e g a n P a u l , 1930), p. 328.
2 P o n s o u b y , op. c it, t pp. 182-183.
3 /6irf.p p. 183.
4 l l a b e n s t e i n , forthcoming work p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d .
5 Dale, op. ci*., p. 81.
35
In spice of o u r w i l l i n g n e s s to a p p r e c i a t e t h e e x p r e s s i v e
re q u ire m e n ts of chese s e v e r a l k in d s of sicuacions, w e te n d
co s e e t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s a s s p e c ia l c a s e s ; we te n d to blind
o u r s e l v e s co th e fa c t that everyday se c u la r p e rfo rm a n c e s
in our own A nglo-Am erican s o c ie t y must often p a s s a s tr ic t
t e s t of a p t n e s s , f i t n e s s , propriety, .and decorum. P e r h a p s th is
b li n d n e s s i s partly d u e to th e fact th a t a s perform ers we a re
o fte n more c o n s c i o u s of th e s ta n d a r d s which we might h a v e
ap p lie d to our a c tiv ity buc hav e noc than o f th e s ta n d a r d s we
u n th in k in g ly apply. In any c a s e , a s s t u d e n t s we must be ready
to exam ine th e d i s s o n a n c e c r e a te d by a m is s p e ll e d word, or by
a slip th a t i s noc q u ite c o n c e a le d by a s k i r t ; and we m u s t be
ready to a p p r e c ia te why a n e a r - s i g h te d plumber, to p ro te c t the
im p r e s s io n o f rough streng th th a t i s de rigueur in h i s pro­
f e s s i o n , . f e e l s i t n e c e s s a r y to sw ee p h i s s p e c t a c l e s into h i s
p o c k e t , w h e n th e h o u s e w ife ’s app roach c h a n g e s h i s work into
a p erform ance, or why a t e le v i s io n repairm an i s a d v i s e d by
h i s p u b lic r e l a t i o n s c o u n s e l s thac che s c r e w s he f a i l s co puc
back inco th e s e t s h o u ld be kepc a l o n g s id e h i s own so chat
th e u n r e p ia c e d p a r t s w ill not give an improper im p r e s s io n .
In oth e r w ords, .we must be p repared to s e e th a t the im p re ssio n
of r e a lity f o s te r e d by a perform ance i s a d e l ic a te , fra gile th in g
t h a t can be s h a t t e r e d by very minor m is h a p s.
T h e e x p r e s s i v e c o h e r e n c e that is req u ired in p e rfo rm a n c e s
p o i n t s out a c r u c ia l d i s c r e p a n c y betw een our all-too-hum an
s e l v e s and our s o c i a l i z e d s e l v e s .
A s human b ein g s we are
presu m a b ly c r e a t u r e s of v a r ia b le im p u lse with m ood s and
e n e r g i e s t h a t c h a n g e from on e moment to the next.
As
c h a r a c t e r s p u t on for an a u d ie n c e , how ever, we must not be
s u b j e c t to u p s and dow n s.
A s Durkheim s u g g e s te d , we <lo
not a llo w o ur h ig h e r s o c ia l a c tiv ity ‘ to follow in th e trail
o f our bodily s t a t e s , a s our s e n s a t i o n s and our gen e ral bodily
c o n s c i o u s n e s s d o .1 1
A c e r ta in b u re a u c ra tiz a tio n of the
s p i r i t i s e x p e c t e d s o that we can be relied upon to give a
p e rfe c tly h o m o g e n e o u s perform ance at every ap p o in te d time.
A s S a n ta y a n a s u g g e s t s , t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s not only
tr a n s f ig u r e s , it f i x e s :
B u t w heth er t h e v i s a g e we a s s u m e be a joyful o r a s a d o n e, in
a d o p t i n g and e m p h a s i z i n g i t we define our s o v e re ig n tem per.
Hence­
forth, 90 l o n g a s we c o n tin u e u n d e r the s p e ll of t h i s self-k n o w led g e,
we do n o t m erely l i v e bu t a c t ; we c o m p o s e and p l a y our c h o s e n
chajracrer, we w ear t h e b u sk in of d e l i b e r a t i o n , we d e f e n d an d i d e a l i z e
o ur p a s s i o n s , we e n c o u r a g e o u r s e l v e s e lo q u e n tly to b e what w e are,
d e v o t e d or sc o rnfu l or c a r e l e s s o r a u s t e r e ; w e s o l i l o q u i z e (befo re an
i m aginary a u d i e n c e ) a n d we wrap o u r s e l v e s g racefu lly in t h e m a n tle
of our i n a l i e n a b l e pa r t.
So d rap ed , we s o l i c i t a p p l a u s e an d e x p e c t
l Emile Durkheim. T h e E le m e n ta ry F orm s o f the R e lig io u s
J . W.Swain (L o ndon : Allen & Unwin» 1926), p. 272.
36
L ife , tr a n s .
t o d i e amid a u n i v e r s a l h u s h . We p r o f e s s to l i v e u p to the f i n e s e n t i ­
m e n t s we h av e u t t e r e d , a s we try t o b e lie v e in t h e r elig io n w e p r o f e s s .
T h e g r e a t e r our d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e g r e a t e r our z e a l. Un der o ur p u b l i s h e d
p r i n c i p l e s an d p l i g h t e d lan g u ag e we m ust a s s i d u o u s l y h i d e all the
i n e q u a l i t i e s of our m o o ds a n d co n du ct, and t h i s w ithout h y p o c t i s y ,
s i n c e o u t d e l i b e r a t e c h a r a c t e r i s more Duly o u r s e l f th an i s t h e flux
o f o u r inv olu ntary d r e a m s.
T h e p o r tra it we p a i n t in t h i s way and
e x h ib it a s our true p erson may w ell be in t h e grand m anner, with column
an d cu rtain a nd d i s t a n t l a n d s c a p e an d fin g er p o in tin g to t h e t e r r e s t i a l
g lo b e or to the Y o r ick -s k u ll of p h i l o s o p h y ; but if t h i s s t y l e i s n a t i v e
to u s an d our art i s v i t a l , t h e more it t r a n s m u t e s i t s model t h e d eep er
an d truer a r t i t will b e.
T h e se v e r e b u s t o f an a r c h a i c s c u l p tu r e ,
s c a r c e l y h um an izin g t h e block, will e x p r e s s a s p i r i t far more ju stly
t h a n t h e m a n ’s d u ll morning l o o k s or c a s u a l g r i m a c e s .
E very one
who i s s u r e of b i s mind, or pro ud of h i s o ffice, or a n x i o u s a b o u t h i s
d u t y a s s u m e s a tragic m ask.
He d e p u t e s i t to be h im se lf and t r a n s f e r s
t o i t a l m o s t a ll h i s van ity .
While s t i l l a l i v e a n d s u b j e c t , l i k e a l l
e x i s t i n g th i n g s , t o t h e u nd erm in in g flux o f h i s own s u b s t a n c e , he
h a s c r y s t a l l i z e d h i s so ul into an id ea, a n d more in p r id e than in sorrow
h e h a s offered up h i s l i f e on t h e a l t a r of th e M uses. Self-k n ow ledg e,
l i k e any a r t or s c i e n c e , r e n d e r s i t s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r in a new medium,
r h e medium o f i d e a s , in which it l o s e s i r s old d i m e n s i o n s a n d i t s old
place.
Our an im al h a b i t s a r e tran sm u ted by c o n s c i e n c e into l o y a l t i e s
a nd d u t i e s , and we b e c o m e ' p e r s o n s ’ o r m a s k s . 1
And if our s o c ia l front h e l p s u s to s u s t a in a worthy s o c ia l
note, we must, a s Simone de B eauvoir s a y s , liv e up to th e
fixed c h a r a c t e r of our in a n im a te sign equipm ent.
Even if each woman d r e s s e s in conformity with her s t a t u s , a game
i s s t i l l being p l a y e d : a r t i fi c e , l i k e art, b e l o n g s to th e realm of the
imaginary*
It i s nor only t h a t gi rdle, brassiere^ hair-dy e, make-up
d i s g u i s e body an d f a c e ; but th at the l e a s r s o p h is ticate« ] of women,
o n c e sh e i s d r e s s e d , ' d o e s n o t p r e s e n t h e r s e lf to o b s e r v a t i o n ; s h e i s ,
l i k e the p ic tu r e o r the s r a r u e , or t h e a c t o r on the s t a g e , an a g e n t
through whom i s s u g g e s t e d som eo ne no t t h e r e —t h a t is, t h e c h a r a c t e r
s h e r e p r e s e n t s , but i s not.
It is t h i s id e n t i fi c a t io n with som e th in g
u nreal, fixed, p e r fe c t a s t h e hero o f a n ov el, a s a p o r tra it o r a bust,
t h a t g r a t i f i e s h e r ; s h e s t r i v e s ro identify h e r s e l f with t h i s figure an d
t h u s to se em t o h e r s e l f to be s t a b i l i z e d , j u s t i f i e d in her sple n do r. 2
Misrepresentation
It w a s s u g g e s te d e a r lie r th a t an a u d i e n c e i s a b l e to o r ie n t
i t s e l f in a s it u a ti o n by a c c e p tin g performed c u e s on faith,
t r e a tin g t h e s e s ig n s a s e v i d e n c e of so m e th in g g r e a te r than
o r different from th e s ig n - v e h i c le s th e m s e lv e s .
If t h i s te n ­
dency o f th e a u d ie n c e to a c c e p t s i g n s p l a c e s the performer
in a p o sitio n to be m is u n d e rsto o d an d m a k e s it n e c e s s a r y
for him to e x e r c i s e e x p r e s s i v e c a r e regarding ev e ry th in g h e
d o e s when before the a u d ie n c e , so a l s o t h i s s ig n - a c c e p tin g
te n d en c y p u ts th e a u d ie n c e in a p o sitio n to be duped and
m isled, for th e re a r e few s i g n s th a t c a n n o t be u s e d to
a t t e s t to th e p r e s e n c e of som e th ing that i s not really there.
And it i s plain th a t many perform ers h a v e am ple c a p a c ity
1 S an tay an a,
op. c i t .,
2 Simone d e Beauvoir,
Knopf, 1953), p. 533-
pp. 133-134.
The Second S ex,
37
t r a n s . H. M. P a r s h l e y (New York*
a n d m otive to m is r e p r e s e n t t h e f a c t s ; on ly sham e, g uilt, or
fear p rev e n t them from doing so. ■
A s mem bers o f t h e a u d i e n c e i t i s natural for u s to feel
th a t th e im p re ssio n th e perform er s e e k s to g iv e may be true
o r f a l s e , g en u in e or s p u rio u s, v alid or ' p h o n y . '
So common
i s t h i s s o c ia l doubt th a t o b s e r v e r s often g iv e s p e c ia l a tte n tio n
to f e a t u r e s o f th e p erform an ce th a t cannot be re a d ily man­
ip u la te d , ■t h u s en a b lin g th e m s e l v e s to judge th e r e lia b ility
of t h e more m i s r e p r e s e n t a b le c u e s in th e p erform ance. ( S c ie n ­
t if ic p o lic e work and p r o je c tiv e t e s t i n g a re ex trem e e x a m p le s
o f th e a p p lic a tio n o f t h i s te n d e n c y .)
And if we grudgingly
a llo w c e r ta in sy m b o ls of s t a t u s to e s t a b l i s h a perform er’s right
to a given treatm ent, we a r e a l w a y s ready to po unce on c h i n k s
in h i s sym bolic armour in o rder to d is c r e d it h i s p r e te n s io n s .
When we think o f th o s e who p r e s e n t a f a l s e front or ' o n l y '
a front, o f th o s e who d is s e m b le , d e c e i v e , and defraud, we
think of a d e s c r e p a n c y b e tw e en f o s te r e d a p p e a r a n c e s and
r e a lity .
We a l s o th ink o f th e p r e c a r io u s p o sitio n in which
t h e s e p erform ers p l a c e th e m s e lv e s , for a t any moment in th e ir
p erform ance an ev e n t may o cc ur to c a t c h them out and baldly
c o n t r a d ic t w hat they h a v e openly a v o w e d , bringing them
im m edia te hum iliation a n d s o m e tim e s p erm anent l o s s of
re p u ta tio n .
We often feel that it i s ju s t t h e s e te rrib le ev e n t­
u a l i t i e s , which a r i s e from being c a u g h t out, flagrante delicto,
in a p a t e n t a c t o f m is re p re s e n t a ti o n , th a t an h o n e s t perform er
i s a b l e t o avo id .
T h i s c o m m o n -se n se view h a s lim ite d a n ­
a l y t i c a l u tility .
S om etim es when we a s k w hether a fo ste re d im p re ssion
i s tr u e o r f a ls e we r e a lly m ean to a s k w hether or n o t the
perform er i s a u th o riz e d to g iv e t h e perform ance in q u e s tio n ,
an d w e a r e not prim arily c o n c e rn e d with th e a c tu a l perfo rm ance
itself.
When we d i s c o v e r th a t som e on e with whom we h a v e
d e a l i n g s i s a n im p o s to r and out-and-out fraud, we are d i s c o v e r
in g th a t he did not hav e th e right to play th e part he p la y e d ,
th a t he w a s n o t an a c c r e d i te d incum bent o f the r e le v a n t s t a t u s .
We a s s u m e th a t th e im p o s to r ’ s p erform ance, in ad d itio n to th e
f a c t th a t it m i s r e p r e s e n t s him, will be a t fault in other w ays,
but often h i s m a sq u e ra d e i s d is c o v e r e d before we c a n d e t e c t
any o th e r d iffe re n c e b e tw e en th e f a l s e perform ance an d th e
l e g itim a te o n e w hich it s im u la t e s .
P a r a d o x ic a ll y , the more
c l o s e l y th e im p o s to r’s perform ance a p p ro x im a te s to th e real
th in g , th e more i n t e n s e l y we may be th r e a te n e d , for a co m pete nt
perform ance by som e on e who p r o v e s to be a n im p osto r may
weaken in our m inds the s a c r e d c o n n e c tio n betw een le g itim a te
38
a u th o riz a tio n to play a part and th e c a p a c ity to play it. (Skilled
mim ics, who admit all a lo ng that th e ir in te n tio n s are u n se rio u s ,
seem to p rovide o n e way in which w e can 'w o rk th ro u g h '
som e of t h e s e a n x i e t i e s . )
T h e s o c ia l d e finition of im pe rso n atio n , how ever, is not
i t s e l f a very c o n s i s t e n t thing. F or e x a m p l e , ' Wh i l e it i s felt
to be an in e x c u s a b l e crim e a g a i n s t com m unication to im­
p e r s o n a te so m eon e o f s a c r e d s t a t u s , suc h a s a d o cto r or a
p r ie s t , we a r e often l e s s c o n c e rn e d when so m e o n e i m p e r s o n a te s
a member o f a d is e s te e m e d , n o n - c r u c ia l, p rofane s t a t u s , su c h
a s th a t o f a hobo or u n sk ille d worker.
When a d i s c l o s u r e
sh o w s th a t we h a v e been p a r tic ip a tin g with a perform er who
h a s a h ig h e r s t a t u s th a n h e le d u s to b e lie v e , there i s good
C h r is t ia n p r e c e d e n t for our r e a c tin g with wonderment and
c ha grin ra th e r th a n with h o s tility . Mythology and our popular
m a g a z in e s , in fa c t, are full o f rom antic s t o r i e s in w hich th e
v illa in and the hero both make fraud ulent c l a i m s that are
d is c r e d ite d in th e l a s t ch a p te r, the v illa in p roving not to hav e
a high s t a t u s , th e hero proving not to h a v e a low one.
F u rthe r, w hile we may ta k e a h arsh view of perform ers
such a s c o n f id e n c e men who know ingly m is re p re s e n t every
f a c t a bout th e ir l iv e s , we may h a v e some sym pathy for th o s e
who hav e but o n e fata l flaw an d who attem pt to c o n c e a l the
fac t th a t they are, for exam ple, e x - c o n v ic ts , deflow ered,
e p i le p t ic or r a c ia ll y impure, i n s t e a d of adm itting th e ir fault
and making an ho n o u rab le attem pt to liv e it down. Also, w e
d is tin g u is h betw een im personatio n of a s p e c ific , c o n c r e te
in d iv id u a l, which we u s u a lly feel is q u ite i n e x c u s a b le , and
im p e rso n atio n o f ca te g o ry membership, which we may feel
l e s s strongly abo ut. So, too, we often feel d ifferently abo u t
t h o s e who m is re p re se n t th e m s e lv e s to forward what they feel
are th e ju st c l a i m s of a c o l le c tiv i ty , or th o s e who m is re p re s e n t
th e m s e lv e s a c c i d e n ta lly or for a lark, th an about t h o s e who
m is re p re s e n t th e m s e lv e s for p riv ate p s y c h o lo g ic a l or m aterial
gain*
F i n a l l y , s i n c e th ere are s e n s e s in which the c o n c e p t o f
' a s t a t u s ’ i s not c le a r- c u t , so th e re are s e n s e s in which th e
c o n c e p t of im p e rsonation i s not c l e a r either.
F o r exam ple,
we o b v io u sly find th a t th e re a r e many s t a t u s e s in which
membership i s not s u b je c t to formal ra tific a tio n .
C la im s to
b e a law g r a d u a te ca n b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s valid or invalid, but
c laim s to be a friend, a true b e lie v e r, or a m usic lo v e r can be
confirmed or d isc onfirm ed only m o re-o r-le ss. Where s ta n d a r d s
o f c o m p ete n ce are not o b je c ti v e , and where bona fide p racti39
ti o n e r s a r e not c o l le c tiv e ly o r g a n iz e d to p ro te c t th e ir m andate,
an ind iv id u al may s t y l e h im s e lf an e x p e r t and be p e n a liz e d
by n o th in g stro n g e r than s n ig g e r s .
All o f t h e s e s o u r c e s o f c o n f u s io n are in s t r u c tiv e ly i l l u s ­
tr a te d in th e v a r ia b le a t t i t u d e we h a v e tow ard th e h a n d lin g of
a g e and s e x u a l s t a t u s .
It i s a c u l p a b le th in g for a f ifte e n y e a r -o ld boy who d r i v e s a c a r or d r in k s in a ta vern to r e p r e s e n t
h im s e lf a s b e in g e ig h te e n , but there a r e many s o c i a l c o n t e x t s
in w hich i t would be im proper for a woman not to m is re p re s e n t
h e r s e l f a s b eing more youthful and s e x u a ll y a t t r a c t i v e than i s
r e a lly the c a s e . When we s a y a p a r ti c u la r woman i s not r e a lly
a s w ell-formed a s s h e a p p e a r s tp b e and that th e s a m e woman
i s not r e a lly a p h y s ic ia n although s h e a p p e a r s to be, we are
u s in g d ifferent c o n c e p t i o n s o f the term ' r e a l l y . ’
F u rth e r
m o d if ic a tio n s o f o n e ’s p e r s o n a l front th a t are c o n s id e r e d
m is re p re s e n c a t iv e one y e a r may be c o n s id e r e d merely d e c o r a tiv e
a few y e a r s la te r, an d t h i s d i s s e n s u s may be found at any one
tim e b etw e en on e sub-group in our s o c ie t y and o th e rs.
For
e xa m ple , very r e c e n tly th e c o n c e a lm e n t of grey hair by d y ein g
h a s com e to be c o n s id e r e d a c c e p t a b l e , although th e re s t i l l are
s e c t o r s of th e p o p u la c e which c o n s id e r t h i s to be imper­
m issib le. 1
It i s f e lt to be all right for im m ig ran ts to
im p e r s o n a te n a t iv e A m eric an s in d r e s s and in p a t t e r n s of
decorum but £a«L it is s t i l l a doubtful m atter to A m eric an iz e
o n e ’s n a m e 2 or o n e ’s n o s e . 3
L e t u s try a n o th e r ap p ro a c h to th e u n d e r s ta n d in g of m is­
r e p r e s e n ta t io n .
An ' o p e n , ’ ' f l a t , ’ or b are fa ced l i e m ay be
d efin e d a s o n e for w hich th e re ca n be u n q u e s tio n a b le e v i d e n c e
t h a t the te l l e r knew he l i e d a n d wilfully did so. A cla im to
hav e been a t a p a r ti c u la r p la c e at a p a r tic u la r tim e, wiien t h i s
w a s not th e c a s e , i s a n e xa m ple . (Some k in d s of im p e rso n a tio n ,
but n o t all, in v o lv e s u c h l i e s , and many s u c h l i e s do not
in v o lv e im p e rso n a tio n .) T h o s e c a u g h t out in th e a c t nf te llin g
b a r e f a c e d l i e s not only l o s e f a c e during th e in te r a c tio n but
in a s e n s e may h av e th e ir f a c e d e s tro y e d , for it i s felt by
many a u d i e n c e s th a t if an in d iv id u a l ca n o n c e bring h im s e lf
to te ll su c h a l i e , h e ought n e v e r a g a in to be fully tr u s te d .
H ow ever, th e re a r e many ' w h i t e l i e s , ' told by d o c to rs, p o te n ­
tia l g u e s t s and o th e rs, presu m a b ly to s a v e th e f e e l i n g s of
• S e e , for ex am p le, ' T i m a i r , ' F o rtu n e, No vem b er 1951, p. 102.
2 S e e , for ex am ple, I I . L . Mencken, T h e A m e ric a n L a n g u a g e (4th e d . ; New
Y o r k : Knopf, 1936), p p . 474-525.
3 S ee, for exam p le, ' P l a s t i c S u rg e ry ,’ E b o n y , May, 1949, an d F . C. M acgtegor
an d ^ B . S c h a f f n e r , 1S c r e e n i n g P a t i e n t s foe N a s a l P l a s t i c O p e r a t i o n s : Some
S o c io lo g ic a l and P s y c h i a t r i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , ' P s y c h o s o m a tic M ed icin e,
XII, pp. 277-291.
40
th e a u d i e n c e th a t i s lie d to, and t h e s e k in d s o f u n tr u th s a r e
not thought to be h o rre nd ous.
(Such l i e s , meant to p ro te c t
o th e r s r a th e r than to d efend the se lf, will be c o n s id e r e d again
la te r .)
F u rth e r, in e v e ry d ay li f e it i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e for
the perform er to c r e a te in te n tio n a lly a lm o st any kind o f f a l s e
im p re ssio n without pu ttin g h im s e lf tn th e in d e f e n s ib le p o sitio n
o f having told a c l e a r - c u t lie .
Com m unication t e c h n iq u e s
such a s innuendo, s t r a t e g i c am bigu ity, an d crucial o m is s io n s
a llow th e m isinform er to profit from l i e s w ithout, te c h n ic a l ly ,
te llin g any. 1
Form al reco g n itio n h a s been given to the s h a d in g s betw e en
l i e s and truths and to the e m b a r ra s s in g d if f i c u l t i e s c a u s e d
by t h i s continuum.
O rg a n iz a tio n s su c h a s real e s t a t e b o a rd s
d ev elop e x p lic it c o d e s s p e c if y in g the d e g r e e to which doubtful
i m p r e s s io n s can be given by o v e r s ta te m e n t, u n d e r-sta te m e n t,
an d o m i s s i o n s . 2
T h e C ivil S e r v ic e in B rita in a p p a ren tly
o p e r a t e s on a sim ila r u n d e r s ta n d in g :
T h e rule here ( a s r e g a r d s ' s t a t e m e n t s w hich a r e i n t e n d e d or a r e
l i k e l y to be evm e p u b l i c ’ ) i s s i m p l e .
N othing may be s a i d w h ich i s
n o t t r u e : but it i s a s u n n e c e s s a r y a s it i s s o m e tim e s u n d e s i ra b l e ,
e v e n in t h e p u b lic i n t e r e s t , to s a y ev e r y t h i n g r e l e v a n t which i s t r u e ;
a n d the f a c t s f i v e n m ay be a r ra n g ed in a n y c o n v e n i e n t ord er.
It is
won derful what can be d o n e within t h e s e l i m i ts by a s k i l f u l dr a fts m a n .
I t mi/sh’’. be s a i j , c y n i c a l l y , but with some m eas u re o f truth , th at the
p e r fe c t reply to an e m b a r r a s s in g q u e s t io n in the H o u s e of Commons i s
o ne that i s b rief, a p p e a r s to a n s w e r the q u e s t io n c o m p le te ly , i f
c h a l l e n g e d can be proved to be a c c u r a t e in every word, g i v e ? n o o p e n in g
for awkward ' s u p p l e m e n t a r i e s / and d i s c l o s e s re a l l y n o th in g .^
T h e law c r o s s c u t s many ordinary s o c ia l n i c e t i e s by introducing
o n e s o f i t s own.
In America}) law, in te n t, n e g lig e n c e , and
s t r i c t lia b i l i t y a re d i s t i n g u i s h e d ; m is re p re s e n ta tio n i s held
to be an in te n tio n a l a c t, but o n e th a t can a r i s e through word
or deed, a m b ig u o u s s ta te m e n t o r m is le a d in g lit e r a l truth, n o n ­
d i s c l o s u r e or p rev e n tio n of d isc o v e r y . 4 C u lp a b le n o n - d is c lo s u re
i s held to vary, d e p e n d in g on th e area of life , th e re being one
s ta n d a r d for th e a d v e r tis in g b u s i n e s s and a n o th e r sta n d a r d for
p ro fe s s io n a l c o u n s e llo rs . F urther, the law te n d s to hold t h a t :
A r e p r e s e n t a t i o n made with an h o n e s t b e l i e f in i t s truth may s t i l l
b e n eg lig en t, b e c a u s e of l a c k of r e a s o n a b l e care in a s c e r t a i n i n g th e
1 A. c l e a r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s i s given in t h e L a n g s ' stu dy of Mac Arthur ’s
e n t r a n c e o f C h ic a g o during the 1952 R e p u b lic a n N atio n al C on v e n tio n .
T h e y prov ide a d e t a i l e d c o n t r a s t b etw een the a c t u a l r ecep tio n a c c o r d e d
MacA rthur an d the e d i t e d v e r s i o n o f i t th at a p p e a r e d on t e l e v i s i o n . S ee
K u rt and G. H. L a n g , *The U n i q u e P e r s p e c t i v e o f T e l e v i s i o n a nd i t s E ff ect *.
A P i l o t S tud y,' A m erica n S o c io lo g ic a l R e v ie w , XVIII, pp . 3-12.
2 See, for example, E . C . H ug hes, 'S t u d y of a S e c u l a r I n s t i t u t i o n ' T h e
C h i c a g o R e al E s t a t e B o a r d ' ( u n p u b l is h e d P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . Depar tm ent
of S ociology, U n iv e r sity of C hica g o , 1928), p. 85.
3 Dale, op. c i l . t p. 1054 S ec William L . P r o s s e r , H andbook o f th e L a w o f T o rts (Hornbook S e r i e s ;
St. H au l, Minn.: West P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1941), p p . 701-776.
41
f a c t s , o r in t h e m ann er of e x p r e s s i o n , or a b s e n c e of th e sk ill a n d
c o m p e t e n c e r eq u ired by a p a r t i c u l a r b u s i n e s s or p r o f e s s i o n . 1
. . . . t h e fact t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s d i s i n t e r e s t e d , t h a t he had the
b e s t o f m o t i v e s , a n d t h a t h e th o u g h t he w a s d o ing the p l a i n t i f f a
k i n d n e s s , will no t a b s o l v e him from l i a b i l i t y so long a s h e di d in fact
in ten d to m i s l e a d . 2
When we turn from outright im p e r s o n a tio n s and b a r e fa c e d
l i e s to o th e r t y p e s of m is re p re s e n t a ti o n , th e co m m o n -sen se
d is t in c t io n betw e en tr u e and f a l s e im p r e s s i o n s b e c o m e s even
l e s s te n a b le .
We find th at c h a r la ta n p ro fe s s io n a l a c tiv ity
o f o n e d e c a d e b ec o m e s an a c c e p t a b l e le g itim a te o c c u p a tio n
in th e next. 3
We find th a t a c t i v i t i e s which a r e thought to
be l e g itim a te by so m e a u d i e n c e s in our s o c ie ty are thought
by o th e r a u d i e n c e s to be r a c k e ts .
More im portant, we find that th e re i s hardly a le g itim a te
e v e ry d ay v o c a tio n or r e la tio n s h i p w h o se perform ers do not
e n g a g e in c o n c e a le d p r a c t i c e s which are in c o m p a tib le with
f o s te r e d i m p r e s s io n s .
Although p a r ti c u la r p erfo rm an ce s,
a n d even p a r t i c u l a r p a r t s or r o u tin e s , may p l a c e a perform er
in a p o sitio n of h aving nothing to h id e , so m ew here in the
full round of h is a c t i v i t i e s th e re will b e so m e th in g h e c a n n o t
t r e a t o p e n ly .
T h e la rg e r t h e number of m a tte rs an d th e la rg e r
th e number o f a c tin g p a r ts which fall within th e domain of the
ro le or r e la tio n s h i p , the more lik e lih o o d , it would seem , for
p o in ts o f s e c r e c y to e x i s t. T h u s in w e ll -a d ju s te d m a rria g e s,
we e x p e c t th a t e a c h p artn e r may keep from the o th e r s e c r e t s
hav in g to do with fin a n c ia l m a tte rs, p a s t e x p e r ie n c e s , cu rren t
f lir ta tio n s , i n d u l g e n c e s in ' b a d ’ or e x p e n s iv e h a b i ts , p e r so n a l
a s p i r a t i o n s an d w o rries, a c t i o n s o f c h ild r e n , tr u e o p in io n s
h e ld about r e l a t i v e s or mutual frie n d s, etc, <
With s u c h
s t r a t e g i c a l l y lo c a te d p o i n t s of r e ti c e n c e , it i s p o s s i b l e to
m aintain a d e s ir a b le status quo in the r e la tio n s h ip w ithout
h a v in g to ca rry out rigidly th e im p l ic a tio n s of t h i s ag re e m e n t
in all a r e a s of life .
P e r h a p s m ost im p o rta n t of a l l, we m ust n o te th a t a f a ls e
im p re ssio n m a in ta in e d by an in d iv id u a l in any on e of his
r o u t i n e s may b e a th rea t to th e whole r e la tio n s h i p or ro le of
which t h e r o u tin e i s only o n e part, for a d is c r e d i t a b l e d i s ­
c l o s u r e in o n e a r e a of an in d iv i d u a l's a c tiv i ty will throw doubt
on t h e many a r e a s of a c tiv i ty in which h e may h a v e nothing
1 P r o s s e r , op. c i t ., p. 73 3 .
2 Ib id ., p. 728.
3 S e e Harold D. McDowell, O s te o p a th y i A S tu d y o f a S em i-orthodox H ea lin g
A g e n c y a n d th e R e c ru itm e n t o f its C lie n te le , u n p u b lish e d M aster's T h e s i s
D epartm en t of S o cio log y, U n i v e r s i t y of C h ic a g o , 1951.
* S e e , for exam p le, D avid D r e s s i e r ,
T h is B e e k , S ep tem ber 13, 1953.
'W h a t D o n 't T h e y T e l l E a c h Other,*
42
to c o n c e a l.
S im ilarly, if the indiv id ual h a s only one thing
to c o n c e a l during a perform ance, and even if the lik e lih o o d of
d i s c l o s u r e o c c u r s only a t a p a r ti c u la r turn or p h a s e in the
p erform ance, the perform er’s a n x ie ty may w ell ex tend to the
w hole perform ance.
In p r e v io u s s e c t i o n s o f th is c h a p te r som e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t­
e r i s t i c s of perform an ce were s u g g e s t e d : a c tiv i ty o rie n te d
to w a r d s w o rk -ta sk s t e n d s to be c o n v e rted in to a c tiv i ty o rie n te d
to w a r d s com m u n ic atio n ; th e front b ehind w hich t h e routine is
p r e s e n t e d is a ls o lik e ly to be s u it a b le for other, som ew hat
d ifferent r o u tin e s a a d so i s lik e ly not to fit c o m p le te ly any
p a r tic u la r r o u tin e ; s u f fi c ie n t self-control i s e x e rte d so a s to
m ain ta in a working c o n s e n s u s ; a n id e a li z e d im pression i s
offered by a c c e n tu a tin g c e r ta in f a c t s an d c o n c e a lin g o t h e r s ;
e x p r e s s i v e c o h e r e n c e i s m a inta ined by th e performer taking
more c a r e to g uard a g a i n s t minor d is h a rm o n ie s than th e s t a t e d
p u rp o se o f th e p erform ance might le a d t h e a u d i e n c e to thir.k
w a s w arranted.
All of t h e s e g en e ral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f per­
fo rm a n c e s c a n b e se en a s in te r a c tio n c o n s t r a i n t s which pla y
upon t h e in d ividual a n d transform h i s a c t i v i t i e s in to perform­
ances.
I n s te a d of m erely doing h i s t a s k and g ivin g vent to
h i s f e e lin g s , h e will e x p r e s s th e doing of h is t a s k and a c c e p ­
ta b ly con v e y h i s f e e lin g s .
In g e n e ra l, th e re p re s e n ta tio n
o f an a c tiv ity , e s p e c i a l l y when t h i s r e p r e s e n ta tio n i s s o c i a l i z e d
in a c c o r d a n c e with in te r a c tio n sta n d a r d s , will vary in some
d e g r e e from t h e a c tiv i ty i t s e l f and th e re fo re, in a c e r ta in
s e n s e , will in e v ita b ly be a m is re p re s e n ta tio n o f it.
And
s i n c e th e in d ividu al will be required to rely on s ig n s in order
to c o n s tru c t a r e p r e s e n ta t io n of h is a c tiv i ty , th e im age he
c o n s t r u c t s , h ow eve r faithful 10 th e f a c ts , will be s u b je c t to
all the d is r u p tio n s th a t im p r e s s io n s a r e s u b je c t to.
While we c o uld r e ta in the c om m on-sense notion th a t fostere d
a p p e a r a n c e s can b e d is c r e d ite d by a d is c re p a n t re a lity , 'th e r e
i s often no r e a s o n for claim in g that t h e f a c t s d is c re p a n t with
th e f o s te r e d im p re ssio n a r e any more th e te a l r e a lity than
i s th e f o s te r e d r e a lity th e y h av e t h e power of em b arra ssin g .
A c y n ic a l v iew of everyday perfo rm an ce s c a n be a s o n e -sid e d
a s t h e one th a t i s sp o n s o r e d by the perform er.
F or many
s o c io lo g ic a l i s s u e s it may not even be n e c e s s a r y to d e c id e
w hich i s the more real, the fo ste re d im p re ssio n or th e on e
che perform er a tte m p ts to p reve nt the a u d i e n c e from re c e iv in g .
T h e cru c ia l s o c io lo g ic a l c o n s id e ra tio n , for t h i s report, a t
l e a s t , is m erely that im p r e s s io n s fo stere d in ev e ry d ay p e r­
form a nce s a r e s u b je c t to disrup tion.
We will w ant to know
what kind o f im p re ssio n of r e a lity c a n s h a t t e r th e fo ste re d
43
im p re ssio n o f re a lity , and what r e a lity r e a lly is ca n be le ft
to o th e r s t u d e n t s . We will want to a s k , " W h a t a re the w ay s
in which a given im p r e s s io n ca n be d i s c r e d i t e d ? ” and t h i s
i s not q u ite th e sam e a s as k in g , " W h a t are th e w ay s in which
th e given im p r e s s io n i s f a l s e ? ”
We com e bac k, then, to a r e a liz a tio n that while the per­
formance offered by im p o s to rs and lia r s i s in a s e n s e q u ite
fla g ra n tly f a l s e an d differs in t h i s r e s p e c t from ordinary p e r­
form an ces, both are sim ila r in the c a r e th eir perform ers must
exert in order to m aintain th e im p re ssio n that i s fo ste re d .
T h u s , for exam ple, w e know th a t th e formal c o d e of B ritish
c ivil s e r v a n t s 1 an d o f A m erican b a s e b a ll u m p i r e s 2 o b l i g e s
them not only to d e s i s t from making improper ' d e a l s ’ but
a l s o to d e s i s t from in n o c e n t actio n which might p o s s ib ly
give th e (wrong) im p re ssio n th a t th e y a r e m aking d e a ls .
Whether an h o n e s t perform er w is h e s to con v e y the truth or
w h eth e r a d is h o n e s t perform er w is h e s to convey a fa ls e h o o d ,
both m ust ta k e c a r e to e n liv en th e ir perform ances with a p p ro ­
p ria te e x p r e s s io n s , e x c lu d e from th e ir perfo rm an ce s e x p r e s s i o n s
th a t might d i s c r e d it th e im p re ssio n being fo stere d , an d t a k e
ca re l e s t the a u d i e n c e impute u n in te n d e d m e anings. B e c a u s e
of th e s e s h a re d dram atic c o n t in g e n c ie s , we ca n profitably
stu d y p erfo rm an ce s th a t a re quite f a ls e in order to learn about
o n e s that a re q u ite h o n e s t. 3
Mystification
I have s u g g e s te d w a y s in which th e perform ance of an
in d iv id u a l a c c e n t u a t e s c e r ta in m a tte rs and c o n c e a l s o th e rs.
If we s e e p e r c e p tio n a s a form of c o n t a c t and communion,
»c con tro l o v e r what i s p e rc eiv e d i s con tro l over c o n ta c t
th a t i s mr.J- . and th e lim ita tio n and r e g u la tio n of w hat is
shown i s a i/m iration and r e g u la tio n of c o n ta c t.
T h e r e is a
r e la tio n here betw een inform ational terras and ritual o n e s .
F a ilu r e to r e g u la te the information ac q u ire d by th e a u d ie n c e
1 D ale, o p . c it., p. 1032 P i n e l I i , op. c it., p. 100.
3 T h e r e is a fu rther r e a s o n for g iving a t t e n t i o n to per fo rm ances a nd fro n ts
t h a t are flag ran tly f a lse .
V.lten we find t h a t fake t e l e v i s i o n a e r i a l s are
s o l d to p e r s o n s who d o not h av e s e t s , and p a c k n g c s o f e x o t i c trav el
l a b e l s to p e r s o n s who have n e v e r l e f t home, an d wire-whecl h u b cap
a t t a c h m e n t s to m o t o ris ts with ordinary c a r s , we h av e c l e a r - c u t e v i d e n c e
o f th e i m p r e s s iv e fu nction of presu m ab ly in stru m ental o b j e c t s .
When we
s t u d y th e r e a l th ing , i . e . , p e r s o n s w ith real a e r i a l s and rea)—s e t s , , e t c . ,
i t may be d i f fi c u l t in many c a s e s to d e m o n s tr a t e c o n c l u s i v e l y the im­
p r e s s i v e function of w hat c a n be claim ed a s a s p o n t a n e o u s or in stru m en tal
a c t.
44
i n v o lv e s p o s s i b le disru p tio n of the p ro je c te d definition of the
s i t u a t i o n ; failu re to r e g u la te c o n ta c t in v o lv e s p o s s i b le ritual
co n tam in atio n of th e perform er.
It is a w idely held notion th at r e s tr ic tio n s p la c e d upon
c o n t a c t , the m a in te n a n c e of s o c ia l d i s t a n c e , provide a way
in w hich aw e can be g e n e ra te d and s u s t a i n e d in th e a u d i e n c e —
a way, a s K enneth Burke h a s s a id , in w hich the a u d i e n c e can
be held in a s t a t e of m y stific a tio n in regard to the performer.
C o o le y ’s s ta te m e n t may s e rv e a s an ill u s tr a ti o n :
Ho w far ii i s p o s s i b l e for a man to work upon o th er s t hro ug h a
f a l s e i d e a o f h i m s e l f d e p e n d s upon a variety of c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
As
a l r e a d y p o in ted out, the man h im se lf may be a mere i n c i d e n t with no
d e f i n i te relatio n to the i d e a of him, the l e t t e r b e in « a s e p a r a te pro d uct
o f the im ag in atio n . T h i s can hatdly be e x c e p t w here there i s no imme­
d i a t e c o n t a c t b etw een l e a d e r and follo w er, and par tly e x p l a i n s why
au thority , e s p e c i a l l y if it c o v e r s i n t r i n s i c p e r s o n a l w e a k n e s s , h a s
a l w a y s a t e n d e n c y to surroun d I t s e l f wlrh forms an d a r t i f i c i a l m y stery ,
w h o s e o b j e c t i s to p r e v e n t familiar c o n t a c t an d so g iv e the im ag ination
a c h a n c e to i d e a l i z e . . . .
T he d i s c i p l i n e of a r m i e s an d n a v i e s , for
i n s t a n c e , very d i s t i n c t l y r e c o g n i z e s the n e c e s s i t y of t h o s e forms w hich
se p a ra te su p e rio r from inferior, an d so h elp t o e s t a b l i s h an u n s c r u t i n i 2 ed
a s c e n d a n c y in t h e former. In the sa m e way m a n n e r s, a s P r o f e s s o r R o s s
re m a rk s in h i s work on S o c ia l Control, are larg ely u s e d by men of t h e
world a s a m e a n s of se l f - c o n c e a l m e n t , an d t h i s s e l f- c o n c e a l m e n t s e rv e s ,
am ong o ther p u r p o s e s , th at o f p r e s e r v i n g a s o r t of a s c e n d a n c y over t h e
unsophisticated. 1
T h e lo g ic a l c o n c lu sio n to t h i s kind of theory, w heth e r it i s
in fa c t co rrec t or not, is to prohibit the a u d ie n c e from lo ok ing
a t the performer at all, and at tim e s when c e le s c ia l q u a l i t i e s
and pow ers have been claim ed by a performer, t h i s lo g ic al
co n c lu sio n s e e m s to hav e been put into effect.
Of c o u rse , in the m a tte r of k ee p in g s o c ia l d is t a n c e , th e
a u d i e n c e i t s e l f will often co-operace by a c t ^ g in a re sp e c tfu l
fa s h io n , in awed regard fc r t h e s a c r e d inte g rity im puted to
th e perform er.
As Simmel s u g g e s t s :
T o a c t upon the s e c o n d of t h e s e d e c i s i o n s c o r r e s p o n d s to th e feeling
(w hich a l s o o p e r a t e s e l s e w h e r e ) th a t an i d e a l sp he re l i e s around
every human being.
Although diffe ring in s i z e in variou s d ir e c t i o n s
1 C o o le y , op c it , p. 551.
P o n s o n b y , iri giving a d v i c e to t h e King of
.Norway, g i v e s v o i c e to the s a m e theory, o p. c it,, p. 2 7 7 :
*One n igh t K.ing H aako n told me of h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s in face ol t h e rep u b lican
l e a n i n g s of the o p p o sitio n and how careful in c o n s e q u e n c e h e had to
be in a l l he di d an d s a i d . He intend ed , he s a i d , to go a s much a s p o s s i b l e
am ong t h e p e o p l e an d thou ght it would be p o p u lar if, i n s t e a d of going
in a motor car, h e a nd Queen Maud wete to u se th e tram w ay s.
* 1 told him frankly t h a t I thou ght t h i s would be a g r e a t m i s t a k e a s
fam iliar ity bred contem pt.
As a n a v a l o f fi c e r h e would know t h a t the
c a p t a i n of a sh i p n e v e r had h i s m e a l s with the ot her o f f i c e r s but rem ained
q uite alo of. T h i s w as, of c o u r s e , to scop an y fam iliarity with them. 1
told him t h a t he m u st get up on a p e d e s t a l an d re m ain th ere.
He co uld
then s t e p off o c c a s i o n a l l y and no harm would be done. T h e p e o p l e d i d n ’t
want a King with whom they co uld hob- nob but so m e th in g n e b u l o u s like
the D elph ic o r a c l e . T h e Monarchy w a s re a lly the c r e a tio n o f e a c h in d iv id ­
u a l ’s brain. Every man liked to thin k what h e would do, if he w a s King.
P e o p l e i n v e s t e d the Monarch w ith every c o n c e i v a b l e v irtu e and t a l e n t .
T hey w ere bound th e r e fo t e to be d i s a p p o in t e d if they sa w him going
ab o ut like an ordinary man in the s t t e e t . ’
45
an d d ifferin g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p e r s o n with whom one e n t e r t a i n s r e l a t i o n s ,
t h i s s p h e re c a n n o t be p e n e t r a t e d , u n l e s s the p e r s o n a l i t y v a l u e of th e
in d iv id u a l i s th ereb y d e s t ro y e d . A s p h e re of t h i s s o r t i s p l a c e d around
man by h i s ' h o n o r . 1 L a n g u a g e very po ig n an tly d e s i g n a t e s an i n s u l t
to o n e s honor a s 'c o m i n g too c l o s e : ’ the r a d i u s of t h i s s p h e r e m arks,
a s it w er e, t h e d i s t a n c e w h o s e t r e s p a s s i n g by an o th e r p e r s o n i n s u l t s
o n e ' s honor. 1
Durkheim m a k e s a s im ila r p o in t:
T h e human p e r s o n a l i t y i s a s a c r e d t h i n g o n e d o e s no t v i o l a t e i t nor
infrin g e i t s bou nd s, w h ile a t the sa m e time the g r e a t e s t good i s in
communion with o t h e r s . 2
It must be m ade q u ite c le a r, in c o n tra d ic tio n to the im p lic a tio n s
of C o o le y ’ s rem arks, t h a t a w e and d i s t a n c e are felt toward
p erform ers of e q u a l and inferior s t a t u s a s w e ll a s ( a lb e it not
a s much) toward p erfo rm ers of su p e ro r d in a te s ta tu s .
H ow ever m y stica l in c h a r a c t e r , t h e s e in h ib i tio n s o f the
a u d i e n c e allow th e perform er som e elbow-room in building
up an im p r e s s ip n o f h i s own c h o i c e and allow him to function,
for h i s own good or the a u d i e n c e ’ s, a s a pro tec tio n or a threat
th a t c l o s e i n s p e c t io n would d es tro y .
[ would lik e , fin ally , to a d d th a t the m a tte rs which the
a u d i e n c e l e a v e s a lo n e b e c a u s e of th e ir a w e of th e perform er
a re lik e ly to be the m a tte r s abo u t which h e w ould feel sham e
were a d is c lo s u r e to occur.
A s R i e z le r h as s u g g e s te d , we
have , th e n , a b a s i c s o c ia l co in , w ith aw e on one s i d e and
s h a m e on th e other. 3 T h e a u d i e n c e s e n s e s s e c r e t m y s t e r ie s
an d p o w e r s behind th e perform ance, and the performer s e n s e s
t h a t his c h i e f s e c r e t s a r e p e tty o n e s . A s c o u n t l e s s folk t a l e s
and in it ia t io n r ite s show , o ften th e r e a l s e c r e t behind the
m y ste ry i s th a t there r e a lly i s no m y s t e r y ; the rea l problem
i s to prevent th e a u d ie n c e from le a r n in g t h i s too.
i T h e S o c io lo g y o f G eorg S im m e l, t r a n s . an d ed. Kurt H.Wolff ( G len co e,
l i t .: T h e F re e P r e s s , 1950), p. 321.
2 Emile Durkheim, S o c io lo g y a n d P h ilo s o p h y , tran s. D. P . P o c o c k (London*
C ohen & West, 1953), P* 37.
3 Kurt Riezler» ‘ Com ment on the S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y of S h am e.' A m erica n
Jo u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , XL1II, 462 ff.
46
C H A P T E R II
TEAM S
In th in king abo u t a perform ance it i s e a s y to a s s u m e th a t
the c o n te n t of t h e p r e s e n ta tio n i s merely an e x p r e s s i v e ex­
te n sio n of th e c h a r a c t e r of th e perform er and to s e e th e function
of th e p erfo rm an ce in t h e s e p e rso n a l term s.
T h i s i s a lim ited
v iew an d can o b s c u r e im portant d if f e r e n c e s in th e function
of the p erform ance for t h e in te ra c tio n a s a whole.
F i r s t , it often h a p p e n s that the perform ance s e r v e s mainly
to e x p r e s s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the t a s k th a t i s perform ed
an d not t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e perform er.
T h u s on e finds
th a t s e r v ic e p e r s o n n e l, w h ether in p r o f e s s io n , b urea u cracy ,
b u s i n e s s , or cra ft, enliven th e ir manner with m ovem ents which
e x p r e s s p ro fic ie n cy and in tegrity, but, w h ate v er t h i s manner
c o n v e y s a bout them, often its major p u r p o se i s to e s ta b l is h
a fav o u rab le d efin itio n of th e ir s e r v i c e o r product.
Further,
we often find th a t th e p e r s o n a l front o f th e performer i s em­
p lo y e d not so much b e c a u s e it a l lo w s him to p r e s e n t him s elf
a s h e would lik e to a p p e a r but b e c a u s e h i s a p p e a r a n c e and
m anner can do so m e thing for a s c e n e of w ider sc o p e.
It i s
in th is lig h t that we can u n d e rsta n d how th e s iftin g and sorting
or urban life brings g ir ls with good grooming and co rre c t a c c e n t
into th e job of r e c e p tio n i s t, 'w h e re they c a n p r e s e n t a front
for an o rg a n iz a tio n a s well a s for t h e m s e lv e s .
B ut m ost im po rtant o f a ll, we commonly find that th e d efin i­
tion of t h e s it u a ti o n p r o je c te d by a p a r ti c u la r p a r tic ip a n t i s
an in te g ra l p art o f a p ro je c tio n th a t i s f o s te r e d and s u s t a in e d
by t h e in tim a te c o -o pe ra tion of more than o n e p a rtic ip a n t,
and, m oreover, that ea ch member o f suc h a tro u p e or c a s t
of p la y e r s may be req u ired to a p p e a r in a different light if
th e te a m ’ s o v e ra ll effec t i s to be s a t i s f a c t o r y .
T h u s if a
h o u s e h o ld is to s t a g e a formal dinner, so m e o n e in uniform or
livery will be req uired a s part o f th e working team. T h e in ­
d iv idua l who p la y s t h i s p a rt m ust d ir e c t at him s elf the s o c ia l
defin itio n of a m enial. At the sa m e tim e the in d ividual ta k in g
the part o f h o s t e s s m ust d ire c t at h e r se lf , and f o ste r by her
a p p e a r a n c e an d manner, th e s o c i a l d e finition o f som eone
upon whom i t i s natu ra l for m e n ia ls to wait.
T h i s w as
strik in g ly d em o n strate d in th e is l a n d to u r is t hotel s tu d ie d
by th e writer.
T h e r e an o v e r a ll im p re ssio n o f m id d l e - c la s s
s e r v i c e w a s a c h ie v e d by t h e m anagem ent, who a llo c a te d to
th e m s e lv e s th e r o l e s of m id d le - c la s s h o st and h o s t e s s and
to th e ir em p lo y e e s that of m a id s—althou gh in te rm s of the
lo c a l c l a s s s tr u c tu re th e g ir ls who a c te d a s m aid s were of
s li g h tly h ighe r s t a t u s th a n th e hotel ow ners who em ployed
them.
When h o te l g u e s t s were a b s e n t, no n o n s e n s e abo u t a
m a id - m is tr e s s s t a t u s d iffe re n c e w as a llo w e d by the m aids.
Another ex am ple may be ta k e n from m id d l e - c la s s family life.
In o u r s o c ie t y , when h u sb a n d and w ife a p p e a r before new
f rie n d s for an ev e n in g of s o c ia b i lity , th e wife may d e m o n str a te
more r e s p e c tf u l su b o rd in a tio n to th e will and opinion of her
h u s b a n d than s h e may bother to show when a lo n e with him or
when with o ld f rie n d s . When s h e a s s u m e s a re sp e c tfu l role, he
can a s s u m e a dom inant o n e ; and when ea ch member of the
m arriag e team p l a y s i t s s p e c ia l role, the co n ju g al unit, a s a
unit, c a n s u s t a i n t h e im p re ssio n th a t new a u d i e n c e s e x p e c t
of it. R a c e e t iq u e t te in the South p r o v id e s an o th er exam ple.
C h a r l e s J o h n s o n ’ s s u g g e s tio n is th a t when few oth e r w h ite s
are in th e reg io n , a Negro may ca ll h is w hite fellow -w orker
by his f ir s t name, but when other w h ite s a pproa ch it is under­
sto o d th a t m is te r in g will be r e in tro d u c ed . 1 B u s i n e s s e t iq u e tte
p r o v id e s a sim ila r e x a m p le :
When o u t s i d e r s ace p r e s e n t , th e to u ch o( b u s i n e s s l i k e formality i s
e v e n more im portant.
You may c a l l your s e c re ta ry ' M a r y ' a n d y o u t
p a r t n e r ' J o e * all d ay , bu t when a str a n g e r c o m es inn) your office you
sh ou ld t efet to your a s s o c i a t e s a s you would e x p e c t the s t r a n g e r to
a d d r e s s t h e m : M is s or MrYou may h av e a r u nn ing jo k e w i t h the
sw it c h b o a rd o p e r a t o r, but you let :t ride when you ar e p l a c i n g a call
in an o u t s i d e r ' s h e a r in g . 2
She (your s e c r e ta r y ) w a n t s t o be c a l l c d M iss or Mrs in front of
s t r a n g e r s ; a t l e a s t , s h e w o n 't be flatte red if your *Mary* p r o v o k e s
e v e r y o n e e l s e i n t o a d d r e s s i n g h e r with fam iliarity. *
In g en e ral, th en, a s e t o f in d iv id u a ls who c o -o p e ra te in s ta g in g
a s in g l e r o u tin e may be referred to a s a perform ance team
or, in sh o rt, a team .
Until now in th is report we have tak en ihe in d iv id u a l’s
perform ance a s the b a s ic point of refe re n c e , and we have
c o n c e rn e d o u r s e l v e s with two l e v e l s of f a c t —th e individual
and h i s perform an ce on one hand an d the full s e t of p a r ti c ip a n ts
and th e in te r a c t io n a s a whole on th e other.
F o r th e study
of c e r ta in k in d s and a s p e c t s of in te r a c tio n , th is p e r s p e c ti v e
would seem s u f f i c i e n t ; any th in g th a t did not fit th is framework
c o u ld be h a n d le d a s a r e s o l v a b l e c o m p lic a tio n of it. T h u s
co -o p e ra tio n b e tw e en tw o perform ers e a c h of whom w a s o s t e n ­
sib ly in v o lv e d in p r e s e n tin g h is own s p e c i a l perform ance
c ou ld b e a n a ly z e d a s a type of c o l lu s io n or 'u n d e r s t a n d i n g ’
w ithout a l te r in g the b a s ic frame of re f e r e n c e .
H owever in
th e c a s e - s t u d y of p a r tic u la r s o c ia l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , ■the co­
1 C h a r l e s S. Jo h n s o n , op. c i t . , p p . 137-138.
2 E s q u i r e E t i q u e l t e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : L ip p i n c o t t , 1953), p. 6.
* l b i d . , p- I?
48
o p e r a tiv e a c tiv i ty o f some of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s s e e m s too
im portant to be h an d led merely a s a v a ria tio n on a p revious
theme. Whether the members of a team s t a g e s im ila r in dividual
p erform an ce s or s ta g e d is s im ila r perfo rm an ce s which fit to­
ge th e r in to a whole, an em ergent team im p re ssio n a r i s e s which
can c o n v e n ie n tly be tr e a te d a s a fact in i t s own right, a s a
third le v el of fact lo c a te d betw e en th e in d iv id u a l perform ance
on one hand and th e to ta l in te ra c tio n of p a r ti c ip a n ts on th e
other. It may even be s a id th a t if our s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i s the
study of im p re ssio n m anagem ent, of the c o n t in g e n c ie s which
a r i s e in f o s te r in g an im p r e s s io n , and of th e te c h n iq u e s for
m e etin g t h e s e c o n tin g e n c ie s , then th e te am and the reamp e rfo rm an ce may well be t h e b e s t u n i t s to t a k e a s th e
fundam ental point o f re f e r e n c e . 1 Given t h i s point of refe re n c e ,
it i s p o s s i b l e to a s s i m i l a t e su c h s i t u a t i o n s a s tw o-person
i n te r a c tio n into th e framework by d e s c r ib in g t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s
a s tw o-team in te ra c tio n in w hich ea ch team c o n t a i n s only o n e
member.
( L o g ic a lly s p e a k in g , one could even say th a t an
a u d ie n c e which w as duly im p r e s s e d by a p a r tic u la r s o c ia l
s e t t i n g in w hich no o th e r p e r s o n s w ere p r e s e n t would be an
a u d i e n c e w itn e s s in g a team -perform ance in w hich th e team
was on e of no m em bers.)
T h e c o n c e p t of team a llo w s u s to think of p erfo rm an ce s
that are given by one, or more than one, perform er: it a l s o
c o v e r s an o th er c a s e . E a r lie r it w as s u g g e s t e d th a t a perform er
may b e tak en in by h i s own a c t, c o n v in c e d at th e moment
th a t th e im p r e s s io n of r e a lity w hich he f o s te r s is the one
a n d o nly r e a lity .
In su c h c a s e s we h a v e a s e n s e in which
th e performer co m es to be h is own a u d i e n c e ; he com es to be
performer an d o b s e rv e r o f the s a m e show .
P re s u m a b ly he
in tr o c e p ts or in c o rp o r a te s the s t a n d a r d s he a t te m p ts to m aintain
in th e p r e s e n c e of o t h e r s so th a t even in th e ir a b s e n c e his
c o n s c i e n c e r e q u ir e s him to a c t in a s o c i a l l y proper way. In
t h e s e c a s e s it will have been n e c e s s a r y for th e in d ividu al
in h i s perform ing c a p a c ity to c o n c e a l from h im s e lf in h is
a u d ie n c e c a p a c ity the d i s c r e d i t a b l e f a c ts th a t he h a s had to
le arn abo u t th e p erfo rm a n c e ; in e v e ry d ay te rm s, there will
be th in g s he know s, or h a s known, th at he will not be a b l e
to te ll him self.
T h is in tr ic a te m anoeuvre of se lf- d e lu s io n
c o n s ta n t ly o c c u r s ; p s y c h o a n a l y s t s have provi ie I u s with
b ea u tifu l fie ld d a ta o f t h i s kind, - u nder t h e h e a d in g s o f
r e p r e s s io n and d i s s o c ia tio n . 2
1 The u s e ol the team ( a s o p p o s e d to the perform er) a s t h e fu ndam ental
u nit 1 t a k e ftom Von Neumann, op, c it., e s p e c i a l l y p. 53, w here bridge
i s a n a l y s e d a s a gam e b etw een tw o p l a y e r s , e a c h of whom in some
r e s p e c t s h a s two s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s to d o t h e p la y in g .
2 I n d i v id u a li s t i c
m o d e s o f th ought tend to s e e p r o c e s s e s
49
su c h a s self-
When a perform er g u id e s h i s p r iv a te a c tiv i ty in a c c o r d a n c e
with in c o rp o ra te d moral s t a n d a r d s , h e may a s s o c i a t e t h e s e
s t a n d a r d s with a r e f e r e n c e group o f some kind so th a t, in a
s e n s e , th e re w ill be a n o n -p re se n t a u d i e n c e for h i s a c tiv ity .
T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y l e a d s u s to c o n s id e r a further o n e.
The
ind iv id u al may p r iv a te ly m aintain s t a n d a r d s of b ehaviour which
he d o e s not p e r s o n a lly b e l ie v e in, m a in ta in in g t h e s e s t a n d a r d s
b e c a u s e of a liv e ly b e l ie f that an u n s e e n a u d i e n c e i s p r e s e n t
which will p u n ish d e v i a ti o n s from t h e s e s ta n d a r d s .
In o th e r
words, an ind iv id u al may be h i s own a u d i e n c e or may im a g in e
an a u d i e n c e to be p r e s e n t.
A team h a s been d efine d a s a s e t of perform ers who co­
o p e r a t e in p r e s e n tin g a s in g l e perform ance.
D iffe re n c e s
h a v e been s u g g e s t e d betw e en t h e c o n c e p t of team and the
c o n c e p t of in d iv id u al performer.
It will be u se fu l h ere to
d is t in g u is h t h e team , which i s a ty p e of c o l le c tiv i ty , from
o th e r c o l l e c t i v e groupings.
It i s ap p a re n t that i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e m em bers of the
s a m e team will find t h e m s e lv e s , by v ir tu e o f t h is f a c t, in an
im po rtant r e la tio n s h i p to o n e an o th er.
Two b a s i c com p o n en ts
o f th is r e la tio n s h i p may be cited .
F i r s t , ■it would seem th a t while a team -perform ance i s
in p r o g re s s , an y member o f th e team h a s t h e pow er to g iv e
t h e sh o w aw ay or to d isr u p t it by in a p p ro p r ia te conduct.
E ac h team -m ate i s forced to rely on t h e good conduct and
b e ha viour o f h i s fello w s, and they, in turn, a r e forced to rely
on him.
T h e r e i s , then, perforce, a bond of re c ip ro c a l de­
p e n d e n c e [in king te a m - m a te s to o n e an o th er.
When m em bers
of a team h a v e d ifferent formal s t a t u s e s an d rank in a s o c ia l
e s ta b l is h m e n t, a s i s often the c a s e , then we can s e e th a t
th e mutual d e p e n d e n c e c r e a te d by m em bership in the team
i s lik e ly to cut a c r o s s s tru c tu ra l or s o c ia l c l e a v a g e s in the
e s ta b l is h m e n t and t h u s provide a s o u r c e of c o h e s io n for th e
e s ta b lis h m e n t.
Where s ta f f a n d lin e s t a t u s e s tend to d iv id e
an o rg a n iz a tio n , perform ance t e a m s may te n d to in te g ra te
t h e d iv is io n s .
d e c e p t i o n an d i n s i n c e r i t y a s c h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l w e a k n e s s e s g e n e r a t e d
within t h e d e e p r e c e s s e s o f th e in dividual p e r s o n a l i t y .
It might be
b e t t e r to s t a r t from o u t s i d e t h e i n div idu al a n d work in than to s t a r t i n s i d e
th e in div id u al and work o u t.
We may s a y th at the s t a r t i n g po int for
a i l t h a t i s to come la t e r c o n s i s t s of the in d iv id u a l perform er m aintainin g
a d e f i n i ti o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n before an a u d i e n c e .
T h e in d iv id u a l a u t o ­
m a t i c a l l y b e c o m e s i n s i n c e r e w hen h e a d h e r e s to t h e o b ligation of
m a i n t a i n i n g a workin g c o n s e n s u s and when he p a r t i c i p a t e s in differen t
r o u t i n e s o r perfo rm s a g iv e n p a r t before d i f fe r e n t a u d i e n c e s . S elf-d ece p tio n
c a n be s e e n a s so m e th in g t h a t r e s u l t s when what w ere orig in a lly two
dif fe r e n t r o l e s , performer a n d a u d i e n c e , a r e c o m p r e s s e d in to th e sa m e
in d i v i d u a l .
50
S econdly , it i s apparenc th a t if members of a team muse
c o - o p e ra te to m aintain a given d e finition of the s it u a ti o n b e fo re
th e ir a u d ie n c e , th e y will hardly be in a p o sitio n to m aintain
that p a r ti c u la r im p r e s s io n before o n e another.
A cc o m p lic e s
in th e m a in te n a n c e o f a p a r ti c u la r a p p e a r a n c e of thin g s, th e y
are forced to defin e one a n o th e r a s p e r s o n s ‘ in th e k n ow ,’
a s p e r s o n s before whom a p a r tic u la r front c a n n o t be m a inta ined.
T e a m -m a te s, th e n , in proportion to the frequency with w hich
th e y a c t a s a team and the number of m atters th a t fall w ithin
im p r e s s io n a l p r o t e c t i v e n e s s , te n d to be bound by r ig h ts of
what might be c a lle d ’ f a m i lia r it y .’ Among te am -m a tes , th e
p riv ile g e of f a m ilia rity —which may c o n s titu t e a kind of intim acy
without warm th—nee d not be s o m e th in g of an organic kind,
slow ly d ev e lo p in g with the p a s s a g e o f tim e s p e n t to ge th er,
but rath e r a formal r e la tio n s h i p th a t i s a u to m a tic a lly e x te n d e d
an d r e c e iv e d a s soon a s the in dividual t a k e s a p la c e on th e
team.
In s u g g e s tin g th a t te am -m a tes tend to be re la te d to one
a n o th e r by bonds of r e c ip ro c a l d e p e n d e n c e and re c ip ro c a l
fam iliarity, we must not c o n f u s e the type o f group s o formed
with other ty p e s , suc h a s informal group or cliq u e .
A team­
mate is som eone w h o se d r a m a tu rg ic a l co -o p e ra tio n one is
dep e n d e n t upon in f o s te r in g a given d e finition of th e s i t u a t i o n ;
if s u c h a p erson c o m e s to be beyond th e p ale of informal
s a n c t i o n s a n d i n s i s t s on g iv in g the show aw ay or forcing it
to tak e a p a r tic u la r turn, he i s none the l e s s p a rt of the te am .
In fa c t, -it is ju s t b e c a u s e he is part of th e te am th a t h e can
c a u s e th is kind of tro u b le .
T h u s the i s o l a t e in th e fac to ry
who b ec o m e s a r a t e - b u s t e r is n one the l e s s p art of th e te am ,
e v e n if h is p roductive a c t i v i t y e m b a r r a s s e s the im p re ssio n
the other w o rk e rs are a ttem p tin g to f o s te r a s to w hat co n ­
s t i t u t e s a hard d a y ’s work.
A s an o b je c t of frie nd ship he
may be s tu d io u s ly ignored, but a s a th r e a t to th e te a m ’s d e fin i­
tion of the s it u a ti o n , he ca nno t be overlooked.
Similarly, a
girl a t a party who is flagrantly a c c e s s i b l e may be sh unned
by th e other g irls who a r e p r e s e n t, but in c e r ta in m a tte rs sh e
is part of th e ir team and c a n n o t fail to th rea ten the d efin itio n
they are c o l le c tiv e ly m a in ta in in g th a t g ir ls a re d ifficu lt s e x u a l
p r iz e s .
T h u s w hile te a m - m a te s a re often p e r s o n s who agree
inform ally to guide th e ir e ffo rts in a c e r ta in way a s a m e an s
o f s e lf- p r o te c tio n and by doing so c o n s t i t u t e an inform al group,
th is informal ag re e m e n t i s not a criterio n for defining the
c o n c e p t of team.
T h e members of a n informal cliq u e , u sin g this term in
th e s e n s e of a sm a ll number of p e r s o n s who jo in to g e th er for
51
inform al a m u s e m e n ts , may a l s o c o n s titu t e a ceam, for it is
likely th a t they will hav e t o c o - o p e ra te in ta c tf u lly c o n c e a lin g
rheir e x c l u s i v e n e s s from some non-mem bers w hile a d v e r tis in g
i t s n o b b is h ly to o th e rs. T h e r e i s , how ever, a meaningful c o n ­
t r a s t betw e en t h e c o n c e p t s te am and c l iq u e . In la rg e s o c ia l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , in d iv i d u a ls w ithin a given s t a t u s level are
thrown to g e th e r by v irtu e o f th e f a c t th a t th e y must c o - o p e ra te
in m a in ta in in g a d e fin itio n of the s it u a ti o n toward t h o s e ab ove
a n d belo w them.
T h u s a s e t of in d iv i d u a ls who might be
d i s s i m i l a r in im portant r e s p e c t s , and h e n c e d e s iro u s of main­
t a i n i n g s o c ia l d i s t a n c e from o n e another, find th e y are in a
r e la tio n o f enforced f a m ilia rity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of te am -m a tes
en g a g e d in s ta g in g a show. O ften it s e e m s th a t small c l i q u e s
form not to further th e i n t e r e s t s of th o s e with whom th e in divid­
u a l s t a g e s a sh o w but ra th e r to p r o te c t him from an unw anted
i d e n tif ic a tio n with them.
C l iq u e s , then, often function to
p r o te c t th e in d iv id u a l not from p e r s o n s of oth e r ra n k s but from
p e r s o n s of h i s own rank. T h u s , while all th e m em bers of o n e 's
c l i q u e may be of the sam e s t a t u s le v e l, it may be c ru c ia l that
not all p e r s o n s of o n e ’s s t a t u s le v e l be allo w ed into the
c l iq u e . 1
A final comment must be added on w hat a team i s not.
I n d iv id u a ls may be bound to g e th e r form ally or informally into
an a c tio n group in o rd e r to further lik e or c o l le c tiv e e n d s by
any m e an s a v a ila b le to them.
In s o far a s they c o -o p e ra te
in m a in ta in in g a given im p re ssio n , u sin g th is d e v i c e a s a
m e a n s of a c h ie v in g th e ir e n d s , th e y c o n s t i t u t e w hat h a s here
been c a lle d a team .
But it sh o u ld be made q u ite c l e a r that
th e re are many m e a n s by w hich an a c tio n group ca n a c h ie v e
e n d s o th e r than by dram a tu rg ica l c o -o p e ra tio n .
O ther m eans
to e n d s , s u c h a s fo rce o r b arg a in in g power, may be in c r e a s e d
or d e c r e a s e d by s t r a t e g i c m a n ipula tion of im p r e s s io n s , but
t h e e x e r c i s e of f o rc e or barg a in in g pow er g iv e s to a s e t of
in d iv i d u a l s a s o u r c e of group formation u n c o n n e c te d with
the fact th a t on c e r ta in o c c a s i o n s t h e group th u s formed i s
l i k e l ^ t o a c t, d r a m a tu r g ic a lly sp e a k in g , a s -a te am . 2
I f we a re to em ploy th e c o n c e p t of te am a s a fundam ental
point o f r e fe re n c e , it w ill be c o n v e n ie n t to r e tr a c e e a r l i e r
s t e p s and red e fin e our framework of term s in order to a d j u s t
1 T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , many b a s e s o f c l i q u e formation.
Edw ard G r o s s ,
Inform al R e l a t i o n s a n d t h e S o c i a l O rg an iz atio n o f Work i n an I nd ustrial
O f f i c e (u n p u b l is h e d P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . D ep artm en t of S o cio lo g y , Uni­
v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o , 1949), s u g g e s t s t h a t c l i q u e s may c r o s s ordinary
a g e a n d ' e t h n i c l i n e s in order to b rine t o g e t h e r in d iv id u a ls w h o s e work
a c t i v i t y i s n o t s e e n a s a c o m p e titiv e r e f l e c ti o n upon one an o th er.
2 S im ila rly , an i n d i v i d u a l who i s in a p o s i t i o n of pow er or l e a d e r s h i p may
i n c r e a s e or d e c r e a s e h i s stren g th by the d e g r e e to w hich h i s a p p e a r a n c e
a n d m anner ar e a p p r o p ria te and co n v in c in g , but it i s not claim ed th at
t h e dra m a tu rg ic a l q u a l i t i e s of h i s a c t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y or ev en commonly
c o n s t i t u t e t h e fu ndam ental b a s i s of h i s p o s i t i o n .
52
for die u s e of team, rattier than in dividual performer, t>' the
Kasic unit.
It h a s been s u g g e s te d that the o b je c t of a perlormer is
to s u s t a in a p a r tic u la r definition o f th e s itu a tio n , th is
re p r e s e n tin g , a s it were, h is claim a s to w hat r e a lity is.
A s a one-man team, with no te am -m a tes to inform o f his
d e c isio n , he can quickly d ec id e w hich -o f th e a v a ila b le s ta n d s
on a m atter to take and then w holeheartedly a c t a s if his
c h o ic e were the only one he could p o ssib ly have taken. And
h is c h o ic e of position may be nic ely ad ju ste d to his own
p a r tic u la r situ atio n .
When we turn front a one-man team to a larger one, the
c h a r a c t e r of the rea lity that is e s p o u s e d by the team c h a n g es .
In s te a d o f a rich definition of the s itu a tio n , r e a lity may become
reduced to a thin party line, for we may e x p e ct the lin e to
be u nequ ally cong enial to the members of the team. We may
ex pe ct ironic rem arks by which a team-mate jokingly r e j e c t s
th e line while s e rio u s ly a c c e p tin g it.
On t h e . other hand,
th e re w ill be the new fac to r of loyalty to o n e ’s team and
o n e ’ s te am -m a tes to provide support for the te a m ’s line.
It se e m s to be g enerally felt th a t pub lic d isa g re em ent
among the members of the team not only in c a p a c i t a t e s them
lor united action but a l s o e m b a r ra s s e s the r e a lity spo nso red
by the team. To protect th is im pre ssion of rea lity, members
of the team may be required to postpon e taking public s ta n d s
until the p o sitio n of th e team has been s e t t l e d ; and once
the te am ’s sta n d h a s been tak en, all members may be obliged
to follow it. 1 An illu stra tio n may be taken from the civil
se rv ic e:
Ac s u c h com m ittees (C ab inet Committee m eetings) civil s e r v a n t s
s h a r e i u the d i s c u s s i o n s and e v p r c s s their v iew s freely , s u b j e c t to
one qualific ation : they will not directly o p p o se th eit own Minister.
T h e p o ss i b i l i ty of su c h open d isa g reem en t very rarely a r i s e s , and
o u^ h t nev er co 3 r i s e : in nine c a s e s out of Len, the Minister and th e
c i v i l se rv a n t who a t t e n d s the c j n m i t c c e with him h ave ag reed before­
h a n d what line is ro be t a k e n , and in che tenth the civil se r v a n t who
d i s a g r e e s with h i s M i n i s t e r s view on a p a r tic u la r point will stay
3wav from the meeting where it i s co be d i s c u s s e d . 2
Another illu s tr a tio n may he c ited from a re c e n t study
power stru cture of a smnlL c i ty :
If one h as been e n ^ a^ cd in community work on an y s c a l e a t a ll,
Si: is im p re ssed over and over with whac might be termed the ’ p rinciple
ol u n a n im ity .’ \Mien policy i s finally formulated by the l e a d e r s in
t h e community, chere is a n immediace demand on their part for s t r i c t
conformity o f opinion. O e c i s i o n s are not usually arrived at hutriedly.
There i s ample time, parcicularly among (he top le a d e r s , lor d i s c u s s i o n
o f most p r o j e c t s before a s t a t e of action is se t.
T h is is true for
community p r o j e c t s .
When the time for d i s c u s s i o n i s p a s t a n d che
lin e i s se t , rhen unanim ity i s called for.
P r e s s u r e s are put upon
1 I’he questio n of the amount of ’ S ov iet s e lf-criticis m * that i s allow ed,
and from whom it i s allo w ed , before che t e a m 's po sitio n is announced
i s no t here a t i s s u e .
2 P ale, op. cit , p. 141.
53
d i s s e n t e r s , an d the p r o j e c t i s under way. 1
However, unanimity i s often not the s o l e requirem ent of
th e team ’ s p ro je c tio n . T h e r e s e e m s to be a general fe e lin g
that th e most re a l a n d so lid th in g s in life are o n e s w hose
d e s c r ip tio n in d iv i d u a ls in de p ende ntly agree upon.
We tend
to feel th a t if two p a r ti c ip a n ts in an ev e n t lec'ide to be a s
h o n e s t a s they ca n in reco u n tin g it, then the s t a n d s th ey
ta k e will be a c c e p ta b ly sim ila r even though they do not
c o n s u lt ode another prior to th e ir p r e s e n ta tio n .
Intention
to tell the truth presumably m akes such prior c o n s u lta tio n
unnecessary.
And we a l s o tend to feel that if th e two
in d iv id u a ls wish to tell a lie or to s la n t the versio n of the
ev e n t which they offer, then not only will it be n e c e s s a r y
for them to c o n s u lt with one an other in order, a s we say ,
' to get their story s t r a i g h t , ’ but it will a l s o be n e c e s s a r y
to c o n c e a l t h e fa c t th a t an opportunity for s u c h prior
c o n s u lta tio n was a v a ila b le to them. In other words, in s ta g in g
a definitio n of the situ atio n , it may be n e c e s s a r y for th e
se v e r a l m em bers of the team to be unanim ous in the p o s it io n s
th e y ta k e and s e c r e ti v e about th e fact that t h e s e p o s itio n s
w ere noc in d e p en d e n tly arrived at.
(In c id e n ta lly , if the
members of the team a re a l s o eng a g ed in m a inta in ing a show
o f s e lf- r e s p e c t before one another, it may be n e c e s s a r y for
th e members of the team to learn what the lin e is to be, an d
ta k e it, w ithout adm itting to th e m s e lv e s and to one another
th e ex te n t to which cheir p o sitio n is not in d e p en d e n tly arrived
at, but suc h problem s carry us som ew hat beyond th e teamperform ance a s the b a s ic point of refe re n c e .)
It should be noted that ju st a s a team -m ate ought to w ait
1 Floyd iiun ter, Comm unity P ower Structure (Chapel H i l l : University of
Notch C a ro lin a P r e s s , 1953)» p. 181. S ee a l s o p. 118 and p. 212. Open
d i s a g r e e m e n t in front of the a u d i e n c e c r e a t e s , a s we say, a false note.
It may be s u g g e s t e d t h a t li t e ra l f a l s e n o t e s arc av oid ed tor q uite the
s a m e r e a s o n s that fig urative f a l s e n o t e s ar e a v o i d e d ; in both c a s e s it
i s a m atter o f s u s t a i n i n g a d efinition of the situ atio n.
T h is may be
i l l u s t r a t e d from a b rief book on the work pro blem s of the p r o fe s sio n a l
c o n c e r t - n r t i s t a c c o m p a n i s t , Gerald Moore, f h e Unashamed A c c o m p a n i s t
(N ew Y ork: Ma cm illan, 1944), p* 6 0 :
*
T h e n e a r e s t that she si n g e r an d p i a n i s t can get to an id eal perform­
a n c e i s to do cx actly what the co m p oser w a n ts , yet so m e tim es rhe si n g e r
w ill req u ire h i s partn er to do som e th in g which is in flat c o n trad ictio n
to the c o m p o s e r 's m arkings, lie will w an t an a c c e n t where th ere sh o u ld
be no ne, he will make a firm ala where it i s not n e e d e d , he w»ll make
a ra llen tan d o when it should be a tempo', he will be forte w h en ,h e
s h o u l d be p i a n o : he may s e n t im e n t a l i z e when th e mood sh o u l d be
nobilmente.
‘ T h e l i s t i s by no m eans e x h a u s t e d .
T h e si n g e r will sw e a r with
h i s hand on h i s h eart and t e a r s in h i s e y e s that h e d o e s a n d a l w a y s
a i m s to do ex a c t l y w hat the co m p oser h a s w ritte n .
It i s very aw kward.
If h e s i n g s it one way and the p i a n i s t p lay s it ano ther way the r esu lt
is chaotic.
D i s c u s s io n may be of no a v a i l .
Dut w h at i s an a c c o m p a n is t
to do ?
' At the perfo rm ance he m ust be with the s i n g e r , but a fterw ard s let
him e r a s e the memory of it from h i s mind . . .'
54
for the o fficial woH before taking his stan.l, so the official
word ought to be made a v a ila b le to him so that he can play
h i s part on the team and feel a part of it. T o withhold from
a te aii-m a te information about the s ta n d h is team i s taking
i s to w ithhold his c h a r a c te r from him, for without knowing
what sta nd he will be ta k in g he may not be a b l e to a s s e r t a
s e lf to th e au d ien c e. T hus, if a surgeon is to o p era te on a
p a tie n t referred to him by an other doctor, common co u rte sy
may o b lig e th e surgeon to te ll the referring doctor when th e
operation will be and , if th e referring doctor d o es not appear
at the operation, to te le p h o n e him the r e s u lt of the operation.
By th u s b e in g ' f i l l e d i n , ’ the referring doctor can, more e ffe c t­
iv e ly than o th erw ise, p re se n t him self to the p a t ie n t’s kinsfolk
a s som eone who i s p a rtic ip a tin g in the medical action. 1
I would like to add a further general fac t about m aintaining
th e lin e during a perform ance.
When a member of th e team
m akes a m istak e in the p r e se n c e of th e au d ien c e, we often
find th a t th e oth e r team members m ust s u p p r e s s their im m ediate
d e s ire to p u n ish and in stru c t the offender until, th a t is, the
a u d ie n c e i s no longer p rese nt. After all, im m ediate c o r r e c tiv e
sa n c tio n in g would often only d istu rb the in te ra c tio n further
and, a s previously su g g e s te d , m ake the a u d ien c e privy to n
view that ought to be rese rv e d for team -m ates.
T h u s, tn
a u tho ritaria n o rg a n iz a tio n s, where a team of s u p e ro rd in a te s
m a in ta in s a show of being right every tim e and of p o s s e s s i n g
a u n ite d front, there is often a s t r i c t rule that one su p e r ­
o rd in ate must not show h o stility or d is r e s p e c t toward any
oth e r s u p e ro rd in a te w hile in the p r e s e n c e of a member of the
s u b o rd in a te team. Army o ffic e rs show c o n s e n s u s when before
e n l is te d men, p are n ts when before children, 2 m an agers when
before w orkers, n u r s e s when before p a t ie n ts , 3 and the like.
Of co u rse , when the s u b o r d in a te s are a b s en t, open, violent
1 fn commenting on how som e C h i n e s e m erch an ts s e t the p rice of iheit
g o o d s acco rdin g to the a p p e a r a n c e of the customer, C h e s t e r Holcombe,
T h e R e a l Chinaman (New Yo rk : Dodd, Mead, 1895), p. 293, g o e s on to
say :
'O n e p e c u l i a r r e s u l t of t h is stu dy of a custom er is s e e n in t h e fact
th at i f a p erso n e n t e r s a st o r e in C hin a, and, a f t e r exam inin g s e v e ra l
a r t i c l e s , a s k s th e p rice of any one of them, u n l e s s it is p o sitiv ely
known that h e h a s spo ke n to but one clerk , no a n s w e r will be made by
him to whom the q u e s tio n i s put until every other cler k h a s been as k ed
i f he lias named a p rice for the a r t i c l e in q u es tio n io the gentlem an.
If, a s very rare ly h a p p e n s , this important precaution Is n e g l e c t e d , th e
sum named by differen t c l e r k s will a l m o s t in var iab ly be unlike, th us
showing th at they fail to agree in t h e i r e s t i m a t e s of the customer.*
2 An in t e r e s t i n g d ram atu rgical d ifficulty in the family is th at sex and
lineal so lid ar ity , 'which c r o s s - c u t co n ju g al so l i d a r i t y , make it di fficult
for husband an d wife to ' b a c k each ot her u p ’ in a sh o w of authority
before children or a sh o w of e i t h e r d i s t a n c e or fam iliar ity with extended
kin.
A s p r e v i o u s l y su g g e s t e d , s u c h c r o s s - c u t t i n g l in e s of affiliation
p rev ent the widening of s t r u c t u r a l c l e a v a g e s .
3 T axel, op. e il., pp. 53-54.
55
cr itic is m may and d o e s o cc ur. F o r exam ple, in a re c e n t study
of the te a c h in g p r o fe s s io n , it w as found that t e a c h e r s felt th a t
if they are to s u s t a i n an im p re ssio n of p ro fe ssio n a l c o m p ete n ce
a n d in s t itu ti o n a l a uthority, they must make sure th a t when
angry p a r e n ts come to the school with c o m p lain ts, the principal
will support the p o sitio n of h i s sta ff, at l e a s t until the p a r e n ts
h a / e left. 1 Similarly, t e a c h e r s feel strongly chat their fellowt e a c h e r s ought not to d is a g r e e with or co n tra d ic t them in front
of s tu d e n ts . ' J u s t l e t a n o th e r te a c h e r r a is e her eyebrow funny,
ju st so th e y (the ch ild re n ) know, and they d on’t m iss a tiling,
and th e ir r e s p e c t for you g o e s right a w a y .’ 2 Similarly, we
le a rn th at the m edical p r o fe s s io n h a s a s tr ic t code of e tiq u e tte
whereby a c o n s u lta n t in th e p r e s e n c e of th e p a tie n t and h i s
d octo r i s careful n eve r to sa y anyth in g which would em barra ss
th e im p re ssio n of co m p ete n ce that th e p a t i e n t ’s d o cto r is
attem pting to m aintain.
As Hughes su g gests, 'T h e
( p ro f e s s io n a l) etiquette is a body of ritu a l which grows up
inform ally to p r e se rv e , before the c l i e n t s , th e common front
o f th e p r o f e s s io n . ’ 3 And, of c o u r s e , this kind of s o lid a rity
in the p r e s e n c e o f s u b o r d in a t e s a l s o o c c u rs when perform ers
a re in the p r e s e n c e of su p e ro r d in a te s .
F o r example, in a
r e c e n t stu d y of the p o lic e we l e a m th a t a p atro llin g te am of
tw o po lic em en , who w itn e s s e a c h oth e r’s ill e g a l and se m i­
ill e g a l a c t s and who a re in an e x c e l le n t p o sitio n to d is c re d it
e a c h o th e r ’s show of le g a lity before th e ju dge, p o s s e s s heroic
s o li d a r ity and w ill s tic k by ea ch o th e r ’s story no m atter what
a tr o c ity it c o v e r s up or how l i t t l e c h a n c e there is o f anyo ne
b e lie v in g it. 4
It i s a p p a re n t that if performers a re co n c e rn e d with main­
ta in in g a line they will s e l e c t a s team -m ates th o s e who
c a n be tr u ste d to perform properly.
T h u s c h ild ren of the
h o u se a re often exclu ded from perform ances given for g u e s ts
of a d o m e stic e s ta b l is h m e n t b e c a u s e often cnil iren ca nnot
be tr u s te d to ' b e h a v e * th e m s e lv e s , i . e . , to refrain from ac tin g
in a way in c o n s i s t e n t with th e impr'ession th a t i s being
f o ste re d . 6
In fact, c h ild re n m ust often be e x c lu d e d from
1 Howard S. B e c k e r, * T h e T e a c h e r in t h e Authority System o f the P u b l i c
S c h o o l ,' Journal o f E d u c a t io n a l S o c io lo g y , XXVII, 134.
*!bi<(., from an intervie w , p. 139.
3 E. C . H u g h e s , 'I n s t i t u t i o n s , * N e w O u tlin e o f the P rin cip les o f So c io lo g y ,
ed. Alfred M . L e e (New York : B a rn e s an d N oble 1946), p. 273** William Westley, ' T h e P o l i c e ' (U n pu b lish ed P h.D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , Depart­
ment of Sociology, U n iv e r sity of C h i c a g o , 1952), pp. 187-196.
5 In s o far a s children are defin ed a s 'n o n - p e r s o n s * they have some
l i c c n c e to commit g a u c h e a c t s w ith o u t r e q u irin g t h e a u d i e n c e to take
the e x p r e s s i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e a c t s to o s e r i o u s l y .
However,
56
g o s s i p and from a d m is s io n s on th e par: of older members o f
the family, s in c e one can never he su re to whom o n e ’s children
will conv ey o n e ’s s e c r e t s , so that it will be only when the
c h ild a r r iv e s at th e age of d isc re tio n that the v o ic e s of his
p a r e n ts will c e a s e to drop a s he e n t e r s th e room. Similarly,
th o s e who are known to become in to x ic a te d when drink is
a v a ila b le and who become verbose or ' d ifficult ’ when chis
o c c u r s c o n s titu t e a perform ance risk, a s do those who are
so b e r but foolishly in d is c r e e t, and th ose who re fu se to ' e n t e r
into th e s p i r i t ’ of the o c c a s io n and help s u s ta in the im pression
that the g u e s t s ta c itly u n ite in maintaining to the h o st.
1 have su g g e s te d that in many inte ractio n s e t t i n g s some
of the p a r tic ip a n ts co -o p e ra te to ge ther a s a team or are in a
p o sitio n where they a re dependent upon th is co-operation in
o rd er to maintain a p articu la r definition of the s itu a tio n . Now
when we stud y co n c re te s o c ia l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s we often find
th a t there will be a sig n ific an t s e n s e in which all the remain­
ing p a r tic ip a n ts , in their s e v e r a l perform ances of r e s p o n s e
to the team-show put on before them, will th e m s e lv e s con­
s t i t u t e a team. Since ea ch team will be p la y in g through i t s
rou tin e for the other, we may s p e a k of dram atic in te raction,
not dram atic a c tio n , an d we ca n s e e t h i s in te raction not a s
a medley of a s many v o ic e s a s there are p a r ti c ip a n ts but
rather a s a kind of dialogu e and interplay between two team s.
I do not know of any general rea son why in te raction in natural
s e t t i n g s u sua lly ta k e s the form of two-team interplay, or is
r e s o lv a b le into th is form, in ste a d of involving a la rg e r number,
but e m p irica lly th is se e m s to be the c a s e . T h u s, in large
s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts , where se v e ra l different s t a t u s grade s
prevail, we find that for the duration of any particular inter­
action, p a r ti c ip a n ts of many d ifferent s t a t u s e s are ty pic ally
e x p e cted to alig n th e m s e lv e s temporarily into two team group­
i n g s. For exam ple, a lie u te n a n t on an Army p o s t will in o n 1,
s itu a tio n find him self aligned with all the offic e rs and opposed
to all e n l i s t e d m en; at other tim e s he will find him s elf aligned
with junior o ffic ers, p resenting with them a show for the
b enefit of se n io r o ffic e rs p rese n t.
T here are , of course ,
a s p e c t s of c e r ta in in te r a c tio n s for which a two-team model
is app a ren tly not s u it a b le . Important elem e n ts, for example,
o f arbitra tio n h ea ring s seem to fit a three-team model, and
a s p e c t s of some co m petitive and ' s o c i a l ’ s it u a ti o n s su g g e st
a multi-team model. It should a l s o be made c l e a r that whatever
the number of te am s, there will be a s e n s e in which the
whether tr e a te d a s n o n - p e rs o n s or not, children are in a p o sition to
d i s c l o s e cr u c ia l s e c r e t s .
57
in te ra c tio n can be a n a ly s e d in term s of the co-o p e ra tiv e effort
of all p a r ti c ip a n ts to m aintain a working c o n s e n s u s .
If we trea t a n in te ra c tio n a s a dialogue between two
team s, ic will so m e tim e s be c o n v e n ie n t to c a ll one team the
perform ers an d to ca ll th e other team the a u d ie n c e o r the
o b s e rv e rs , n e g l e c tin g momentarily that the a u d ie n c e , too,
will be p r e s e n tin g a team-perform ance.
In som e c a s e s , a s
when two o n e -p e rso n te a m s in te r a c t in a pu b lic in s titu tio n
or in th e home o f a mutual friend, it may be an arbitrary
c h o i c e a s to which team to c a ll the performer and w hich to
call th e a u d ien c e.
In many im portant s o c i a l s it u a ti o n s ,
how ever, th e s o c ia l s e ttin g in w hich the in te ra c tio n o c c u rs
is a s s e m b l e d and m anaged by one of the t e a m s only, and
c o n t r i b u te s in a more intim ate way to the show th is team
p u ts on than to thfe show put on in r e s p o n s e by the other
team. A c u s to m e r in a shop, a clien c in an o ffice, a group
of g u e s ts in th e home of th e ir h o s t s —th e s e p e r s o n s put on a
perform ance and m aintain a front, but th e s e t t i n g in which
th e y do t h i s i s o u ts i d e o f cheir im m ediate control, b eing an
in te g r a l part o f th e p re se n ta tio n made by th o s e into whose
p r e s e n c e they h ave come.
In su c h c a s e s , it will often be
c o n v e n ie n t co c a ll the team which c o n tro ls the s e ttin g th e
performing team, and to ca ll th e other team the a u d ien c e.
So, too, it will s o m e tim es b e .c o n v e n ie n t to la b el a s performer
the te am which c o n t r i b u te s th e most a c tiv ity co th e in te raction,
or p la y s th e more d ra m a tic a lly prominent part in it, or s e t s
che p a c e and d irec tio n which both te a m s will follow in their
in te r a c t iv e d ialogue.
T h e obv io u s point muse be sta te d chat if th e team is co
s u s t a i n che im p re ssio n chat ic i s fostering , then chere must
be som e a s s u r a n c e that no individual will be allow ed to
join boch team and a u d ie n c e . T h u s , for exam ple, if the propri­
etor of a sm all American l a d i e s ’-re ad y -to -w e ar i s to put a
d r e s s on s a l e and tell h is c u s to m e rs that it i s marked down
b e c a u s e o f so ila g e , or end of the s e a s o n , or l a s t of a line,
e t c ., and co n c e a l from her th a t ic i s really marked down
b e c a u s e it won’t s e ll, or i s a bad colour,- or sty le, and if he
i s ro im p re ss her by calking about a buying office in New
York which he d o e s not have or an ad ju stm e n t m anag er who
i s r e a lly a s a le s g i r l , then he must make sure chac if he finds
it n e c e s s a r y co hire an extra girl for part-tim e work on Saturday
h e d o e s not hire o n e trom che neighbourhood who has been a
cu sto m e r and who will soon be o n e again. 1
It i s often felt th a t control of the s e ttin g is an ad v a n ta g e
1 T h e s e I l lu s t r a t i o n s are taken from George Rosen baum , 'A n A nalysis of
P e r s o n a l i z a t i o n in Neighbourhood Apparel R e t a i l i n g ’ (U n pu blish ed M. A.
t h e s i s , Departm ent of Sociology, U niv ersity of C hica g o , 1953), pp. 86-87-
58
during in te r a c tio n . la a narrow s e n s e , th is control a llo w s a
team to introduce s tr a te g ic d e v i c e s for d eterm ining the inform­
ation the a u d ie n c e i s ab le to acquire. T h u s, if Jo ctors are
to prevenc c a n c e r p a t i e n t s from learnin g the id e n tity o f their
d is e a s e , it will be useful to s c a tt e r th e c a n c e r p a t ie n t s
throughout th e h o sp ita l s o that they will not be a b l e to learn
from the id e n tity of their ward the ide n tity o f th e ir disorder.
(T h e h o sp ita l sta ff, in c id en tally , may be forced to spend
more time walking co rridors an d moving equipm ent b e c a u s e
o f t h is sta g in g s tr a t e g y than would oth e rw ise be n e c e s s a r y .)
Similarly, th e m aster barber who r e g u la te s the flow of ap point­
m ents by m eans of a sc h e d u lin g took open to h is public is
in a position to p ro te c t h is co ffee-break by filling a properlytimed appointm ent with a dummy co d e name.
A p r o sp e c tiv e
c ustom e r can then s e e for h im self th a t it will not be p o s s i b le
for him to h a v e an appointm ent a t th at tim e. 1 So, too, if any
member of a hotel sta ff is s u s p i c io u s of the in te n tio n s or
c h a r a c te r of a g u e s t co up le, a s e c r e t signal can be given to
the bellboy to 'th ro w the l a t c h . 1
T h i s i s sim ply a d ev ice which m akes it e a s i e r for em p loy ees to
k e e p an e y e on su s p e c t e d p ar ties.
After rooming the c o up le, th e bellm an, in c l o s in g the door behind
him, p u s h e s a tin y button on the i n s i J c of the knob handle.
T h is
tu rn s a l i t t l e tumbler in s id e the lo ck and m akes a black str ip e show
a g a i n s t the c ircu lar c e n t e r of th e l a t c h on the o u tsid e . U*s i n c o n s p ic ­
u o u s enough so a s not to be n o t i c e d by the g u e s t , but m a id s, p atrols,
w a i t e r s and bellmen are all train ed to w atch for them . . . and to
rep o rt any loud c o n v e r s a ti o n s or u n u sua l o c c u r r e n c e s vyhich take
p l a c e behind them. 2
More broadly, control of the se ttin g may give the c o n tro ll­
ing team a s e n s e of se cu rity .
A s o n e studenc suggestsco nc erning th e p h arm a cis t-d o c to r r e la tio n :
T h e score i s an o th er factot.
T h e do ctor o ften co m cs to the
p h a r m a c i s t 's store for med icine, for b i t s of inform ation, fot con v ersatio n.
In th e s e c o n v e r s a ti o n s the man behind the co u n ter h a s approxim ately
t h e s a m e ad v an tag e t h a t a s t a n d i n g s p e a k e r h a s o v e t a s i t t i n g
au d ien ce ^
i An i n t e r e s t i n g u s e of s e t t i n g an d props is reported in a n ew spaper a r t i c l e
on s o r o t i t i e s , J o a n Beck, * t h a t ’s \fcrong with Sorority R u s h i n g ? ’ Chica go
T ribune M agazine, Ja n u a ry 10, 1954, pp. 20-21, where a d e s c ri p t i o n is
given of how the sorority s i s t e r s , who give a tea for p r o s p e c t i v e members,
ar e a b l e to so rt out good p r o s p e c t s ftom bad without g iv ing the im pre ssio n
th at g u e s t s of the h o u s e are being treated d i f fe r e n t i a l l y :
* u E ven with recom m en ds, i t ' s har d to remember 967 g i r l s by ju st
m eeting them for a few m inutes in a r e c e iv in g l i n e , ” ad m itted Carol.
MSo w e 'v e worked out this gimmick to s e p a r a t e the good o n e s from the
dull c h a r a c t e r s .
Ae h av e three trays for the r u s h e e s ' c a l l i n g c a r d s one fot golden g i r ls , one for look~agains, one for p o ts.
' " T h e a c t i v e who i s talk in g with the r u s h e e a t the party is supposed
to e s c o r t her su b tly to the appropriate tray when s h e ' s re a d y to l r a v ^
her c a r d , ” Carol c o n tinu ed . " T h e r u s h e e s never figure out what w e ’re
doing !-1
2 Dev C o l l a n s , with Stew ar t Sterling, /
A House D e t e c t i v e (New York:
Dutton, 1954), p. 56. E l l i p s i s do ts the au th o r's .
^ e i n l e i n , op. c i t . , p . 105.
59
One thinj; chat c o n t r i b u te s co t h is feeling of che i n d e p e n d e n c e of
t h e p h a r m a c i s t 's m ed ical p r a c t i c e i s h is store.
T h e sto re is, in a
s e n s e , a p art of the pharm acistJ u s t a s Nep tune i s pictu red a s
r i s i n g from t h e s e a , w hile a t the sa m e tim e b ein g che s e a ; s o in the
p h a r m a c e u t i c a l e t h o s there is a v isio n of a dignified p ha r m a c ist
tirwering ab o v e s h e l v e s an d c o u nters of b o ttles auu equipm ent, w hile
a t the sa m e time b ein g p art of thoir e s s e n c e . 1
A p rice must, of co u rse , be p a id for che privilege of giving
a perform ance on on e’s home gro u n d ; one h as che opportunicy
o f conv eying inform ation abouc o n e s e lf through s c e n i c m eans
but no opportun ity of c o n c e a lin g the kin d s of faccs chac are
conveyed by s c e n e ry .
When we exam ine a ceam-performance, we often find that
s o m e o n e i s g ive n che right to direc t and control the p ro g re ss
o f the d ram a tic a c tio n . T h e equerry i n court e s ta b l is h m e n ts
i s an exam ple. S om etim es t h e individual who d om ina te s the
show in t h is way a n d i s , in a s e n s e , th e d irec to r o f it, p la y s
a n a c tu a l p a rt in th e perform ance he d ir e c ts . In g ene ral, the
members o f the team will differ in the w ay s and th e degree
to which th e y a re allo w ed co direcc che perform ance. Ic may
be noted, in c id e n ta lly , that, d ram a tu rg ica lly s p e a k i n g , . the
str u c tu ra l s im ila r it ie s of a p p a ren tly d iv e r s e ro u tine s are
n ic e ly r e f le c te d in the lik e - m in d e d n e s s that a r i s e s in d ir e c to r s
e v e ry w h e re .
Whether ic i s a fun eral, a wedding, a bridge
party, a one-d a y s a l e , a hanging, or a p ic n ic, • che d ire c to r
may te n d to se e the perform ance in term s of w hether or not
i t went ' s m o o t h l y , ’ ' e f f e c t i v e l y , 1 an d 'w i th o u t a h itc h , ’ and
1 Weinlein, op. c i t . , pp. 105-106. A n i c e litera ry i l lu str a tio n of the e i f c c t s
o f b ein g ro bbed of control over o n e s own se trin g i« g i v e n in l*ranz
Kafka, The Trial (Ne-* Y o rk : KjTopf, 1948), pp. 14-15, where K . s m eeting
with t h e au th o rities ' in h i s own boar ding h o u s e is d e s c r i b e d :
’ VShen h e w a s fully d r e s s e d h e had to walk, with Uillem trend ing
nn h i s h e e l s , through the n e x t room, which was now empty, into the
a djo inin g one, w h o s e do ub le d oors wer e flung open.
This room, ns K.
kn ew quite w ell, had tecencly l>ecn taken by a F ra ulcin Uursrner, a
t y p i s t , who w en t very early t o work, c a m e home lace, an d with whom he
hud ex ch an ge d l i t t l e more dian few words in p a s s i n g .
Mow the n i g h ttab le b e s i d e her bed h ad been p u sh e d into die m iddle of the floor to
s e r v e a« d e s k , a n d th e I n s p e c t o r w a s s i t t i n g behind it. lie h a d c r o s s c d
h i s l e g s , an d o n e arm w a s r e s t i n g on the back of the chair.
. . . . ’ " J o s e p h K. ? ” a s k e d the i n sp e c to r, p e r h a p s merely to draw
K-’s d i s t r a c t e d g l a n c e upon h im se lf .
K. nodded.
" Y o u a r e presu m ably
very s u r p r i s e d a t the e v e n t s of th i s m o r n i n g ? " a s k e d che inspe cto r,
with both h a n d s rearrang ing the few t h i n g s that lay on the oigltt-tab le,
a c a n d l e and a m atchbox, a book an d a p i n c u s h io n , as if they were o b j e c t s
whi ch he r eq uired for h i s in terro g atio n.
“ C e r t a i n l y , n said K., and he
w a s filled with p l e a s u r e a t h av ing en co u ntered a s e n s i b l e man at l a s r,
w ith whom he c o u ld d i s c u s s the m atter.
* C e rt a i n l y , I am s u r p r ise d ,
but I am by rro m eans very s u r p r i s e d . ”
" N o t very s u r p r i s e d ? ” a s k e d
the i n s p e c t o r, s e t t i n g the c an d le in the middle of the table and dicn
grouping the o ther t h i n g s around it.
“ P e r h a p s you m isu n d e r s ta n d me,*
K. h a s t e n e d ro ad d .
* [ m e a n " —here K. sto p p e d and look ed round him
for a c h a i r —" I sup po se 1 may s i t down ? " he a s k " d .
" l t ‘s no t u s u a l , ”
a n s w e re d th e I n sp e c to r .'
60
w hether or not all p o s s i b l e d isru p tiv e c o n tin g e n c ie s were
prepared for in adv ance.
tn many p erform an ces two important functions must be
fulfilled, and if the team h as a director he w ill often be given
th e s p e c i a l duty of fulfilling th e s e functions.
F i r s t , th e direc to r may be given th e s p e c i a l duty of bring­
ing baclc into line any member of the team w hose perform ance
becom es u n s u ita b le .
Soothing and s a n c tio n in g are the
c o r re c tiv e p r o c e s s e s ordinarily involved.
T h e role of the
b a s e b a ll umpire in s u s t a in in g a p a rtic u la r kind of r e a lity
for the f a n s may be tak en a s an illu stra tio n .
All u m p ire s i n s i s t th at p l a y e r s k eep th e m s e lv e s u nder control, and
refrain from gescure s t h a t re fle c t concempt for th e ir d e c i s i o n s . 1
I c e r t a i n l y had blown off my s h a r e of ste am a s a play er, and I
knew th e r e had to be a s a f e t y v a l v e for r e l e a s e of the terrific te n s io n .
As nn umpire 1 could s y m p a th ize with the p l a y e r s .
Gut a s an umpire
I had to d e c i d e how for I could le t a play er go w ithout d elay in g t h e
r.Amc a nd without perm itting him to in su lt, a s s a u l t , or r id ic u le me
a n d b e l i t t l e the ga m e.
Handling trouble an d mea on the field w a s
j s important a s c a l l i n g them t i g h t —a nd more difficu lt.
It i s e a s y for an y umpire to thumb a man out of the game.
It i s
o ften a much more d ifficu lt job to k eep him in the ga m e—to u n derstand
an d a n t i c i p a t e h i s com plaint so th at a n a s ty rhu barb cannot d ev elo p. 2
I d o n ot t o l e r a t e clo w nin g on th e field, and n e i t h e r will any other
umpire.
C o m e d ia n s belong on the st a g e , or on t e l e v i s i o n no t in
baseball.
A t r a v e s t y or b urlesq ue of the game c a n only c h e a p e n it,
and a l s o hol d th e umpire up t o scorn- for allow in g suc h a s k e tc h to
ta k e place.
T h a t ’s why you w ill s e e the funnymen and wise g u y s
c h a s e d a s so o n a s they begin th eir routine. 3
Often, of co u rse , th e d irec tor will not s o much hav e to smother
improper affec t as he will have to stim u la te a show of proper
affec tiv e in vo lv e m e n t; ' s p a r k i n g th e s h o w ’ i s th e p h r a s e
som etim es em ployed for t h i s cask in Rotarian c irc le s .
S econdly, the d irec tor may be given the s p e c ia l duty of
a l lo c a tin g th e p a r ts in the perform ance and the personal front
that i s em ployed in ea ch part, for each e s ta b lis h m e n t may
be s e e n a s a p la c e with a number of c h a r a c t e r s to d is p o s e
o f to p r o s p e c tiv e performers and a s an a s s e m b l a g e of sign
equipment or cerem onial p ara p h ern alia to be a llo c a te d .
It i s ap p arent th a t if the d irec to r c o r r e c ts for improper
a p p e a r a n c e s and a l l o c a t e s major and minor p rero g ativ es,
chen other members o f the ream (who are lik e ly to be c onc erned
with th e show they c a n put on for one another a s well a s
with the show they ca n c o lle c tiv e ly s ta g e for the aud ien c e)
will have an a t titu d e toward th e d irec tor that they do not
h a v e toward th e ir other te am -m ates.
Further, if the a u d ie n c e
1 P i n e l l i , op. c it., p. H I .
2 Ibid., p. 131.
3 I b i d , p.
139.
61
a p p r e c i a t e s that th e perform ance h a s a Jirector, they are
lik e ly to hold him more r e s p o n s i b le chan oth e r performers
for the s u c c e s s of th e perform ance.
T he d ire c to r is likely
to resp o n d to t h i s r e s p o n s ib ility by making dram aturgical
d em a n d s on th e performance that chey might not make upon
th e m s e lv e s .
This may add to th e e s tra n g e m e n t they may
alre ad y feel from him. A director, h en c e, s ta r t in g a s a member
of th e team, may find him self slow ly edged into a marginal
role betw e en a u d ie n c e and perform ers, h a lf in and half out of
both cam ps, a kind of go-betw een w ithout the p rotec tion that
g o -b e tw e e n s u s u a lly have.
T h e factory foreman h a s been
a r e c e n tly d i s c u s s e d example. 1
When we stu d y a routine which r e q u it e s a team o f several
perform ers for i t s p r e se n ta tio n , we so m e tim es find th a t one
member of the team i s made th e sta r, le ad , o r ce n tre o f
a tte n t io n .
We may s e e an extrem e exam ple of t h i s in tra d i­
tio n a l court life , where a room full o f court a tte n d a n ts will
be arranged in th e manner of a living t a b le a u , s d that the
ey e , s ta r t in g from any point in the room will be led to the
royal c e n tr e o f a tte n tio n . T h e royal s t a r o f th e perform ance
may a ls o be d r e s s e d more s p e c ta c u la r ly and s e a t e d higher
than an y o n e e l s e p r e s e n t. An even more s p e c t a c u l a r centring
o f a ttention may be found in the d a n c e arrangem ents of large
m usical c o m e d ie s, in which forty or fifty d a n c e r s are made
to p r o s tr a te th e m s e lv e s around th e h erpin e .
In gen eral, we
find th a t t h o s e who help p r e se n t a team -perform ance differ
in the d e g re e o f dram atic d o m inan ce given e a c h of them and
th a t one team -ro utine diffe rs from an o ther in the e x te n t to
which d if f e r e n tia ls in d om inance a re given i t s members.
T h e co n c e p tio n of dram atic and d ire c tiv e dom inance,
a s c o n t r a s tin g ty p e s o f power in a perform ance, c a n be
applied, mutatis mutandis, to an in te r a c tio n a s a whole,
where it will be p o s s i b l e to point out which of th e two te am s
lias more of which of the two ty p e s of power a n J which per­
formers, ta k in g th e p a r tic ip a n ts of both te a m s all to gether,
le a d in t h e s e two reg a rds.
F re q u e n tly , of c o u rse , we may expect that th e performer
or team which h a s one kind o f dom inance i s likely a l s o to
to have th e other, but t h i s is by no m e an s a lw a y s th e c a s e .
F o r example, during the show in g o i th e body at a funeral
home, u s u a lly th e so c ia l s e ttin g and all p a r tic ip a n ts , in­
1 See, for example, Donald E. Wray, 'M a rg in a l Men of In d u s t r y : T h e
F ore m an,' A merican Journal o f S o c i o l o g y , LIV, pp. 298-301, an d F ritz
K o eth lisb e rg er, ' T h e t o r e m a n : Master and Victim of Double T a l k , '
Harvard B u s i n e s s R e v i e w , XXIII, pp. 285-294.
T h e ro le of go-between
i s c o n s id e re d later.
62
elu d in g both th e bereaved team and th e e s ta b lis h m e n t’s
team, will b e arranged so a s to e x p r e s s their f e e lin g s for
and t i e s with the d e c e a s e d ; h e will be the ce n tre o f the show
and the d ram atically dominant p artic ip a n t in it.
However,
s in c e the bere av ed a re in e x p e r ie n c e d and grief-laden, and
s in c e the s ta r o f the show must sta y in c h a r a c te r a s someone
who i s in a deep sle ep , the undertaker him s elf will direct
th e show, although he may all th e w hile be se lf-e ffa c in g in
t h e p r e s e n c e of the c o r p s e or be in another room of the e s t a b ­
lish m en t g e ttin g ready for an o th er showing.
It sho uld be made c l e a r that d ram a tic and d irec tiv e domin­
a n c e are dramaturgical term s and that performers who enjoy
suc h dom inance may not h a v e other ty p e s o f pow er and
authority.
It i s common know ledge that performers who have
p o s it io n s o f v is ib le le a d e rs h ip are often merely figureheads,
s e l e c t e d a s a compromise, or a s a way of n e u tra liz in g a
p o te n tia lly th r e a te n in g positio n, or a s a way of s tr a te g ic a lly
c o n c e a lin g the power behind the front and h enc e the power
behind th e power behind th e front.
So a ls o , w henever in­
e x p e r ie n c e d or temporary incum bents are given formal authority
over e x p e rien c ed s u b o rd in a te s, we often find that the formally
em powered person i s bribed with a part that h a s dramatic
dom inance w hile the s u b o r d in a te s tend to direc t the show. 1
T h u s it h a s often been sa id about the B ritish Infantry in
World War I that expe rien c ed w o rk in g -c lass s e r g e a n ts managed
the d e l ic a te t a s k of covertly te a c h in g th e ir new lie u te n a n ts
to t a k e a dram a tic ally e x p r e s s iv e role at the h ea d of the
platoon and to die quickly in a prominent dramatic position,
a s b e fits P u b lic School men. T he s e r g e a n ts th e m s e lv e s took
th e ir m odest p la c e a t th e rear of the platoon and te nded to
live to train still oth e r lie u te n a n ts.
Dramatic and d irec tiv e dom inance have been mentioned
a s two d im e n sio n s along which each pla ce on a team can
vary.
By c h a n g in g th e point of reference a little , we can
disc ern a third mode of variation.
In g en e ral, th o s e who p a r tic ip a te in the a c tiv ity that o cc u rs
in a s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n t become members o f a team when
they c o -o p e ra te to ge th er to p rese n t their ac tiv ity in a p a rtic ­
u la r light.
However, in taking on the role of a performer, th e
individual n e e d not c e a s e to devote some o f his effort to
non-dram aturgical c o n c ern s, that is, to th e activity its e lf
o f which th e perform ance offe rs an a c c e p ta b le dram atization.
' See David R ies m an, in c o llab oration with Reuel Denny and Nathan
G l a s e r, The L o n e l y Crowd (New H a v e n : Ynle U n iversity P r e s s , 1950),
* T h e Avocacional C o u n s e l o r s , ' pp. 363-367-
63
We may e x p e ct, then, that th e in d iv id u a ls who perform on a
p a r tic u la r team will differ among th e m s e lv e s in the way they
apportion their tim e betw een mere a c tiv ity an I mere per­
formance.
At one extrem e we find in d iv id u a ls who rarely
a p p e ar before the a u d ie n c e and are l i t t l e c o n c e rn e d with
a p p e a r a n c e s . At th e other extrem e we find what are so m e tim es
c a ' l e d 'p u r e l y cerem onial r o l e s , ’• w hose perform ers will be
co n c e rn e d with th e a p p e a r a n c e that they make, and co n c ern ed
with l i t t l e e l s e . F o r exam ple, the p r e s id e n t and th e r e s e a r c h
director of a natio n al union may both sp e n d tim e in th e main
o ffic e of th e union h e a d q u a r te rs, • ap p e arin g s u ita b ly d re s s e d
an d su ita b ly spoken in order to give the union a front of
r e s p e c ta b ili ty . H ow ever we may find that th e p re sid e n t a l s o
e n g a g e s in making many important d e c i s i o n s w h erea s the
r e s e a r c h direc to r may h a v e l i t t l e to do e x c ep t be p re se n t in
body a s part of the p r e s id e n t’s retinue.
Union o f fic ia ls
c o n c e iv e of such purely ce rem o n ia l r o le s a s part of 'w indow d r e s s i n g .' 1 It may be remarked that an in dividual with a
purely cerem onial role n e e d not have a d ram a tic ally dominant
one.
ammaro
A te am , then, may be defined a s a s e t of in d iv id u a ls
w h ose intim ate co-operation i s required if n given p ro jec ted
d efin itio n of th e situ atio n is to be m a in ta in ed . A team is a
grouping, but it i s a grouping not in relation to a so c ia l
s tr u c tu re or s o c ia l organ iz atio n but ra th e r in r e la tio n to an
in te r a c t io n or s e r i e s of in te r a c tio n s in which the rele v an t
d e finition of the s itu a tio n is m aintained.
We have se en , and will s e e further, th a t if n perform ance
i s to be e f f e c tiv e it will be likely that th e extent and c h a r a c t e r
of th e c o -ope ra tion that m a k es t h is p o s s i b le will be c o n c e a le d
and kept s e c r e t. A team, then, h a s som ething ol the c h a r a c te r
of a s e c r e t s o c ie t y . • Thfe a u d ie n c e may a p p r e c ia te , of course,
th a t all the members of the team are held to g e th e r by a bond
no member of th e a u d ie n c e s h a r e s . T h u s , for example, when
c u s to m e rs
en ter a s e r v i c e e s ta b lis h m e n t, th e y c le a rly
a p p r e c ia te that all e m p lo y ee s are d ifferen t from c u s to m e rs
by virtue of th is official role. However, the in d iv id u a ls who
' S e e Harold L. Wilensky, ' T h e Staff " E x p e r t : " A Study of the I n te llig e n c e
F u nction in American T rad e U n i o n s ' ( U n pu blished P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n .
D ep ar tm en t of S o cio lo g y , U n iv er sity of C h ic a g o , 1953), ch ap. iv.
in
a ddition to h i s t h e s i s m aterial, 1 am in debted
Mr Wilensky for many
suggestions.
64
a r e on th e s t a f f of an es ta b lish m e n t are not members o f a
team by virtue of s ta f f s t a t u s , but only by v irtu e of th e co­
o p eration which they m aintain in order to s u s t a i n a given
d e finition of the s itu a tio n . No effort may be made in many
c a s e s to co n c e a l who i s on th e sta ff ; but they form a s e c r e t
so c ic ty , a team, in so far a s a s e c r e t i s kept a s to how they
a re co-operating to g e th er to m aintain a p a r ti c u la r definition
of the s itu a tio n .
T ea m s may be c re a te d by in d iv id u a ls to
a id the group they are members of, but in a id in g th e m s e lv e s
and th e ir group in t h i s dramaturgical way, th e y are ac tin g
a s a team, not a group. T h u s a team, a s u s e d h ere in , i s the
kind of s e c r e t s o c ie t y w hose mem bers may be known by noninembers to c o n s titu t e a s o c ie ty , even an e x c lu s i v e one, but
the s o c ie ty th e s e in d iv id u a ls are known to c o n s titu t e i s not
the one they c o n s titu te by virtue of ac tin g a s a team.
65
C H A P T E R HI
REGIO NS AND REGION BEHAVIOUR
A region may be defined a s any p la c e th a t is bounded
to som e degree by b arriers to p erc eption.
R eg io n s vary,
of course , in th e d eg re e to w hich they are bounded and
a c co rd in g to the media of com munication in which th e barriers
to p erception occur.
T h u s thick g l a s s p a n e ls , suc h a s are
found in b r o ad c astin g control rooms, can i s o l a t e a region
aura lly but not v isu a lly , while an offic e bounded by beaverboard p a rtitio n s i s c l o s e d off in the o p p o s ite way.
In our Anglo-American s o c i e t y —a re la tiv e ly indoor o n e —
when a perform ance i s given i t i s u s u a l l y . given in a highly
bounded region, to which b o u n d arie s with r e s p e c t to time
are often a d d e d . T h e im p re ssio n and u n d e r sta n d in g fostered
by th e perform ance will then tend, a s it were, to s a tu ra te
th e region and time span, so that any in d ividu al l o c a te d in
t h is s p a c e - ti m e manifold will be in a p o sition to o b s e rv e the
perform ance and be guided by th e definition of the s itu a tio n
which the perform ance fosters. 1
Often a perform ance will involve only one fo cu s of visual
a tte n tio n on the p a rt of performer and a u d ie n c e , a s , for
exam ple, when a po litica l s p e e c h i s prese n ted in a hall or
when a p a t ie n t is ta lk in g to a doctor in the l a t t e r ’s co n s u ltin g room.
H owever many perfo rm ances involve, a s c o n s titu e n t
p a rts, s e p e r a t e k nots or c l u s t e r s of verbal in te ractio n .
Thus
a co c k ta il party ty p ic a lly in v o lv e s several c o n v e rsa tio n a l
sub-groups which c o n s ta n tly shift in s i z e and membership.
So, too, the show m a inta in ed on the floor of a shop ty p ic ally
in v o lv e s s e v e r a l foci of verbal in te raction, each com posed
of a tte n d a n t-c u sto m e r p airs.
G iv en a p a r tic u la r performance a s a point of reference,
it will so m e tim es b e co n v e n ie n t to u s e the term 'f r o n t r e g i o n ’
to re fe r to th e p l? c e where the perform ance is given.
The
fixed sign-equipm ent in such a p la c e h a s alre ady been referred
to a s that part o f front c a lle d ' s e t t i n g . '
We will h a v e to
s e e th a t som e a s p e c t s of a perform ance seem to be p la yed
not to th e a u d ie n c e but to th e front region.
1 U nder t h e term 'b e h a v i o u r a l s e t t i n g , ’ Wright and Barker, in a r e s e a rc h
m ethodology report, g ive a very c l e a r s t a te m e n t of the s e n s e s in which
e x p e c t a t i o n s reg ard in g c o n d u c t come to be a s s o c i a t e d with p a r tic u la r
places.
S ee Herbett F . Wright and Roger G. Barker, Methods in P s y c h o ­
l o g i c a l E c o l o g y ( T o p e k a : K a n s a s : Ray’s P ri n t i n g S ervice, 1950).
66
T h e performance of an individu al in a front region may be
s e e n a s an effort to g iv e th e ap p e a ra n c e that h is activity
in th e region m ain ta in s and em bodies certain sta n d a r d s .
T h e s e s ta n d a r d s seem to fall into two broad groupings. One
grouping h as to do with the way in which the performer t r e a ts
the a u d ie n c e while engaged in tall: with them or in g e s tu ra l
in te r c h a n g e s that are a s u b s t itu te for talk.
These s ta n d a r d s
are so m etim es referred to a s m a tte rs of p o lit e n e s s . T he other
group of s ta n d a r d s h as to do with the way in which th e per­
former com ports himself while in visual or aural range of the
aud ien c e but not n e c e s s a r ily engaged in talk with them.
I sh a ll u s e the term decorum to refer to t h is seco nd group
of s ta n d a rd s, although some e x c u s e s and some q u a lif ic a tio n s
will have to be added to justify the u sa g e.
Uhen we look at the req uirem ents of decorum in a region,
requirem ents of the kind not rela ted to the handling of o th e rs
in co n v e rsatio n , we tend to divid e th e s e again into two su b ­
groupings, moral and instru m ental.
Moral requirem ents are
e n d s in th e m s e lv e s and presum ably refer to ru les regarding
non-interference and non-m olestation of o th e rs, r u le s re­
garding s e x u a l propriety, r u le s regarding r e s p e c t for s a c r e d
p la c e s , etc.
Instrumental requirem ents a re not e n d s in them­
s e l v e s and presumably refer to d u tie s such a s an employer
might demand of his employe.es—ca re of property, m aintenance
of work le v e ls , e tc .
It may be felt chat the term decorum
ought to c o v e r only the moral sta n d a r d s and that another
term should be u se d to co ver th e instrum ental ones.
When
we exam ine the order that is m aintained in a given region,
however, we find th at th e s e two kinds of demands, moral
and instrum ental, seem to affect in much the sa m e way the
individual who must an sw e r to them, and that both moral and
instrum ental grounds or ratio n aliz atio n a re put forth a s
j u s t i f i c a t i o n s for most s ta n d a r d s that must be m aintained.
P ro viding the sta ndard i s m aintained by s a n c ti o n s and by
a s a n c tio n e r of some kind, it will often be of small moment
to th e performer whether t h e sta n d ard is ju stified ch iefly
on instrum ental grounds or moral ones, and whether he is
a s k e d to incorporate the standard.
It may be noted that the part of p ersonal front we have
c a l l e d ' m a n n e r ’ will be im portant in regard to p o lit e n e s s
and th at the part we have c a lle d ’ a p p e a r a n c e ’ will be im­
portant in regard to decorum.
It may also be noted that
w hile d eco rou s behaviour may take the form of show ing r e s p e c t
for the region and s e ttin g one fin d s o n e s e lf in, th is show of
re sp e c t may, of co u rse , be motivated by a d e s ire to im press
67
th e a u d ie n c e favourably, or a v oid s a n c tio n s , e tc .
F in ally ,
it should be noted th a t the requirem ents of decorum are more
p e rv a siv e e c o lo g ic a lly than are th e req uirem ents of p o lit e n e s s .
An a u d ie n c e can s u b je c t an en tire front region to a con tin uous
in sp e c tio n a s regards decorum, but w hile the a u d ien c e is
so eng a g ed , none or only a few of the perform ers may be
o bliged to ta lk to the a u d ie n c e and hence to dem onstrate
p o lit e n e s s .
In the study of s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts it is important to
d e s c r ib e th e s ta n d a r d s of d ec orum ; it is difficult to do so
b e c a u s e informants and s t u d e n ts te n d to ta k e many o f th e s e
s t a n d a r d s for granted not r e a liz i n g they have done so until
an a c c id e n t, or c r is i s , or p e c u lia r c irc u m s ta n c e o cc u rs. VC’e
know, for exam ple, that d iffe ren t b u s i n e s s o f fic e s hav e
d ifferent s ta n d a r d s a s regards informal c h a tte r among c l e r k s ,
f'Ut it i s only when we happen to stu d y an o ffice that h a s
a s iz e a b le number of foreign refugee em p lo y ee s th a t we
suddenly a p p r e c ia te th a t perm issio n to eng age in informal
talk may not c o n s titu te p e rm issio n to en g a g e in informal
talk in a foreign la nguage. 1
We are ac c u s to m e d to assu m in g that the ru le s of decorum
that prevail in s a c r e d e s ta b l is h m e n ts , such a s c h u r c h e s , will
b e much different from the o n e s that prevail in everyday p l a c e s
of work.
We ought not to a s su m e from th is that d ie sta n d a r d s
in s a c r e d p l a c e s are more numerous and more s m c t than th o s e
we find in work e s ta b l is h m e n ts .
While in church, a woman
may be perm itted to s it, daydream, and even d o z e ; a s a
s a lesw o m a n on the floor of a d r e s s shop, she may be required
to stand , keep alert, refrain from chew ing gum, keep a fixed
sm ile on her f a c e even when not ta lk in g to anybody and
wear c l o t h e s she ca n ill afford.
One form of decorum that h a s been studied in s o c ia l
e s ta b l is h m e n ts i s what i s c a lle d ’ m ake-w ork.’
It is under­
stood in many e s ta b l is h m e n ts that not only will workers be
required to produce a ce rtain amount afte r a c e r ta in length
of tim e but also that they will be ready, when c a lle d upon,
to give th e im pression that they are working hard a t th e
moment. Of a shipyard we learn th e follow ing:
It w as am usin g to watch the sudden transformation whenever
word KOt round that the foreman was on the hull or in the shop or
t h a t a ftont-office s u p e rin te n d e n t w as coming by.
‘Juarcermen and
lcaderm en would rush to th eir groups of workers and s t i r them to
o bv iuu s a c tiv ity .
’ l ) o n \ le t him c a t c h you s i t t i n g d o w n ,’ w a s the
u n iv ersal admonition, and where no work e x i s te d a pipe w a s busily
bent and th read ed , or a bolt which w a s already firmly in p l a c e was sub1 See G r o ss , op.
cit.,
p. 186.
68
j e n e J to further and u n n e c e s s a r y tightening.
T h i s * a s the formal
trib ute in var iab ly atten d in g a v is i t a t i o n by rhe b o s s , und its c o n v en tio n s
were a s fa m iliar to both s i d e s a s ih o s e surrounding a fiv e-star g en eral's
i n s p e c t io n . T o h ave n e g l e c t e d any detail of rhe false and empty sh'*>*would h ave been in terpreted a s a mark- o f s i n g u l a r d i s r e s p e c t . 1
Similarly, of o hospital ward we le a r n :
T h e o b se rv e r w a s told very e x p l i c i t l y by oth er a t t e n d a n t s on h is firs t
d a y of work on t h e w a r d s no t to ‘ g et c a u g h t ’ str ik in g a p a t i e n t i to
a p p e a r b usy when tlie s u p e r v i s o r m akes her rounds, and n o t to speak
to her u n l e s s first spoken to.
(c w a s noted that so m e a t t e n d a n t s
watch for her a p p ro ach and warn th e other a t t e n d a n t s so t h a t no one
will gct c:iu£hr doing u n d e s i r a b l e a r t s .
Some a t t e n d a n t s will s a v e
work for when the s u p e r v i s o r i s p r e s e n t s o they will be busy and
will not be #ivcn add itio n al t a s k s .
In most a t t e n d a n t s th e ch an ge
i s not so o bv iou s, d e p en din g larg ely on the individual attetidant,
rhe s up e rv is o r, and the ward s itu a tio n .
Ifowevet, with nearly alt
a t t e n d a n t s ther e is some ch an ge in behav iour when an official, su ch
a s a s u p e rv is o r, i s presen r.
T here i s no open flouting of the rules
and r e g u l a t i o n s ...................
^
From a c o n s id e r a tio n of make-work it is only a ste p to con­
s id e ra tio n of other s ta n d a r d s of work a c tiv ity for which
a p p e a r a n c e s must be m aintained, such a s p ac e, personal
in te r e s t, economy, a c c u ra c y , etc. 3 And from a co nsid eration
of work sta n d a r d s in general it i s only a s te p to c o nsideratio n
o f oth e r m ajor a s p e c t s of decorum, instrum ental and moral,
in work p la c e s , such a s : mode of d r e s s ; p e rm issib le sound
l e v e l s ; pro scrib e d d iv e rsio n s, in d u lg e n ce s, and a ffec tiv e
e x p r e s s i o n s ; e tc .
It w as .suggested ea rlier that when o n e ’s ac tiv ity o ccurs
in the p r e s e n c e of oth e r p erso n s, some a s p e c t s of the activity
are e x p r e s s iv e ly a c c e n tu a te d and other a s p e c t s , which mi.tjht
d is c r e d it the fo stere d im p re ssio n , a re s u p p r e s s e d . It i s d e a r
that a c c e n tu a te d f a c ts make th e ir ap p e a ra n c e in what we
h av e c a l l e d a front r e g io n ; it sh ould be just a s c l e a r th a t
there may be another region—a back region o r b a c k s ta g e —
where th e s u p p r e s s e d f a c ts make an a p p e a ra n c e .
A back region or b a c k s ta g e may be defined a s a p la c e ,
r e la tiv e to a given perform ance, where the im pression f o ste re d
by the perform ance i s knowingly co n tradicted a s a m a tte r of
co urse . T h ere are, of course , many c h a r a c t e r is ti c functions
of such p l a c e s . It is here that the ca p a c ity of a perform ance
to e x p r e s s som ething beyond i t s e l f may be p a in sta k in g ly
fa b r ic a te d ; i t i s here that ill u s i o n s and im p r e s s io n s are
openly c o n s tru c te d .
Here g rades o f cerem onial equipment,
such a s different ty p e s of liquor or c lo th e s , can be hidden
1 K ath erine Archibald, Wartime Shipyard (B erkeley
U n iv ersity of C a lifornia P r e s s , 1947), p. 159-
and
Los
A ngeles:
2 Willoughby, op. c it., p. 4 3.
^ A n a n a l y s i s of some major work s t a n d a rd s may be found in Gro ss, op. c i l , t
from which th e above e x a m p le s of suc h sta n d a rd s are taken.
69
so th a t the a u d ie n c e will not be a b le to s e e th e trea tm e n t
ac co rd ed them in com parison with the trea tm e n t th a t could
have been a c c o rd e d them. H ere d e v i c e s such a s th e te lep h o n e
a r e s e q u e s te r e d so that u s e r s will be ab le to u s e them
' p r i v a t e l y . ’ H ere c o s tu m e s and o th e r p a r ts of p erso n a l front
may be a d ju s te d and sc ru tin iz e d for fla w s.
H ere the team
ca n run through i t s perform ance, c h e c k in g for offending e x ­
p r e s s i o n s when no one i s p re se n t to be affronted by them ;
here poor members of the team, who are e x p r e s s iv e ly inept,
can be s c h o o le d or dropped from the perform ance. H ere th e
performer can r e l a x ; he can drop h i s front, forgo sp e a k in g h is
lin e s , and ste p out of c h a r a c te r . Simone de B eauvoir provides
a rath e r vivid p ic tu re of th is b a c k s ta g e a c tiv ity in d e s c rib in g
sit u a ti o n s from which the m ale a u d ie n c e i s a b s e n t.
What g iv e s v alu e t o suc h r e l a t i o n s among women is rhe tr u th f u ln e s s
they imply.
C o nfrontin g man woman i s a l w a y s p l a y - a c t i n g ; s h e l i e s
when she m ak es b e lie v e th at sh e a c c e p t s her s t a t u s a s the i n e s s e n t i a l
other, she l i e s when she p r e s e n t s to him an imaginary p e r so n a g e
through mimicry, co s tu m e ry, st u d i e d p h r a s e s .
T h ese histrionics
req u ire a c o n s t a n t t e n s i o n : when with her h u sb a n d , or with her lover,
every woman is more or l e s s c o n s c i o u s of the th o u g h t: ' I am not being
myself^* the m ale world is h arsh , sh a rp edged, i t s v o i c e s arc too
reso u n atn g , the l i g h t s ate too c rud e, the co n ta c r s rough.
With other
women, a woman i s behind the s c e n e s ; she i s p o l i s h i n g her equipment,
bu t not in b a t t l e ; s h e i s g e ttin g h er co s tu m e tog eth er, p rep arin g her
make-up, l a y i n g out her t a c t i c s ; sh e i s linger in g in dressin g -go w n and
s l i p p e r s i n the w in gs before m aking her e n tr a n c e on the s t a g e ; sh e
l i k e s t h i s warm, e a s y , r elax ed atm osphere . . . .
F o r so m e women t h i s warm and frivolous intim acy i s d e a r e r than
t h e s e r i o u s pomp of r e l a t i o n s with men. 1
Very commonly the back region of a performance is lo c a te d
at one end of the place where the performance i s p rese n ted ,
being cut off from it by a p a rtitio n and guarded p a s sa g e w a y .
By h aving the front and back regio ns a d j a c e n t in th is way,
a perform er out in front c a n r e c e iv e b a c k s ta g e a s s i s t a n c e
while th e perform ance is in p r o g re s s and can interrupt his
perform ance momentarily for brief p erio d s of rela xatio n.
In
g e n e ra l, of c o u r s e , the b a c k region will be the p la c e where
th e performer can r e lia b ly e x p e c t that no member of the
a u d ie n c e will intrude.
S in c e the vital s e c r e t s o f a show are v is ib le b a c k s ta g e
an d s i n c e perform ers behave out o f c h a r a c t e r while there,
it is natural to e x p e ct that the p a s s a g e from the front region
to th e back region will be kep t c l o s e d to members of the
a u d i e n c e or that th e e n tir e back region will be kept hidden
from them. T h is i s a w idely p r a c tis e d te ch n iq u e of im pression
m anagement, of which some i ll u s tr a ti o n s and im p lic a tio n s
a re given below.
F irs t, we often find th a t control of b a c k s ta g e p la y s a
sig n ific a n t role in th e p r o c e s s of 'w o rk c o n t r o l ’ whereby
l de Beauvoir, op. c i L , p. 54 J.
70
in d iv i d u a ls attem p t to buffer th e m s e lv e s from the determin­
i s t i c d e m a n d s that surround them.
If a factory worker i s to
su c c e e d in giving the a p p e a r a n c e of working hard all day,
th e n he must have a sa fe p la c e to h id e the jig that e n a b le s
him to turn out a day ’s work with l e s s than a full day ’s effort. 1
If th e bereaved are to be given the illu sio n th a t the d e a d
one i s rea lly in a deep and tranquil s le e p , then the u nd ertaker
m ust be a b l e to keep the bere av ed from the workroom where
th e c o r p s e s are drained, stuffed, and p ain ted in preparation
for th e ir final p e r f o rm a n c e .2
In many s e r v ic e tr a d e s , the
cu stom er i s a s k e d to l e a v e th e thing th a t n e e d s s e r v ic e
and to go away so th a t th e tradesm an ca n work in private.
When the cu sto m e r retu rn s for h is au to m o b ile—or w atch, or
t r o u s e r s , or w i r e l e s s —it i s p r e s e n te d to him in good working
order, an order that in c id e n ta lly c o n c e a l s the amount and
kind of work th a t had to be done, the number o f m is ta k e s
that were f irs t made before g e ttin g it fixed, and o th e r d e t a i l s
the c lie n t would have to know before being ab le to judge
the r e a s o n a b le n e s s o f the fee that i s a s k e d of him.
S erv ice p ersonnel so commonly ta k e for granted the right
to keep the a u d ie n c e aw ay from the back reg io n th a t a ttention
is drawn more to c a s e s where t h is common str a te g y cannot
be a p p lie d than to c a s e s where it c a n .
For example, the
American filling sta tio n manager h a s numerous trouble s in
th is regard. 3 If a rep a ir i s n ee d ed , c u s to m e rs often refuse to
le a v e their autom obile overnight or all day, in trust of the
e s ta b lis h m e n t, a s they would do had they taken their au to ­
mobile to a garage, Further, when the m echanic m a k es re p a irs
and a d ju stm e n ts, cu s to m e rs often feel they have the right to
w atch him a s he d o e s h i s work. If an illu sio n a ry s e r v ic e is
to be rendered and charged for, it must, therefore,- be rendered
before the very person who is to be taken in by it. C ustom ers,
in fact, not only d isrega rd the right of the s ta tio n p ersonnel
to th e ir own back region but often a ls o define the whole
sta tio n a s a kind of open city for m a les, -a p la c e where an
individual runs the risk of gettin g h i s suit dirty and therefore
1 S ee O rvis C o llin s , Melville Dalton, an d Donald Koy, * R e str ic tio n of
Output and S ocial C l e a v a g e in I n d u str y ,' Applied A nth rop olo gy (now
Human Organization), IV, pp. 1-1*1, esp. p. 9.
2 Mr. l i a b c n s te in h a s s u g g e s t e d tn se minar that in some s t a t e s the under­
ta k e r h a s a leg al right to prevent r e l a t i v e s of t h e d e c e a s e d from en tering
t h e workroom where the c o r p s e i s in preparation.
P re su m ably the
.sight of what h a s to be do n e to t h e d ead to make them look a t t r a c t i v e
would be roo g reat a s ho c k for n on - p ro f e ss io n a ls a n d e s p e c i a l l y for
kinsfolk ol tin* d e c e a s e d .
Mr. H abenstein a l s o s u g g e s t s that kinsfork
may want to be k ep t from th e un dertak er's workroom b e c a u s e of their
own fear of ih e ir own morbid c u r io sity .
^ T h e s t a te m e n ts which follow ar e taken from a stud y by S o cial R e se a r c h
Inc. of two hundred s m a l l - b u s i n e s s m an ag ers.
71
h a s the right to demand full b a c k s ta g e p r iv ile g e s .
Male
m o to r is t s will s a u n te r in, tip back their h a t s , sp it, sw ea r,
and a s k for free s e r v ic e o r free travel a d v ice .
T h ey will
barge in to make fam iliar u s e o f th e to ile t, the s t a t i o n ’s tools,
o r the o ffic e te le p h o n e ; and in order to a v o id traffic lig h ts,
m o to r is ts will cut right a c r o s s th e s ta tio n drivew ay, o b liv io u s
to the m a n ag e r’s proprietary rights.
T h e study of the is l a n d hotel p rev io u sly c i te d p ro v id e s
an o th er exa m p le of the problem s w orkers fac e when they
have in s u f f ic ie n t control of th e ir b a c k s ta g e . Within the hotel
k itc h e n , where th e g u e s t s ’ food w as p rep a re d and where the
s t a f f a te and s p e n t th e ir day, c r o f te r s ’ cu ltu re te n d ed to
p r e v a il, invo lving a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c pattern o f cloth ing, food
h a b i ts , ta b le m an ners, la n g u ag e , em ployer-em ployee r e la tio n s,
c l e a n l i n e s s sta n d a r d s , etc.
T h i s cu ltu re w as felt to be
d iffe ren t from, and low er in e s te e m than, B r itis h m id d le - c la s s
c u ltu r e , which te n d ed to prevail in the dinin g room and oth e r
p l a c e s in th e h o te l. The. d o ors le a d in g from the kitc h en to
the o th e r p a r ts of the hotel w ere a c o n s ta n t sore sp o t in the
org an iz atio n of work. T h e m a id s w anted to kee p th e doors
open to make it e a s i e r to carry food tr a y s back an d forth, to
g a th e r inform ation about w hether g u e s t s w ere ready or not for
the s e r v ic e which was to be performed for them, an d to reta in
a s much c o n t a c t a s p o s s i b le with the p e r s o n s they had come
to work to learn about. S in ce the m a id s p la y e d a se rv a n t role
before the g u e s ts , they, felt they did not have too much to
lo s e by being o b s e rv e d in th e ir own milieu by g u e s t s who
g la n c e d into t h e k itc h en when p a s s i n g the open doors. T he
m a n ag e rs, on th e oth e r hand, w anted to k ee p the door c lo s e d
so th a t the m id d l e - c la s s role im puted to them by th e g u e s t s
would not be d is c r e d ite d by a d is c lo s u r e of th e ir cro fter h a b its .
H ardly a day p a s s e d when t h e s e doors were not angrily banged
shut and angrily banged open. A kick-door of th e kind modern
r e s t a u r a n t s u se would h a v e provided a partial so lution for
the s ta g in g problem.
A sm all g l a s s window in the doors
th a t could a c t a s a p e e p h o le —a s t a g e d e v ic e u se d by many
sm all p l a c e s of b u s i n e s s —would a l s o hav e been helpful.
Another i n te r e s ti n g exam ple of b a c k s ta g e d if f ic u ltie s is
found in radio and te le v i s io n b ro a d c a s tin g work.
In t h e s e
s it u a tio n s , back region te n d s to be d efin e d' a s all p la c e s
where th e cam era i s not f o c u s s e d at the moment or a ll p l a c e s
out of range of ' l i v e ’ m icrophones. T h u s an announ cer may
hold the s p o n s o r ’s product up at arm ’s length in front o f the
cam era while he holds his n o se with his other hand, his face
being out of the pic tu re, a s a way of jo king with his team­
m a tes .
P r o f e s s i o n a l s , of c o u r s e , tell many exem plary t a l e s
72
o f how p e i s o n s who ihoughr they were b a c k s ta g e were in
facc on the air and how th is b a c k s ta g e con duct d is c re d ite d
the defin itio n of the situ atio n being m aintained on the air.
For t e c h n ic a l r e a s o n s , then, the w a lls th a t b r o a d c a s te rs
have to hide behind can be very tre a c h e ro u s, te n d in g to fall
at the flick of a sw itc h or a turn ot the camera. B roadc astin g
a r t i s t s must live with th is s ta g in g contingency,
A final example of b a c k s ta g e d if f i c u lt ie s is found among
e x a lte d p e rso n s.
P e r s o n s may become so sacred that the
only fitting a p p e a ra n c e they can make is in the ce n tre of a
retin u e and ce rem ony ; it may be thought improper for them
to a p p e ar before oth ers in any other c ontex t, a s such informal
a p p e a r a n c e s may be thought to d is c re d it the magical a t tr ib u te s
imputed to them.
T herefore members of the au d icn c e must
be prohibited from all the p l a c e s the e x a lte d one is likely
to relax in, and if the place for rela x atio n is large, a s in the
c a s e of the C h i n e s e Emperor in the n in e te e n th century, or it
there is uncertainty about where the e x a lte d one will be,
problem s of t r e s p a s s become c o n s id e r a b le .
T h u s Queen
V ictoria enforced the rule th a t anyone s e e in g her approach
when driving in her pony-cart on the p a l a c e grounds should
turn h is head or walk in another d irec tio n , and som e tim es
great s ta te s m e n were required to s a c r if ic e their own dignity
and jump behind the shrubbery when the queen unex pectedly
ap pro a ched. 1
While th e s e exa m p le s of back region difficulty are extreme,
it would seem that no s o c ia l e s ta b lis h m e n t can be studied
where som e problems a s s o c ia te d with b a c k s ta g e control do
not occur.
Work and rec re ation regions rep rese n t two a r e a s for
b a c k s ta g e control.
Another a r e a is s u g g e s te d by the very
w idespread tendency in our s o c iety to give perform ers control
over the p la c e in which they a tte n d to what are c a lle d
biological n e e d s.
In our s o c ie ty , d e fe c a tio n in v o lv e s an
individual in ac tiv ity which i s defined a s i n c o n s is te n t with
the c l e a n l i n e s s and purity sta n d a r d s e x p r e s s e d in many of our
perform ances.
Such ac tiv ity also c a u s e s the individual to
d isarrange h is clo th in g and to ' g o out of play,* that is, to
drop from h i s face th e e x p r e s s iv e mask that he em ploys in
face-to-face in te ra c tio n . At the same tim e ic b ecom es difficult
for him to r e a s s e m b le h is personal front sh o u ld the n e e d to
en ter into in te ractio n sud denly occur.
P e r h a p s that i s a
reason why to ile t doors in our s o c ie ty have lo c k s on them.
When a s l e e p in bed the individual i s a l s o im mobilized,
* t'o n s o n h y , of>. c i t . , p J2 .
73
e x p r e s s iv e ly s p e ak in g , and may not be ab le to bring him self
into an ap p ro priate p o sitio n for in te ractio n or bring a s o c ia b l e
e x p r e s s io n to h is face until som e moments afte r being
w akened, th u s providing one ex plan a tio n of the tendency
to remove th e bedroom from the a c tiv e part of the house.
T h e utility of such s e c lu s io n i s reinforced by the facc that
se x u a l ac tiv ity i s lik e ly to o c c u r in bedrooms, a form of
in te ra c tio n which a l s o ren d e rs i t s performers in c a p a b le of
im m ediately entering into an ocher in te ractio n .
One of the most in te r e s tin g tim es to o b se rv e im­
p r e s s io n m anagement is the moment when a performer
l e a v e s the back region and e n t e r s the p la ce where the
a u d ie n c e is to be found, or when he returns therefrom,
for at t h e s e moments we can d e te c t a wonderful putting on
an d ta k in g off of ch a ra c te r.
Orwell, sp e a k in g of w aiters,
and s p e a k in g from the b a c k sta g e point of view of d ish w a sh e rs,
p ro v id e s us with an e x a m p l e :
1c is an i n s t r u c t i v e sigh: co s e e a w aiter going into a hotel
dining-room.
As he p a s s e s the door a su d d e n c h a n g e c o m es o v er
him.
T h e s e t of h i s s h o u ld e rs a l t e r s ; all the dirt an d hu rry and
irritatio n have dropped off in an in s t a n t . He g l i d e s over th e carpec,
w ith a solemn p r i e s t - l ik e air.
I remember our a s s i s t a n t maitre d*hoielt
a fiery Italia n , p a u s i n g a t the dining-room door to a d d r e s s h i s a p p r e n t i c e
wh o had broken a b o ttle of wine.
S h aking h is fi s t ab o v e h i s head
h e y e l l e d (luckily t h e door w as more or l e s s soundproof), ” Tu me f a i s —
Do you call y ou rself a waiter, y o u young b a s t a r d ?
You a w a ite r l
You re not fit to s c ru b floors in ihe brothel your m other cam e from.
Mttffuereau! M
Words failing him, he turned to th e d o o r ; a n d a s he op en ed it
lie d e l i v e r e d a final in s u l t in the s a m e manner a s Squire Uesrc rn
in T om J o n e s .
Then h e en te r e d the dining-room and sa ile d a c r o s s il dish in
hand, graceful a s a swan.
T en s e c o n d s loiter he w as bowing rev eren tly
to a cu sto m er.
And you cou ld not help thinking, a s ^ o u sa w him
bow an d sm ile, with th at benign s m ile of the tr a in e d waiter , that rho
cu s to m e r was put to sh am e by hav in g su ch an a r i s t o c r a t co s e rv e him. 1
T he d e c lin e of d om estic s e rv ic e lias forced quick c h a n g e s
o f the kind m entioned by Orwell upon the m id d l e - c la s s h o u s e ­
wife.
In se rv in g a dinner for frie n d s sh e must manage th e
k itc h en dirty work in such a way a s to e n a b le her co switch
back and forth betw een th e r o le s of d o m e stic and h o s t e s s ,
a lte r in g her ac tiv ity , her manner, and her temper, a s she
1 George Orwell, Down and Out in P a r i s and L ondon (London.* S eeker
a nd Warburg, 1951), pp. 68-69*
Another i l lu str a tio n is provided by
Moqica D ickens , One Pair o f H ands (Mermaid B o o k s ; L o n d o n : Michael
J o s e p h , 1952), p. 13:
’ T h e s a i d m aid—her name w a s Addie, 1 d i s c o v e r e d —and t h e two
w a i t r e s s e s were beh av in g like peop le a c t i n g in a p lay.
T h ey would
s w e e p into the k itch en a s if coming off s t a g e into th e wings, with tray s
h eld high an d a t e n s e ex p r e s s i o n of h au teu r s t ill on th eir f a c e s ; relax
for a moment in the frenzy of g e ttin g the new d i s h e s lo aded, and glide
o f f ag ain with f a c e s p rep ared to make their next e n tr a n c e .
T h e cook
a n d 1 wer e left like s t a g e han d s among rhe d ebris, a s if h a v i n g .s e e n
a glim pse of an o th er world, we alm ost l i s t e n e d for the a p p l a u s e of t h e
u n se e n a u d i e n c e . 1
74
p a s s e s in and oiic of the dining room. E tiq u e tte
provide
helpful d ir e c tio n s for f a c ilita tin g such c h a n g es .
T h e lin e dividing front and back regions is ill u s tr a te d
everyw here in our s o c ie ty .
A s s u g g e ste d , the bathroom and
bedroom, in all but lo w e r - c la s s homes, are p l a c e s from which
the d o w n s ta irs a u d ie n c e can be excluded.
B o d ie s that are
c l e a n s e d , clothed, and made up in t h e s e rooms can be pre­
s e n te d to friends in o th e rs. In the kitchen, of co urse , there
i s done to food what in the bathroom and bedroom i s done to
the human body. It is , in fact, the p r e s e n c e of t h e s e staging
d e v i c e s that d is t in g u is h e s m id d le - c la s s liv in g from lowerc l a s s living.
But in all c l a s s c s in our s o c iety there i s a
tendency to make a d iv ision betw een the front and back p a r ts
o f re s id e n tia l exteriors.
T h e front te n d s to be rela tiv e ly
well decorated, well repaired, and tid y ; the re a r te n d s to be
r e la tiv e ly u n p r e p o s s e s s in g .
Correspondingly, so c ial a d u l t s
en ter through the front, and often the s o c ia lly in c o m p le te—
d o m e stic s, delivery men, and c h ild re n —enter through the rear.
While we are fam iliar with the sta g e arran g e m en ts in and
around a dw elling p la ce , we tend to be l e s s a w a re of other
s ta g e arrang em ents. In American r e s id e n tia l neighbourhoods,
boys of eight to fourteen and other profane p e rso n s a p p re c ia te
that e n tra n c e s to back la n e s and a l l e y s lead somewhere and
a r e to be u s e d ; they s e e th e s e op enings in a vivid s e n s e
that will be l o s t to them when they become older. Similarly,
ja n ito r s and scrubwomen have a c l e a r perception of the small
doors th a t lead to the back regions of b u s i n e s s b uildings
and are in tim ately familiar wich the profane tran sporta tio n
system for se cretly tran sp o rtin g dirty c le a n in g equipment,
large s ta g e props, and th e m se lv e s. There is a sim ila r arran ge­
ment in s to r e s , where p la c e s 'b e h in d the c o u n t e r ’ and the
storeroom s e rv e a s back reg ions.
G iven the v a l u e s of a particular s o c ie ty , it is apparent
that the b a c k s ta g e ch a ra c te r of c e rta in p la c e s i s built into
them in a material way, and that rela tiv e to a d ja c e n t a r e a s
t h e s e p l a c e s are in e sca p ab ly back reg ions.
In our soc iety
th e d ec o rato r’s art often d o e s th is for us, apportioning dark
c olou rs and open brickwork to the s e rv ic e p a r ts of buildings
and white p la s te r to the front regions. P i e c e s of fixed equip­
ment add permanency to this division.
Employers com plete
the harmony by hiring p e rs o n s with undesira b le visual
a ttrib u te s for back region work,-1 placing p e rs o n s who ‘ niak?
a good a p p e a r a n c e ’ in the front region s.
( T h i s inv olve s a
1 R e s e r v e s of u n im pre ssiv e -lo ok ing labour can be u se d not only for a c tiv ity
that must be c o n c e a le d from t h e a u d i e n c e but a l s o for activity th at
need not but can be c o n c e a le d . Mr Hughes h a s s u g g e s t e d in sem in ar
7S
kind of e c o lo g ic a l so rting that i s well known but li t t l e stu d ied .)
And often it i s e x p e c te d th a t th o s e who work b a c k s ta g e will
a c h i e v e te c h n ic a l s ta n d a r d s while t h o s e who work in the
front region w ill a c h ie v e e x p r e s s i v e ones.
T h e d e c o r a tio n s an d permanent fix tu re s in a p la c e where
a p a r tic u la r perform ance is u s u a lly given, a s well a s the
perform ers and perform ance u s u a lly found in it, tend to fix a
kin d of s p e l l over i t ; even w hen the custom ary perform ance
i s not being given in it, the p la c e te n d s to retain so m e of
i t s front region ch a ra c te r. T h u s a ca th e d ra l and a schoolroom
r e ta in so m e th in g of th e ir tone eve n when only repairm en are
prese n t, and w hile t h e s e men may not behave reve re ntly while
doing th e ir work, their irre v eren c e te n d s to be of a stru c tu re d
kind, s p e c if ic a ll y oriented to what in some s e n s e they ought
to be fee lin g but are not.
So, too, a given p la c e may become
so id e n tifie d a s a hide-out where c e r ta in s ta n d a r d s need not
be m a in ta ined th a t it becom es fixed with an identity a s a
back region.
Hunting lo d g e s and lo c k e r rooms in a th le tic
s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s may s e rv e a s i ll u s tr a ti o n s .
Summer
r e s o r ts , too, seem to fix p e r m i s s iv e n e s s regarding front,
a llo w in g o th e rw is e c o n ve ntion a l people to a p p e ar in public
s t r e e t s in c o s tu m e s they would not ordinarily w ear in the
p r e s e n c e of str a n g e r s .
So, too, crim inal hang outs and even
crim inal neighbourhoo ds are to be found, where th e a c t of
being ’ l e g i t ’ need not be m a inta ined.
An in te r e s tin g example
o f th is i s s a id to have e x is te d in P a r i s :
’ In the s e v e n t e e n t h cen tu ry , th erefo re, in order to becom e a thorough
Argotier, it was n e c e s s a r y no t only to s o l i c i t alm s like any mere
hegg ar, but a l s o to p o s s e s s the dexterity of th e c u t- p u rs e a nd the
thief.
T h e s e a r t s w ere to be learned in t h e p l a c e s which se rv ed
a s the h ab itu al r e n d e z v o u s o f the very d r eg s o f so c iety , a/id which
were generally known a s the Cours d e s Miraclcs .
T h e s e h o u s e s , ot
rather r e s o r t s , had b een so c a lle d , if we a r e to b e l i e v e a writer of the
early part of the s e v e n te e n th ce n tu r y , ' B e c a u s e rogues . . . an d other s,
who h av e all day been cr i p p l e s , maim ed, d r o p s i c a l , and b e s e t with
every s o n of bodily ailm ent, come home at n ig h t, ca rry in g under theit
Arms a sirloin of beef, a joint of v e a l , or a l e g of mutton, not forg etting
t o hang a bottle of wine to their b e l t s , and, on e n te r in g the court,
they throw a s i d e rheir cr u tc h e s, r esu m e th eir h e a lth y and lusty
a p p e a r a n c e , and, in im itatio n of the a n c i e n t B a c c h a n a lia n re v e lrie s ,
d a n c e all k in d s of d a n c e s with their tro p h ie s in th eir h a n d s , w h ilst
t h e h o s t i s p rep arin g their s u p p e rs .
Can there be n g r e a t e r miracle
than i s to be s e e n in t h i s court, w here the maimed walk u p r ig h t? ' 1
In back r e g io n s su c h a s th e s e , the very fact th at an important
e ffe c t is not striv e n for te n d s to s e t the tone for in te ra c tio n ,
le a d in g th o s e who find th e m s e lv e s there to act a s if they
were on fam iliar te rm s with one another in all m atters.
cli.it Negro e m plo y ees can more e a s i l y than o th erw ise be given s t a ff
s t a t u s in American f a c t o ri e s if, a s in the c a s e of c h e m i s ts , they can
be s e q u e s t e r e d from the main r egio n s of factory op er ation.
' P a u l L aC ro ix, Manners, Cu stom , and D ress during the Middle A g e s and
during the R e n a i s s a n c e P eriod (London : Chapman an d Hall, 1876), p. 471.
76
However, while th ere is a tenden cy for a region to become
id e n tif ie d a s the front region or back region of a performance
with which it is reg ula rly a s s o c i a t e d , s ti ll there are many
r e g io n s which function at one tim e and in o n e s e n s e a s a
front region and a t another tim e and in an other s e n s e a s a
back region.
T h u s the private office of an e x e c u tiv e is
c e rta in ly the front region where his s t a t u s in the o rg a n iz a tio n
i s in te n s iv e ly e x p r e s s e d by m eans of the quality of his office
fu rn ish in g s.
And yet it is here th at he ca n ta k e h is ja c k e t
off, lo o se n h i s tie, keep a bottle of liquor handy, and act in
a chummy and even b o is te r o u s way with fellow e x e c u t iv e s
of h is own rank. 1 Similarly, of a Sunday morning, a whole
hou se ho ld ca n u s e the wall around i t s d o m e stic e s ta b lis h m e n t
to c o n c e a l a r e la x in g s l o v e n lin e s s in d r e s s and c iv il
endeavour, e x ten d in g to all rooms the inform ality th a t is
u s u a lly r e s tr ic te d to the k itc h en an d bedrooms. So, too, in
American m id d le - c la s s neighbourhoods, on a fte rn o o n s the
line betw een the c h ild re n ’s playground and home may be
defined a s b a c k s ta g e by mothers, who p a s s along it wearing
je a n s , lo a f e r s and a minimum of make*up, a c i g a r e tt e dangling
from th e ir lip s a s they push their baby c a r r ia g e s and openly
talk shop with th e ir c o l le a g u e s .
So a lso , in w o rk in g -c las s
quartiers in P a r i s in the early morning, women feel they have
a right to ex tend the b a c k sta g e to their c irc le of neighbouring
s h o p s, and they p a tte r down for milk and fresh bread, wearing
bedroom s lip p e r s , bathrobe, hairn et, and no make-up.
And,
o f co u rse , a region th a t is thoroughly e s ta b l is h e d a s a front
region for the regula r perform ance of a p a r tic u la r routine
often f u n c tio n s a s a back region before and af te r e a c h perform­
a n c e , for at t h e s e tim e s the perm anent fix tu res may undergo
repair, resto ra tio n , and rearrangem ent, or the perform ers may
hold d r e s s r e h e a r s a l s .
To s e e this we need only g la n ce
into a re s ta u r a n t, or sto re, or home, a few m inutes before
chese e s ta b l is h m e n ts are opened to us for the day.
In
g en e ral, then, we must keep in mind that when we s p e a k of
front and back regions we s p e a k from the reference point o f a
p a rtic u la r perform ance, and we s p e ak of the function that the
p la c e h a p p e n s to s e rv e at that time for the given perform ance.
It was s u g g e s te d th a t p e r s o n s who co -o p e ra te in s ta g in g
' The fa ct that a sm all private office c a n be transform ed into a b ack region
by the m anageable method o f being th e only one in i t p rov ides one r easo n
why s t e n o g ra p h e r s som etim es prefer to work in a private o ffice a s o p po se d
to a lar ge office floor. On a lar ge o p en floor som eone i s al w a y s likely
to be p r e s e n t before whom an im p re ssio n of i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s must be
m a i n t a i n e d ; in a small o ffice all p r e t e n c e of work and d eco ro u s behaviour
c a n be dropped when the b o ss i s out. See Richatd R e n ck e, ' The S t a t u s
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of J o b s in a F a c t o r y ' (U np ub lish ed Master's t h e s i s ,
Department of Sociology, U niversity of Chicago, 1953), P- 53*
77
th e s a m e team-perform ance tend to be in a familiar relarion
to one another. T h is fam iliarity te n d s to be e x p r e s s e d only
when the a u d ie n c e is not p re se n t, for it c o n v e y s an im pression
o f s e lf and team-mate which is ordinarily in c o n s is te n t with
th e im p re ssio n of s e lf and team -m ate one w ants to s u s t a in
before the au d ien c e. Since back reg io n s are ty p ic ally out of
bounds to members of the a u d ie n c e , it i s here that we may
expect rec ip ro c al fam iliarity to determ ine the tone of s o c ia l
in te r c o u r se . Similarly, it is in the front region that we may
ex p e ct a tone of formality to prevail.
Throughout our so c ie ty there te n d s to be one informal or
b a c k s ta g e lan g u ag e o f behaviour, and an o th er lan g u ag e of
behaviour for o c c a s i o n s when a perform ance is being p re se n te d .
T h e b a c k s ta g e language c o n s i s t s of reciprocal first-naming,
c o -o p e ra tiv e d e c ision-m a kin g, profanity, open s e x u a l remarks,
e l a b o r a te griping, smoking, rough informal d r e s s , ' s l o p p y '
s it tin g and sta n d in g p o sture, use of d ia le c t or su b -sta n d ard
s p e ec h , mumbling and shouting, playful a g g re ssiv ity and
'k i d d i n g , ' i n c o n s id e r a te n e s s for th e oth e r in minor but
p o te n tia lly symbolic a c t s , minor p h y sic a l se lf-in v o lv em e n ts
such a s humming, w histling, chewing, nibbling, belching, and
flatu len c e.
T he frontstage behaviour la n g u ag e can be taken
a s the a b s e n c e (and in some s e n s e the o p p o site ) of th is . In
g en e ral, then, b a c k s ta g e conduct i s one which allow s minor
a c t s which might e a s il y be taken a s sym bolic of intimacy
and d is r e s p e c t for o th e rs p re se n t and for the region, while
front region co nduct i s one which d is a llo w s such p o te n tia lly
o ffe n siv e behaviour. *
By invoking a b a c k s ta g e s ty l e , in d iv id u als ca n transform
any region into a b a c k sta g e .
T h u s we find that in many
s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts the performers will appropriate a s e ctio n
o f the front region and by ac tin g there in a familiar fashion
sym bolically cut i t off from th e r e s t of the region.
For
in s t a n c e , in som e r e s ta u r a n ts in America, e s p e c ia ll y th o se
c a l l e d 'o n e-arm j o i n t s , ’ the s ta ff will hold court in the booth
fa rth e s t from the door or c l o s e s t to the kitchen, .inJ there
conduct th e m se lv es, at l e a s t in som e r e s p e c ts , a s if they
were b a c k sta g e .
More important, we ought not to exp e ct that in co n c rete
s it u a ti o n s we will find pure ex a m p le s of informal conduct or
1 Ic may be noted (hat b a c k s t a g e behaviour h a s what p s y c h o l o g i s t s might
c a l l a ’ reg re ssiv e * c h aracter.
The qu es tio n , of co u r se, is whether a
b a c k s t a g e g i v e s in d iv id u a ls an opportunity ro r e g r e s s or whether r e ­
g r e s s i o n , in the c l i n i c a l s e n s e , i s bnckstag c co n d u ct invoked on
in app rop riate o c c a s i o n s for m otives th at are not so c ially approve*!.
re
formal conduct, although there is usu ally a tendency to move
the d efinition of the s itu a tio n in one of th e s e two direction s.
We will not find r h e s e pure c a s e s b e c a u s e team -m ates with
re s p e c t to one show will he to some degree performers and
a u d ien c e for another show, and performers and audience for
one sliow wjil to some ex te n t, however slig h t, be team -m ates
with r e s p e c t to another show.
1’hus in a co n c rete s itu atio n
we may expect a predominance of one sty le or the oclier, with
som e fe e lin g s of guilt o r doubt co n c ern in g th e ac tu a l
combination or b alanc e that is a c h ie v ed between the two
sty les.
I would lik e to e m p h a s iz e the fact chat a c tiv ity in a
c o n c re te s itu a tio n is alw a y s a com prom ise between the formal
and informal s t y l e s by referen c e to b a c k sta g e and b a c k sta g e
a c tiv ity . Three common lim ita tio n s on b a c k sta g e informality
may be cited . F irs t, when th e a u d ie n c e is not p rese n t, e a c h
member of the team i s lik ely to want to s u s t a i n the im pression
th a t lie can be tru ste d with th e s e c r e t s of the team and that
he is not likely to play his part badly when the aud ien c e is
presen t.
While ea ch team member will want the audien ce to
think of him a s a worthy ch a ra c te r, he is lik e ly to want h is
team -m ates to think of him a s a loyal, w ell-d iscip lin ed
performer.
Secondly, there are often moments b a c k sta g e
when the perform ers will have to s u s t a i n one a n o th e r ’s morale
and maintain the im pressio n that the show that is about to
be p re se n te d will go over well or that the show that h a s just
bee n prese n ted did not really go over so badly. T hirdly, if
th e team c o n t a in s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s of fundamental so c ial
d iv is io n s, suc h a s different ag e -g ra d es, different ethnic
groups, e tc ., then some d isc re tio n a ry lim its will prevail on
freedom of b a c k s ta g e ac tivity.
Here, no doubt, the most
important d iv isio n is the se xual one, for th e re s e e m s to be
no s o c ie t y in which members of the two s e x e s , however c lo s e ly
re la te d , do not s u s t a i n some a p p e a r a n c e s before ea ch other.
In America, for in sta n c e , we learn the following about West
C o a st s h ip y a rd s :
In ih eir ordinary r e l a t i o n s h i p s with women workers most of the
men were co urteou s and even gallan t.
As t h e women infiltrated the
h u l l s and th e remoter s h a c k s of the yard, the men amiably removed
th eir g a l l e r i e s of n u d e s a nd pornography from the w alls and retired
them to the gloom of th e tool box. In d e f e r e n c e to th e p r e s e n c e of
' l a d i e s , ’ m an ner s were improved, f a c e s were s h a v e d more often, an d
language was toned down. T he taboo a g a i n s t im pro prieties of sp e e c h
within e a r s h o t of women was s o extrem e a s to be am usin g, p atticu larly
s i n c e the women th e m s e lv e s frequently g av e a u d ible proof th at the
forbidden words were n e i t h e r un fam iliar nor distu rbin g to them. Yet
1 have often s e e n men who wan ted to u s e stro n g lan gu ag e, an d with
good e x c u s e for it, flush with sudden em barra ssm ent and drop th eir
79
v o i c e s to a mutcer on becom ing c o n s c i o u s of a feminine a u d i e n c e . In
i h e lu nchrime com pan ion sh ip o f men and women workers and in the
c a s u a l ch ar a t a ny l e i s u r e moment, in all rhar pertain ed to familiar
s o c i a l c o n t a c t s , even amid the u n f am iliar su rro u n d in g s of the shipyards»
the men p r e s e r v e d a l m o s t i n tact the p a tte r n of b ehaviour which they
p r a c t i s e d at h o m e ; the r e s p e c t fot the d e c e n t wife an d the good mother,
th e c i r c u m s p e c t f r ie n d lin e s s with the s i s t e r , an d even (he )>rotecttvo
affe ctio n for the i n e x p e r i e n c e d d a u g h te r of t h e family. 1
C h e s te rf ie ld m a k es a sim ilar s u g g e stio n about another s o c i e t y :
In mixed c o m p a n ie s with your e q u a l s (fo r in m ixed co m panies rill
p e o p l e are to a certain degree e q u a l) g reater e a s e and liberty are
a l l o w e d ; but they too h a v e tb eir b ounds within b ic n s c a u c e .
There is
a s o c i a l r e s p e c t n e c e s s a r y ; you may st a rt your own s u b j e c t of
c o n v e r s a ti o n with m odesty , taking g reat c a t e , however , de ne jttmnis
parler d e c o n ie s d u n s la m aiso n d un p e n d t u
Your words, g e s t u r e s ,
a n d a t t i t u d e s , have a g r e a te r d e g r e e of la t i t u d e , though by no m eans
a n u n b o u n d e d one.
You may h av e your h a n d s in your p o c k e t s , take
sn u f f , s i t , s t a n d , or o c c a s i o n a l l y walk, -as vou l i k e ; but I believe you
would nor think it very b i e n s e a n l to w h i s t l e , pu t your hat on, lo osen
y o u r g a r t e rs or your b u ck les , l ie down upon a co uch, Or go to bed
*ind w elter in an <?asy c h air.
T h e s e ar e n e g l i g e n c e s an d freedoms
w h ich o n e c a n only tak e when q u ite a l o n e ; they are in ju rio u s to
s u p e rio r s, sh o c k i n g an d offensive to e q u a l s , brut al and i n s u l t i n g to
inferiors. 3
K in s e y ’s d a ta on the ex te n t of the nudity taboo between
h usba nd and wife, e s p e c ia ll y in the older generatio n of the
American working c l a s s , docum ents the sam e point. 3
In s a y in g th a t perform ers a c t in a r e la tiv e ly inlormal,
familiar, rela xed way w hile b a c k s ta g e and are on their ijuard
when giving a performance, it sh ould not be a s su m ed th at the
pleasant
in te rp erso n al th in g s of l i f e —courte sy, warmth,
g en e ro sity , and p l e a s u r e in the company of o th e r s —are a lw a y s
rese rv e d for th o s e b a c k s ta g e and that s u s p i c i o u s n e s s ,
s n o b b is h n e s s , and a show of authority are rese rv e d for front
region a c tiv ity .
Often it s e e m s th a t w hatever e n th u sia sm
and lively in te r e s t we have at our d i s p o s a l we r e s e rv e for
t h o s e before whom we are putting on a show and th a t the
s u r e s t sig n of b a c k s ta g e s o lid a rity is to feel th a t it is sa fe
to l a p s e into an a s s o c i a b l e mood of su llen , sile n t irritability.
It is i n te r e s ti n g to note th a t while ea ch team will be in
a p o sitio n to a p p r e c ia te the unsavoury 'u n p e r fo r m e d ' a s p e c t s
of its own b a c k s ta g e behaviour, it is not likely ro be in a
p o sitio n to come to a sim ilar c o nc lusio n about the te am s
with which it i n te r a c t s .
When p u p ils leave the schoolroom
and go o u tsid e for a r e c e s s of familiarity and m isconduct,
they often fail to a p p r e c ia te th at th eir te a c h e r s have retired
to a 'com m on ro o m ’ to sw ear and smoke in a sim ila r r e c e s s
1 Arc hibald, op. c it., pp. 16-17.
2 l e t t e r s o f l.ord C h e s t e r fi e l d to His Son ( hverym an's ed .; New York:
Dutton, 1929), P- 239.
3 Alfred C. K inse y, U'ardell B. Pomeroy, and C ly d e h. Martin, JSexual
Beh aviour in the Human Male ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Saunders, 1948), p. h»<>-367.
80
o f b a c k s ta g e behaviour.
We know, of co u rse , th a t a team
with only one member can t a k e a very dark view o f i t s e l f and
th a t not a few c l in ic a l p s y c h o lo g is ts attem pt to a l l e v i a t e
th is guilt, making th eir liv in g by te llin g in d iv id u als the fac ts
of other p e o p l e ’s liv e s .
Behind t h e s e r e a liz a tio n s about
o n e s e lf and ill u s io n s about o th e rs is one o f the important
d ynam ics and d isa p p o in tm e n ts of s o c ia l mobility, be it mobility
upward, downward, or s id e w a y s .
In attem ptin g to e s c a p e
from a tw o-faced world of front region and back region
behaviour, in d iv id u a ls may feel that in the new p o sitio n they
are attem pting to a c q u ire they will be the c h a r a c te r projected
by in d iv id u a ls in th a t p o sition and not a t the same tim e a
performer.
When they arrive, of course , they find their new
situ a tio n h a s u n a n tic ip a te d s im ila r it ie s with their old o n e ;
both involve a p r e s e n ta tio n of front to an a u d ie n c e and both
invo lve the p r e se n te r in the grubby, g o ssip y b u s i n e s s of
sta g in g a show.
I t is s o m e tim es th ought th a t c o a r s e fam iliarity is merely
a cu ltu ral thing, a c h a r a c t e r is ti c , sa y , of the working c l a s s e s ,
and that th o se of high e s t a t e do not condu ct th e m s e lv e s in
t h is way. The point, of co u rse , i s that p e rs o n s of high rank
ten d to o p e ra te in small te a m s and tend to sp end much of
th e ir day engaged in spoken perform ances, w h erea s workingc l a s s men tend to be members of large te a m s an d tend to
spend much of their day b a c k s ta g e or in unspoken perform­
ances.
T hus the higher o n e’s p la c e in the s t a t u s pyramid,
th e sm a lle r the number of p e rs o n s with whom one can be
familiar, 1 the l e s s tim e one sp e n d s b a c k sta g e , and th e more
* An i n t e r e s t i n g lim iting i n s t a n c e o c c u r s in t h e c a s e of h e a d s of s t a t e s ,
who have no team -m ates.
Sometim es t h e s e in d iv id u als may make u se
o f a s e t o f c r o n i e s to whom they g iv e a c o u r te sy rank of team-mate when
moments o f r e l a x i n g r e c r e a t i o n ate c a l l e d for.
Court e q u e r r ie s often
p l a y t h is role.
P o n s o n b y , op. c i t . , p . 269, i l l u s t r a t e s t h is in h i s
d es crip tio n of King E d w ard ’s v i s i t to the D anish C o u rt:
' D i n n e r c o n s i s t e d of s e v e r a l c o u r s e s and many w in es , and u sually
l a s t e d one and a half hour s.
M'e then a l l filed out ami in arm to the
drawing-room, where ag ain the King of Denmark an d all the Danish
Royal Family cir c le d round th e room. At e i g h t we r etired t o our rooms
to smoke, but a s -the D an ish s u i t e accom panied us the co n v e r sa tio n was
l im ite d to polite e n q u i r i e s into the c u s to m s of the two c ou nrries.
At
n in e we returned to the drawing-room where we p layed round g am es ,
g e n e r a l l y Loo, without s t a k e s .
1 At ten we were mercifully r e l e a s e d an d allowed to go t o our rooms.
T h e s e e v e n in g s w ere a high tria l to e veryo n e, but the King behaved
l i k e an a n g e l , p l a y i n g w h ist, which w a s then qu ite out of d a t e , for very
low p o in ts. After a w eek of t h i s , however , he deter m ined to play bridge,
but onl y af ter the King o f Denmark had r e t i te d to bed. We went through
the u su a l routin e till ten o ’c l o c k , and then P r i n c e Demidoff of th e R u s s i a n
L egation cam e to the K i n g ’s room s and played bridge with the King,
Seymoure F o r t e s c u e , and m y se lf, for fairly high p oin ts.
Ve c o n tinu ed
th us till t h e en d of th e v i s i t , and it w a s a p l e a s u r e to r elax o u r s e l v e s
from the s t i f f n e s s of the D an is h C o u r t . 1
81
lik e ly it is th a t one will be required to be p o lite a s well a s
dec o ro u s.
However, when the tim e and com pany a re right,
quite s a c r e d perform ers will a c t, and be required to ac t, in a
q uite vulgar fa sh io n .
i'o r numerical and s tr a t e g ic r e a s o n s ,
however, we are lik e ly to le arn th a t la b o u re rs u se a b a c k s ta g e
manner and u n like ly to learn th a t lo rd s u se it too.
A final point must be s u g g e s t e d abo u t b a c k s ta g e r e la tio n ­
s h ip s . When we s a y th a t p e r s o n s who co -o p e ra te in p r e s e n tin g
a perform ance may e x p r e s s fam iliarity with one an o ther when
not in the p r e s e n c e of the a u d ie n c e , it must be allow ed that
one can become so h a b itu ated to o n e ’s front region a c tiv ity
and front region c h a r a c t e r that it may be n e c e s s a r y to h a n d le
o n e ’s rela xation from it as a perform ance.
One may feel
obliged, when b a c k s ta g e , to a c t out of c h a r a c t e r in a fam iliar
fash io n and th is can com e to be more of a p o se than the
perform ance for which it w as meant to provide a re la x a tio n .
In this c h a p te r I have spoken of the utility of control over
b a c k s ta g e and of the d ram a tu rgica l trouble th a t a r i s e s when
th is control cannot be e x e rte d . 1 would like now to c o n s id e r
th e problem of controlling a c c e s s to the front region, but in
order to do s o it will be n e c e s s a r y to ex ten d a lit tle the
o rig in a l frame of referen c e.
Two kinds of bounded reg io n s have been c o n s id e r e d :
front r e g io n s where a p a r tic u la r perform ance is or may be in
p ro g re ss, and back r e g io n s where action o cc u rs that is re la te d
to the perform ance but in c o n s is te n t with the ap p e aran c e
f o ste re d by the perform ance.
It would seem re a s o n a b le to
add a third region, a re s id u a l one, namely, all p la c e s other
than the two alre ady id e n tif ie d . Such a region could be c a lle d
' t h e o u ts i d e . ' T h e notion of an o u ts id e region that i s neith er
front nor back with r e s p e c t to a p a rtic u la r perform ance conforms
to our co m m on-sense notion of s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts , for
when we look at most b u ild in g s we find within them rooms
that are regularly or tem porarily use d a s back reg io n s and
front regions, and we find th a t the outer w alls of th e building
cu t both ty p e s of rooms off from the o u ts id e world. T h o se
in d iv id u a ls who are on the o u ts id e of the e s ta b lis h m e n t we
may c a ll o u tsid e rs.
While th e notion of o u ts id e is obvious, u n le s s we handle
it with care we will be misled and confused, for when we
sh ift our c o n s id e ra tio n from the front or back region to the
o u ts i d e we tend a l s o to s h if t our point of referen c e from one
perform ance to another. Given a p articu la r ongoing perform ance
a s a point of referenc e, th o s e who are o u ts id e will be p e r s o n s
for whom the performers a c tu a lly or p o te n tia lly put on a show,
82
but a show ( a s we sh a ll s e e ) different from, or all too sim ilar
to, th e one in p r o g re ss.
When o u ts id e r s u n ex p e cted ly en ter
th e front o r the back region of a p articula r performance-inp ro g re ss, the c o n s e q u e n c e orf their inopportune p r e s e n c e
can often b e s t be stu d ie d not in te rm s of i t s e f f e c ts upon
th e perform ance in p r o g re s s but rather in te rm s of i t s e f f e c ts
upon a different perform ance, namely, th e o n e which th e
perform ers or the a u d ie n c e would ordinarily p r e se n t before
th e o u t s i d e r s at a time and p la c e when the o u ts i d e r s would
be th e a n tic ip a te d a u d ien c e.
In C h a p te r One of t h i s report it w a s s u g g e s te d that per­
formers tend to give the im pression, or tend not to co n tra d ic t
th e im pre ssio n, that th e role they are playing at the tim e
i s th e ir m ost important role and that the a ttr ib u te s claim ed
by or imputed to them are their most e s s e n t i a l and ch a ra c te r­
i s t i c a ttr ib u te s .
When in d ividu als w itn e ss a show that w as
not meant for them, they may, then, become d is i llu s io n e d
about t h i s show a s well a s about the show that w a s meant
for them.
T h e performer, too, may become confused, a s
Kenneth Burke s u g g e s t s :
We a r e a l l , in our co m p artm en talized r e s p o n s e s , like the man
who Is a ty ran t in his o ffice and a weak lin g among his family, or
li k e the m u sic ia n who is a s s e r t i v e in his art and s e l f-effacin g in h i s
personal relationships.
Such d i s s o c i a t i o n becom es a difficulty when
we attempt to un ite t h e s e com partm ents ( a s , were the man who i s a
tyrant in h i s office and a w eak ling in h i s home suddenly to employ h is
wife or child ren , he would find his d i s s o c i a t i v e d e v i c e s in ad eq uate,
and might become bewildered and tormented). 1
T h e a n s w e r to t h is problem is for the performer to s e g r e ­
g a te h is a u d i e n c e s so that the in d iv id u als who w itn e s s him
in one of h is r o le s will not be th e ind iv id u als who w itn e s s
him in ano th er of h is r o le s.
T h u s some F ren ch Canadian
p r i e s t s do not want to lead so stric t a life that they cannot
go swimming at the b ea ch with friends, but they tend to feel
that it is b e s t to swim with p e rs o n s who are not th e ir
parish io n ers, s in c e the familiarity required a t the beach i s
incom patible with the d is t a n c e and resp e ct required in the
parish.
F ront region control is on e m e asure of a u d ie n c e
seg re g atio n .
Incap acity to maintain th is control l e a v e s the
performer in a position of not knowing what c h a r a c te r he will
have to p ro ject from one moment to the next, making it difficult
for him to effec t a dramaturgical s u c c e s s in any one of them.
It i s not difficult to s y m p a th iz e with the pharm acist who
a c t s l i k e a s a le s m a n or lik e a begrimed stock-m an to a
custom er who p ro v es to have a prescription in her hand, while
at the next moment he p r o je c ts h i s dignified, d is i n te r e s te d ,
' K e n n e t h Burke. Permanen ce
In c., 1953), fn. p. 309.
and
Change
83
(New
York:
New
R e public
medical, p r o f e s s io n a lly - s p o tle s s p o se
someone who h ap p e n s
to want a th r e e -c e n t stamp or a c h o c o la te tudge s u n d a e . 1
It should be c le a r that ju s t a s it i s useful for th e performer
to ex c lu d e p e r s o n s from the a u d ie n c e who s e e liim in another
and i n c o n s is te n t p r e s e n ta t io n , s o also is it useful for the
performer to e x c lu d e from th e a u d ien c e th o se before whom
he perform ed in the p a s t a show' in c o n s is te n t with the current
on e.
P e r s o n s who are strongly upward or downward mobile
ac com plish th is in a grand manner by making sure to le a v e
rhe p la c e of their origins.
And, on the sa m e grounds, just
;is it is co n v e n ie n t to play o n e 's different ro u tin e s before
lifferent p e r so n s, so a l s o is it convenient to s e p a r a te the
different a u d i e n c e s one h a s for the sam e routine, s i n c e that
i s th e only way in which each a u d i e n c e can feel th a t while
there may be o th e r a u d i e n c e s for the sam e rou tine, none is
g e ttin g so d e s ir a b le a p r e se n ta tio n o| it.
Here again front
region control is important.
By proper sc h e d u lin g of o n e ’s perform ances, ir i s p o s s i b le
not only to k e e p o n e ’s a u d ie n c e s s e p a r a te d from e a c h other
(by appearing before them in different front r e g io n s or se q u e n t­
ia lly in the sa m e region) but a ls o to allow a few moments
in betw een p erfo rm an ce s s o a s to e x tric a te o n e s e lf p sy c h o l­
o g ic a lly and p h y s ic a lly from o n e ’s p erso n a l front, while
ta k in g on another.
P ro b le m s som etim es arise, however, in
th o s e s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n ts whc-re the sam e or d ille re n t
members of th e team m ust h andle different a u d i c n c e s at the
sa m e time.
If the different a u d ie n c e s come within hearing
d is ta n c e of e a c h other, it will be difficult to s u s ta in the
im pre ssion th a t e a c h i s rec e iv in g s p e c ia l and unique s e rv ic e s .
T hus, if a h o s t e s s w ish e s to give e a c h of her g u e s t s a warm
sp e c ia l greeting or f a r e w e l l—a s p e c ia l performance, in f a c t then s h e will have to arrange to do th is in an anteroom that
i s s e p a ra te d from th e room c o n ta in in g th e o th e r g u e s ts .
Similarly, in c a s e s w here a firm of u n d e rta k e rs is required
to conduct two s e r v i c e s on th e sa m e day, it will be n e c e s s a r y
to route the two a u d i e n c e s through the e s ta b l is h m e n t in su c h
a way th a t th e ir p a t h s will not c r o s s , l e s t th e feeling that
the funeral home i s a home away from home be d estroy ed.
So, too, in furniture sa le s r o o m s , a clerk who i s ‘ s w i t c h i n g ’
a custo m er from one s u i t e of furniture to an other of higher
p rice must be carefu l to keep his a u d ie n c e out of e a rshot
of another clerk who may be sw itc h in g another cu stom er
from a s ti ll c h e a p e r s u it e to the one from which th e first
clerk i s trying to s w itc h h i s custom er, for at such tim e s
•See Weinlein, op. c it., pp. 147-148.
84
th e suice that one clerk is d isp a ra g in g will be the s u i t e that
th e ocher clerk i s p raisin g . 1
Of course, if w a lls s e p a r a te
the cwo a u d ie n c e s , the performer ca n s u s t a i n the im p re ssio n s
he is fostering by darting rapidly from one region to another.
T h is sta g in g d ev ice , p o s s i b le with tw o examining rooms, is
in c re a sin g ly popular among American d e n t is ts and doctors.
When a u d ie n c e se g re g atio n f a i l s and an o u ts id e r h ap p e n s
upon a perform ance th a t was not meant for him, difficult
problems in im pression m anagem ent a r is e . Two accom m odative
te c h n iq u e s for d ealin g with t h e s e problem s may be mentioned.
F ir s t, a ll th o s e alre ad y in th e a u d ien c e may be su dde n ly
a ccorded,
and a c c e p t, temporary b a c k s ta g e s t a t u s and
c o llu s tv e ly join th e performer in abruptly sh ifting to an act
th a t i s a fitting one for the intruder to o bserve.
Thus a
husband and wife in the m idst of their daily bickering, when
sudd e n ly faced with a g u e s t of brief a c q u a in ta n c e , will put
a s id e th e ir intim ate qu arrels an d play out between th e m s e lv e s
a re la tio n s h ip th a t is alm ost a s d is t a n t and friendly a s the
one played out for th e sudden arrival.
R e la tio n s h ip s , a s
well a s ty p e s of co n v e rsatio n , which cannot be shared
among the th ree will be la id a s i d e . In g ene ral, then, if th e
newcomer i s to be trea ted in the manner to which he has
becom e a c cu s to m ed , the performer must sw itch rapidly from
the perform ance he w as giving to one that the newcomer will
feel i s proper. Rarely can th is be done smoothly enough to
prese rve the new com er’s illu s io n that the show su d d e n ly put
on i s th e perform er’s natu ral show.
And eve n if th is is
managed, the a u d ie n c e already p r e s e n t i s likely to feel that
what they had been tak in g for the perform er’s e s s e n t i a l s e lf
w as not so e s s e n t i a l .
It h as been s u g g e s te d that an intrusion may be handled
by having th o s e p r e s e n t sw itc h to a definition of the s itu a tio n
into which the intruder ca n be incorporated.
A se c o n d way
of handling th e problem is to accord the intruder a c le a r-c u t
w elcome a s som eone who should have been in the region all
along.
The sam e show, more or l e s s , is th u s carried on,
but it i s made to include the newcomer.
T h u s when an
individual p a y s an unexpe cted v isit to his frien ds and finds
them giving a party, he is u su a lly welcomed loudly and co a x ed
into stayin g.
If the welcome were not e n t h u s ia s tic a ll y
ex tended, his d iscovery that he h a s been exclu d e d might
d i s c r e d it the front of frie n d lin e s s and affection th a t o b ta in s
between the intruder and h is h o s ts on other o c c a s io n s .
Ordinarily, however, neith er of th e s e te c h n iq u e s s e e m s
‘ See L o u s e C o n an t, ' T h e Borax H o u s e , ’ The A m erica n Mercury, XVII, 172.
85
to be very e ffe c tiv e . U su ally when in tru d e rs en ter the front
region, th e perform ers tend to get ready to begin the perform­
a n c e they s ta g e for th e in tru d e rs at another time or place,
an d th is sud den r e a d i n e s s to a c t in a p articu la r way brings
at l e a s t momentary co n fu sio n to the lin e of action the
perform ers are a lre a d y e n g a g ed in. The perform ers w ill find
th e m s e lv e s tem porarily torn between two p o s s i b le r e a l i t i e s ,
and until s i g n a l s ca n be given and rec e iv e d members of the
team may have no guide a s to what lin e they are to follow.
E m ba rrassm ent i s alm ost c e rta in to r e su lt.
Under such
c irc u m s ta n c e s it is u n d e rs ta n d a b le th a t the intruder may be
accorded n e ith e r of the accom m odative trea tm e n ts m entioned
but rather trea ted a s if he were not there a t all or q u ite
u ncerem oniously a s k e d to s ta y out.
86
C H A P T E R IV
D ISC R EP A N T RO LES
O n e overall o b je c tiv e o f any team i s to s u s t a in th e
definition of the s itu a tio n th a t i t s perform ance fo s te r s . T h is
will involve the over-comm unication of som e f a c t s and the
under-comm unication of o th e rs.
Given th e fra gility and the
required e x p r e s s iv e co h e re n c e of the r e a lity that i s dram atized
by a perform ance, there are u sua lly f a c t s w hich, if a tte n tio n
i s drawn to them during the performance, would disc re d it,
disrupt, or make u s e l e s s the im p re ssion that the performance
f o s te r s .
T h e s e f a c ts may be sa id to provide 'd e s t r u c t i v e
inform atio n.’ A b a s ic problem for many perform ances, then,
i s that of information c o n tro l; the a u d ien c e must not acquire
d e s tru c tiv e information ab o u t the situ a tio n that is being
defined for them.
In o th e r words, a team must be able to
keep i t s s e c r e t s and have its s e c r e t s kept.
Before p roce eding it will be co n v e n ie n t to add some
s u g g e s tio n s about ty p e s of s e c r e t s , b e c a u s e d isc lo s u r e of
different ty p e s of s e c r e t s can threa ten a performance in
different ways.
T h e s u g g e s te d ty p e s will be based upon
th e function the s e c r e t performs and the rela tio n of the s e c re t
to the c onc eption o th e rs have about the p o s s e s s o r ; I will
a s s u m e that any p articu la r s e c r e t ca n re p re se n t more than
one suc h type.
F ir s t, there are what we som etim es c a ll ‘ d a r k ’ s e c r e ts .
T h e s e c o n s is t of fa c ts about a team which it knows and
c o n c e a ls and which a re incom patible with the image of s e lf
that th e team atte m p ts to m aintain before i t s au dience. Dark
s e c r e t s are, of course, double s e c r e t s : one is the crucial
fact that is hidden and an o th er is the fact that crucial f a c ts
have not been openly adm itted. Dark s e c r e t s were considered
in Chapter One in the se c tio n on m is re p re se n ta tio n .
Secondly, there are what might be c a lle d ’ s t r a t e g i c ’
s e c r e ts .
T h e s e pertain to in te n tio n s and c a p a c i t i e s of a
team which it c o n c e a ls from its a u d ien c e in order to prevent
them from ad a p tin g e f f e c tiv e ly to the s t a t e of a f fa irs the
team is p lan ning to bring about.
S tra te g ic s e c r e ts are the
o n e s th a t b u s i n e s s e s and arm ies employ in d es ig n in g future
a c tio n s a g a i n s t the o ppo sitio n . So lon g a s a team makes no
prete nce of being the sort of team that d o e s not have s tr a te g ic
87
s e c r e t s , i t s s t r a t e g i c s e c r e t s nee d not be dark o n e s . Yet it
i s to be noted th a t even when the s t r a t e g i c s e c r e t s of a team
are not dark on es, s ti ll th e d is c lo s u r e or d isc o v e ry of such
s e c r e t s d is r u p ts the te a m ’s perform ance, for sudden ly and
u n e x p e c te d ly th e team finds it u s e l e s s and foolish to maintain
th e c a r e , r e ti c e n c e , and s tu d ie d ambiguity of a c tio n that
w as required prior to l o s s of i t s s e c r e t s .
It may be added
th a t s e c r e t s th a t a r e merely s tr a t e g ic tend to be ones which
the team e v e n tu a lly d i s c l o s e s , perforce, when ac tio n b a s e d
upon s e c r e t p r e p a ra tio n s i s consum m ated, w h e r e a s an effort
may be made to keep dark s e c r e t s s e c r e t forever.
It may
a l s o be added th a t information is often held back not b e c a u s e
o f i t s known s t r a t e g i c im portance but b e c a u s e it is felt that
it may som eday a c q u ire su c h im portance.
T hird ly, there are what might be c a lle d ' i n s i d e ' s e c r e t s .
T h e s e are o n e s w hose p o s s e s s i o n marks an in d iv idual a s
being a member of a group and h e lp s th e group feel s e p a r a t e
and d ifferent from th o s e in d iv id u a ls who a re not ' i n the
k n o w .’ 1 In sid e s e c r e t s give o b je c tiv e in te lle c t u a l conten t
to s u b j e c t i v e l y felt s o c ia l d i s t a n c e .
Almost all information
in a s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n t h a s som e thing of this e x c lu sio n ary
function and may be s e e n a s none of som ebody’s b u s in e s s .
I n sid e s e c r e t s may have lit tle s t r a t e g i c im portance and
may not be very dark. When th is i s :h e c a s e , su c h s e c r e t s
may be d isc o v e re d or a c c id e n ta lly d is c lo s e d without r ad ic ally
d isr u p tin g th e team perfo rm ance; th e perform ers need only
s h if t their s e c r e t d e lig h t to an other matter. Of c o u rse , s e c r e t s
t h a t are s t r a t e g i c a n d / o r dark s e rv e extrem ely well a s in sid e
s e c r e t s and we find, in fact, that the s tr a t e g ic and dark
c h a r a c t e r of s e c r e t s i s often e x a g g e r a te d for t h is reason.
In te re s tin g ly enough, the le a d e rs of a s o c ia l group are som e­
tim e s fac ed with a dilemma regard ing important s tr a te g ic
se crets.
T h o s e in the group who are not brought in on the
s e c r e t will feel exclud ed and affronted when the s e c r e t finally
c o m e s to li g h t ; on the other hand, the g r e a te r th e number of
p e r s o n s who are brought in on the s e c r e t, th e grea ter the
lik e lih o o d of in te n tio n a l or u n intention al d is c lo s u r e .
T h e know ledge that one team ca n have of a n o th e r ’s s e c r e t s
p rovides us with tw o other ty p e s of s e c r e ts .
F irs t, th e re
a r e what might be c a lle d ' e n t r u s t e d ’ s e c r e t s .
T h is is the
kind which the p o s s e s s o r is obliged to keep b e c a u s e of h is
r e la tio n to the team to which the s e c r e t refers. If an individual
who is e n tru ste d with a s e c r e t i s to be the person he c l a im s
1 Cf. R ie s m a n 's d i s c u s s i o n of the ’ i n s i d e dopcstex,* op. c U pp. 199*209.
88
he is , 'he m ust keep the se c r e t, even though it is not a se cret
about him self.
T hus, for exam ple, when a lawyer d i s c l o s e s
th e im p ro p rie tie s of h is c l ie n t s , two quite d ifferent perform­
a n c e s are th r e a te n e d : the c l i e n t ’s show of in n o c e n c e to the
court, and th e la w y e r’s show of tru s tw o r th in e s s to h is client.
It may a l s o be noted th a t a te am ’s s tr a t e g ic s e c r e ts , whether
dark or not, are likely to be the en tru ste d s e c r e t s of the
individual members of the team, for e a c h member of the team
i s lik e ly to presenc h im self to h is te am -m a tes a s som eone
who i s lo y a l to the team.
T h e se c o n d ty p e of information abo u t a n o th e r ’s s e c r e t s
may be c a lle d ‘ f r e e .’ A free s e c r e t i s somebody e l s e ’s s e c r e t
known to o n e s e l f that one could d i s c l o s e without d is c re d itin g
the im age one was p rese n tin g of o n e s e lf. A team may acquire
free s e c r e t s by d iscovery, involuntary d is c lo s u r e , in d is c rc e t
a d m is s io n s , r e - tr a n sm issio n , etc.
In general we muse s e e
that the free or en tru ste d s e c r e t s of one team may be the
dark or s tr a t e g ic s e c r e t s of another team, and so a team
whose v ita l s e c r e t s are p o s s e s s e d by o th e rs will try to oblige
the p o s s e s s o r s to trea t t h e s e s e c r e t s a s s e c r e t s that are
e n tru ste d and not free.
T h is c h a p te r is concerned with the k in d s of p e rso n s who
learn about the s e c r e t s of a team and with the b a s e s and
th e th r e a ts of th e ir privileg ed position.
Before p roceeding,
however, it should be made c le a r th at a ll d e s tru c tiv e inform­
atio n i s not found in s e c r e ts , and that information control
in v o lv e s more than k e e p in g s e c r e ts .
For exam ple, there
seem to be f a c ts about alm ost every perform ance which are
incom patible with the im pressio n fostered by the performance
but w hich have not been c o lle c te d and organized into a u s a b le
form by anyone. 1 T h e s e are in a s e n s e la te n t s e c r e ts , and
the problem s of k e e p in g s e c r e t s a r e quite different from the
problem s of k ee p in g la te n t s e c r e t s la te n t. Another exam ple
o f d e s tru c tiv e information not embodied in s e c r e t s is found
in suc h e v e n ts a s unmeant g e s tu re s , previously referred to.
T h e s e e v e n ts in trod uce inform ation—a definition of the s i t ­
u a tio n —which i s incom patible with the pro jected c la im s of
the perform ers, but t h e s e untoward e v e n ts do not c o n s titu t e
s e c r e ts . A voidance of such e x p r e s s iv e ly inap p ro p ria te e v e n ts
i s a l s o a kind of information control but will not be co n s id e re d
in t h i s chapter.
1 1-ot exam p le, Wilensky, op. cit., ch ap . v ii, reports chat a union n e w s p a p e r
may have s u c h low r ead ersh ip that the ed ito r, co n cern ed with his job,
■"ay r efu s e to have a p r o f e s s i o n a l survey made o f r ead er sh ip so t h a t
» either he nor an yone e l s e will h ave proo f of th e s u s p e c t e d in e f f e c ti v e n e s s
o f liis role.
89
Given a p a r tic u la r p erform ance a s the point of referen c e,
we hav e d is t in g u is h e d iliree cru c ial r o le s on the b a s i s of
f u n c ti o n : th o s e who perform ; th o s e performed t o ; arid o u ts i d e r s
who n e ith e r perform in the show nor o b se rv e it. V/e may a ls o
d is t in g u is h t h e s e c ru c ia l r o le s on the b a s i s of inform ation
ordinarily a v a ila b le to th o s e who pla y them. P erform e rs are
a w a re of the im p re ssio n they fo ster and ordinarily a l s o p o s s e s s
d e s tru c tiv e inform ation about the show . T he a u d ie n c e know
what th e y have been allow ed to p erc eive , q u alified by what
they can g le an u n o ffic ia lly by c l o s e o b se rv a tio n .
In the
main, they know the definition o f the situ a tio n th a t the perform­
an c e f o s t e r s but do not have d e s tru c tiv e inform ation about it.
O u ts id e r s know n e ith e r the s e c r e t s of the perform ance nor
th e a p p e a r a n c e of r e a lity fostered by it.
F in a lly , the three
c ru c ia l r o le s m entioned could be d e s c rib e d on th e b a s i s of
tlie re g io n s to which the role-p la y er h a s a c c e s s ; perform ers
a p p e a r in th e front and back r e g i o n s ; the a u d ie n c e a p p e a r s
only in the front r e g io n ; and the o u t s i d e r s are e x c lu d e d from
both re g ions. It i s to be noted, then, th a t during the perform­
a n c e we rpay e x p e c t to find co rrela tio n among function,
information a v a ila b le , and re g io n s of a c c e s s , so that, for
exam ple, if we knew the r e g io n s into which an indiv id ual
ItaJ a c c e s s we sh o u ld know the role he p la y ed and the
information he p o s s e s s e d about th e perform ance.
In a c t u a l fact, however, we find that the co n g ru e n ce
among function, information p o s s e s s e d , and a c c e s s i b l e reg io n s
is seldom c o m p lete.
A dditional p o in ts of vantage r e la tiv e
to the perform ance dev e lo p which c o m p lic a te t h e sim ple
rela tio n among function, inform ation, and p la ce .
Some of
t h e s e p e c u lia r v a n ta g e p o in ts are s o often taken and their
s ig n i f ic a n c e for th e perform ance c o m e s to be so c le a rly under­
stood that we can refer to them a s ro les, although, r e la tiv e
to th e th r e e cru c ial o n e s , they migfit b e s t be c a lle d d isc re p a n t
ro les.
Some of the more obvious o n e s will be c o n s id e re d
here.
P e r h a p s the most s p e c ta c u la r ly d is c re p a n t ro le s are th o se
w hich bring a p erso n into a s o c ia l e s ta b l is h m e n t in a f a ls e
g u ise .
Some v a r i e t i e s may be mentioned.
F irs t, th e re is the role of 'in fo r m e r.'
T h e informer is
som eone who p re te n d s to the perform ers to be a member o f
th e ir te am , i s allow ed to come b a c k s ta g e and to a c q u ire
d e s tr u c tiv e information, and then openly or s e c r e tl y s e l l s
out the show to the a u d ien c e.
T he p o litic a l, military, in­
d u s tria l, and crim inal v a r ia n ts of th is role are famous.
If it
a p p e a r s th a t th e in d ividual first joined the team in a s in c e r e
way and not with the prem e d ita ted plan of d is c lo s in g its
90
s e c r e t s , we s o m e tim e s c a ll him a traitor, turnco at, or quitter,
e s p e c ia ll y if h e i s the sort of person who ought to have made
a decent team -m ate. T h e individual who all along h a s meant
to inform on t h e team, an d origin ally jo in s only for t h i s
purpose, i s s o m e tim es c a l l e d a spy. It h a s frequently been
noted, of c o u rse , that inform ers, whether tr a i to r s or s p i e s ,
a r e often in an e x c e l le n t p o sitio n to play a double game,
selling out th e s e c r e t s of th o s e who buy s e c r e t s from them.
Secondly, th e re i s th e role of ' s h i l l . ’ A shill i s someone
who a c t s a s though he were an ordinary member of the aud ien c e
but i s in fact in le a g u e with the perform ers. T y p ic ally , th e
sh ill e ith e r p ro v id e s a v is i b le model for the aud ien c e of th e
kind of r e s p o n s e the perform ers are s e e k in g or p ro v id e s the
kind of a u d ien c e r e s p o n s e th a t is n e c e s s a r y at the moment
for the developm ent of the performance. Our a p p re c ia tio n of
this role no doubt s te m s from fairgrounds, a n d the d e s ig n a tio n s
r s h i l l ’ and ' c l a q u e , 1 em ployed in the entertainm en t b u s in e s s ,
have com e into common usage.
T he following defin itio n s
su g g e st th e orig ins of the c o n c e p t :
S t i c k , n.
An in d i v i d u a l —som e tim es a lo cal r u b e —hired by the
o p er ato r of a s e t - i o i n t (a ' f i x e d ' gam bling booth) to win flashy p r i z e s
so th at the crowd will be induced to gamble. When the ’ live o n e s ’
( n a t i v e s ) h ave been st a r t e d , the s l i c k s are removed and deliv er their
wi nnings to a man o u t s i d e who h a s no app arent c o n nectio n with the
joint. 1
jftilta b e r, n. An em plo yee of the c ir c u s who t u s h e s up to t h e kid
s h o u t i c k e t box at the p s y c h o l o g ic a l moment when the barker c o n c l u d e s
h i s s p ie l.
Me and h i s fellow sh i l l a b e r s p u r c h a s e t i c k e t s and p a s s
*nside and the crowd of t o w n e r s in from of the bally sta n d are not
slow in doing lik ew ise . 2
We must not ta k e the view th a t s h i l l s are found only in
no n -re sp e c ta b le p erfo rm ances (even though it is only th e
n o n -re sp e c ta b le s h i l l s , perhap s, who play th e ir role s y s te m ­
atic a lly and without perso n a l illusion).
For example, at
informal c o n v e r s a tio n a l g a th e rin g s, it is common for a wife
to look i n te r e s te d when her hu sband te lls an a n e cd o te and
to feed him appro priate l e a d s and c u e s , although in fact s h e
h a s heard the a n e c d o te many tim e s and knows that the show
her husband is making of te llin g som e th ing for the first time
i s only a show .
A s h il l, then, is someone who a p p e a r s to
be just an o th er u n s o p h is tic a te d member of th e a u d ie n c e and
who u s e s h is unapparent s o p h is tic a tio n in the in te r e s ts of
the performing team.
W'e c o n s id e r now an other impostor in the au d ien c e, but
(his tim e one who u s e s h is unapparent s o p h is tic a tio n in the
in te r e s ts of the a u d ie n c e , not the perform ers.
T h i s type
c a n be illu s tr a te d by the p erso n who is hired to check up on
Oavid Mauret, 'C a r n i v a l C a n t , ' Imericnn S p eech , VI, 336.
5
VI'. \khite, ' A C i r c u s L i s t , ' A merican Sp eech, 1, 283.
91
th e s ta n d a r d s th a t perform ers m aintain in order to e n s u re
that in som e r e s p e c t s fostere d a p p e a r a n c e s will not be too
far from r e a lity .
He a c ts , o ffic ia lly or u n officially, a s a
p rotec tiv e ag e n t for the u n s u s p e c tin g public, p la ying the
role of a u d ie n c e with more p e rc ep tio n and e t h ic a l s t r i c t n e s s
rhan ordinary o b s e r v e r s are lik e ly to employ.
Sometimes t h e s e a g e n ts pla y their h ands in an open way,
giving the perform ers prelim inary warning that th e next perform­
a n c e i s abouc to be examined.
T h u s f irs t night perform ers
and a rre ste d p e rso n s have fair warning th a t a n y th in g they
sa y will be held a s ev id en c e in judging them. A p a r tic ip a n t
o b s e rv e r who ad m its h is o b je c ti v e s from th e beginning g iv e s
ihe performers whom he o b s e r v e s a sim ila r opportunity.
Sometimes, however, the a g e n t goes underground and by
a c tin g a s an ordinary g u llible member of the a u d ie n c e giv e s
the performers rope with which to hang th e m s e lv e s .
In the
everyday tr a d e s , a g e n ts who give no warning are som e tim es
c a lle d ' s p o t t e r s , ' a s they will be here, and are u n d ersta n d ab ly
d is l ik e d .
A s a l e s p e r s o n may find th a t sh e h a s been shorttempered and im polite to a custom e r who is r e a lly a company
ag e n t c h e c k in g up on the trea tm e n t bona fide c u s to m e rs
r e c e iv e . A grocer may find that he has sold goods a t illeg a l
p r ic e s to c u s to m e rs who are ex p e rts on p r ic e s and hav e
authority c o n c e r n in g them. 1
I n c id e n ta lly , we must be ca refu l to d is t in g u is h real
s p o tt e r s from se lf-a p p o in ted ones, often c a lle d ' k n o c k e r s '
or ' w is e g u y s ,’ who do not p o s s e s s the k now ledge o f b a c k s ta g e
o p e ra tio n s t h a t they claim to p o s s e s s and who are not
empowered by law or custom to re p r e s e n t the a u d ien c e.
T oday we are ac c u s to m e d to think of a g e n ts who che ck
up on the s ta n d a r d s of a perform ance and on the perform ers,
w hether th is is done openly or without warning, a s part of
the s e rv ic e stru c tu re , and e s p e c ia ll y as part of the s o c ia l
control th a t governm ental o rg a n iz a tio n s exert on beh a lf of
the consum er and taxpayer.
F requently, however, th is kind
of work h a s been done in a wider s o c ia l field. O ffices of
heraldry and o ffic e s of protocol provide familiar exa m ple s,
t h e s e a g e n c i e s se rv in g to k e e p th e nob ility and high
1 An i l lu str a tio n a s t e g a r d s ctain c o n d u c to r s is given by W. Fre d C ottrell,
The R ailr oa der (Stanford, C a li f o r n ia : Stanford U n iv er sity P r e s s , 1940),
p. 8 7 :
' O n c e a train c o nd uctor could demand r e s p e c t of p a s s e n g e r s ; now
a ' s p o t t e r * may 't u r n him in* i f he fails to remove h is c a p a s he e n t e r s
a c a r where women are se a t e d or d o e s not exude that oily su b s e r v ie n c e
which i n c r e a s i n g c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , diffu sion of p a t t e r n from the
E u ro p ean and th e hotel world, and t h e com petition with other forms of
tran s p o r t a t i o n have forced upon h i m . ’
92
government officers, and th o s e who f a ls e ly claim th e s e
s t a t u s e s , in th e ir proper r e la tiv e p la c e s .
T h ere i s y et an o th e r p e c u lia r fellow in the au d ien c e.
Me i s the one who t a k e s an unremarked, m odest p la c e in the
a u d ien c e and l e a v e s th e region when they do, but when h e
l e a v e s he g o e s to h is employer, a co m p etito r of the team
whose perform ance he lias w itn e s s e d , to report what he h a s
seen .
lie i s the p ro fe ssio n a l sho pper—th e G im bel’s man in
Macy's and the M acy’s man in Gimbel’s ; he is the fashion
spy and the foreigner at N atio nal Air Meets.
T h e shopper
i s a person who h a s a te c h n ic a l right to s e e the show but
ought to have the dec en c y , it is som etim es felt, to s ta y in
h i s own back region, for h i s in te r e s t in th e show i s from the
wrong p e rs p e c tiv e , at once more lively and more bored than
th a t of a thoroughly le g itim a te spectator.
Another d is c re p a n t role i s one th a t i s often c a lle d ihe
go-betw een or mediator. T h e go-between le a r n s the s e c r e t s
of e a c h sid e and g iv e s ea ch s id e the true im p re ssio n that
he will keep i t s s e c r e t s ; but he te n ds to give each side the
f a ls e im p re ssio n th a t he is more loyal to it th a n to the other
s id e .
Sometimes, a s in th e c a s e of th e a rb itra to r in som e
labour d is p u te s , the go-betw een may function a s a m e an s by
which two o b lig a torily h o s tile te a m s can come to a mutually
profitable agreem ent.
Sometimes, a s in the c a s e of the
th e a tric a l agent, th e go-betw een may function a s 3 m eans
by which e a c h sid e i s given a sla n te d version of the other
that is c a l c u l a t e d to make a c l o s e r r ela tio n sh ip betw een the
two s id e s p o s s i b le . Sometimes, a s in the c a s e of the marriagebroker, th e go-betw een may se rv e a s a m eans of conveying
te n tativ e o v e rtu re s from one sid e to the oth e r which, if openly
p rese n ted , might lead to an em b arra ssin g a c c e p ta n c e or
r ejection.
When a go-betw een o p e r a te s in the a c tu a l p r e s e n c e of
the two te a m s o f w hich he is a member, we obtain a wonderful
display, not un lik e a man d e s p e r a te ly trying to play te n n is
with him self. Again we are forced to s e e th a t the in dividual
i s not the natural unit for our c o n s id eratio n but rath e r the
team and its members.
As an individual, the g o -b e tw e e n ’s
activity is bizarre, u ntenable, and undignified, v a c illa tin g
a s i t d o e s from on e s e t of a p p e a r a n c e s and l o y a l t i e s to
another. As a c o n s titu e n t part of two team s, the go -b etw e en ’s
v ac illation i s quite u n d e rsta n d a b le .
T he go-between can
be thought of sim ply a s a d ouble-shill.
One ill u s tr a tio n of the go-betw een’s role a p p e a r s in rec en t
s tu d ie s of the function of the foreman.
Not only must he
93
a c c e p t the J u r i e s of the d irector, guiding the sho w on the
factory floor on b e h a lf of th e m an agerial a u d ien c e, but he
m ust a l s o t r a n s l a t e what he k n ow s and what the a u d ien c e
s e e s into a verbal lin e which h i s c o n s c ie n c e and the a u d ien c e
will be w illing to a c c e p t. 1 Another ill u s tr a tio n of the gob e tw e e n ’s role i s found in th e chairm an of formally c o n d u c te d
m eetings. A s soon a s he h a s c a lle d the group to order and
introduced the g u e s t sp e ak e r, he is lik e ly to se rv e th e re a f te r
a s a highly v i s i b l e model for the other l i s t e n e r s , illu s tr a ti n g
by e x a g g e r a te d e x p r e s s i o n s the involvement an d ap p re c ia tio n
they ought to be showing, and providing them with ad v a n ce
c u e s a s to w heth er a p a r tic u la r remark ought to be g re e te d
by s e r i o u s n e s s , la u g h ter, or a p p r e c ia tiv e c h u c k le s . S p eak e rs
tend to a c c e p t in v it a ti o n s to s p e a k on the a s su m p tio n that
th e chairm an will ' t a k e care of them ,' which he d o e s by
being the very model of a li s t e n e r and thoroughly confirming
t h e notion th a t the s p e e c h h a s real s ig n ific a n c e . T h e c h a ir ­
man’s perform ance i s e ffec tiv e partly b e c a u s e the l i s t e n e r s
have an ob lig a tio n to him, an o b lig a tio n to confirm any
defin ition o f the s it u a ti o n which he spo nsors, an ob lig a tio n ,
in short, to follow the lis te n in g -lin e th a t he ta k e s .
T he
dram aturgical ta s k of e n s u rin g th a t the s p e a k e r a p p e a r s to
be a p p re c ia te d and that the l i s t e n e r s are en th ra lle d i s of
c o u r se not e a s y , and often l e a v e s the chairm an in no frame
of mind to give thought to what he i s o s te n s ib ly li s t e n i n g to.
The role o f g o -betw een s e e m s to be e s p e c i a l l y sig n ific a n t
in informal co n v iv ia l in te r a c tio n , again ill u s tr a tin g the u tility
of th e tw o-team app roach.
When o n e ind iv id u al in a
c o n v e r s a tio n a l c i rc le e n g a g e s in action or sp e e c h which
r e c e iv e s the c o n c erte d a tten tio n of the o th e rs p r e s e n t, he
d e f in e s the s it u a ti o n , and he may d e fin e it in a way th a t i s
n o t e a s ily a c c e p t a b l e to h i s a u d ie n c e .
Someone p r e s e n t
will feel g r e a te r r e s p o n s ib ility for and to him than the o th e rs
feel, and we may e x p e c t th is p e rso n c l o s e s t to him to make
an effort to t r a n s l a t e the d if f e r e n c e s between s p e a k e r and
l i s t e n e r s into a view that is more a c c e p ta b le c o l le c tiv e ly
than the orig in a l pro jec tio n . A moment la te r, when som eone
e l s e t a k e s the floor, a n o th e r individual may find h im s elf
t a k in g on the role of go-betw een and mediator.
A s p a te of
informal c o n v e r s a tio n ca n , in fact, be se en a s th e formation
and re-formation of te am s, and the creation and re-crea tio n
of go-betw eens.
Some d is c r e p a n t r o le s have been s u g g e s t e d : the informer,
l See R o c chlis b crg er, op. cit.
94
the s h ill, th e spotter, th e shopper, and the go-betw een. In
ea ch c a s e we find a n unexpe cted, unapparent re la tio n among
feigned role, information p o s s e s s e d , and reg io n s of a c c e s s .
And in e a c h c a s e we deal with som eone who may p a r tic ip a te
in the a c tu a l in te ractio n betw een the performers and au d ien c e.
A further d is c r e p a n t role may be co n s id e re d , th at of the ’ nonp e r s o n ; ’ th o s e who p la y th is role are p r e se n t during the
in te ra c tio n but do not, in a s e n s e , ta k e the role e i th e r of
performer or of a u d ien c e, nor do they ( a s do informers, s h i l l s ,
a n d s p o tt e r s ) pretend to be what they are not. 1
P e r h a p s the c l a s s i c ty pe of non-person in our s o c ie ty i s
the se rv a n t.
T h i s p erson i s e x p e cted to be p r e s e n t in th e
front region w hile the h o s t i s p r e s e n tin g a perform ance of
h o s p ita lity to the g u e s t s of the e s ta b lis h m e n t. While in some
s e n s e s the s e rv a n t i s p art o f the h o s t’s team ( a s I h av e
tr e a te d him previously), in c e r ta in w ays he i s defined by both
perform ers and a u d ie n c e a s som eone who i s n ’t there. Among
some groups, the s e rv a n t i s a l s o expected to en ter freely into
the back re gion s, on the theory th a t no im p re ssio n nee d be
m a in ta in ed for him. Mrs T rollope g iv e s u s som e e x a m p le s:
1 h ad , in d e e d , frequent op p ortu n ities of o b se rv in g t h is habitual
i n differen ce to t h e p r e s e n c e of their s l a v e s .
They calk of them, of
their c o n d itio n , of th eir f a c u l t i e s , of th eir c o n d u c t, e x a c t l y a s if they
wer e i n c a p a b l e of h earing. 1 once saw a yo ung lad y , who, when s e a t e d
a t t a b l e between a male and a female, w a s induced by her m od esty to
intru de on the chair of her female ne ighbour t o avoid the i n d e lic a c y
o f t o u c h in g the elb ow o f a man.
T once saw t h i s very young lady
l a c i n g her s t a y s with the m ost pe r fe c t com pos ure before a negro
footman. A Virginian gentlem an told me t h a t e v er sin c e h e had m a u ie d ,
he had been ac c u s t o m e d to have a negro girl sle e p in the sa m e chamber
with h im se lf a n d h i s wife.
I a s k e d for what p u r p o se th is nocturnal
attendance was necessa ry ?
* Good H e a v e n 1” w a s the reply, " I f I
wanted a g l a s s of water during the night, what would become o f me." 2
T h i s i s an extrem e example.
While s e r v a n ts tend to be
a d d r e s s e d only when a ' r e q u e s t ’ i s to be given them, still
th e ir p r e s e n c e in a region ty p ic ally p l a c e s some r e s tr ic tio n s
upon th e behaviour of th o se who are fully p r e s e n t, the more
so, app a ren tly , when the s o c ia l d is ta n c e between s e rv a n t
and served is not g reat.
In the c a s e of other s e rv a n t-lik e
r o le s in our s o c ie t y , su c h a s th a t o f e l e v a to r o p era to r and
cab-driver, there s e e m s to be u n certainty on both s id e s of
the r e la tio n sh ip a s to what kind of in tim a c ie s are p e rm issib le
in the p r e s e n c e of the non-person.
In addition to th o se in se rv a n t- lik e r o le s, there are other
sta n d ard c a te g o r ie s of p e r s o n s who are s o m e tim es tr e a te d
1 l’Or a fuller tr e a tm e n t o f the role se e Goffman, op. c it., ch ap . xvi.
2 Nirs T r o l l o p e , V o m e s t i c Manners o f the Am ericans (2 v o l s . ; L o n d o n :
Whittaker, T re a c h e r , 1832), II, 56-57.
95
in th e ir p r e s e n c e a s if th e y were not t h e r e ; th e very young,
th e very old, and th e s ic k are common ex a m p le s.
F urther,
we find toda y a growing body o f te c h n ic a l p e r s o n n e l—recording
ste n o g ra p h e r s , 'b ro a d ca stin g te c h n ic ia n s , photog raphers, s e c r e t
p o lic e , e t c . —who pla y a te c h n ic a l role during im portant
c e r e m o n ie s but who are not, in a s e n s e , tr e a te d a s if p r e s e n t.
It would seem th a t th e role of non-person u s u a lly ca rrie d
with i t some subordinatio n and d i s r e s p e c t , but we must not
u n d e r e s tim a te the degree to which the person who i s given
or who t a k e s such a role can u s e it a s a defence.
And it
must be added that s it u a ti o n s can a r is e w hen su b o r d in a te s
find th a t the only f e a s ib le way th a t they c a n h an d le a superordinate i s to tr e a t him a s if he were not p re se n t. T h u s , on
the is la n d studied by the writer, when th e B r itish P u b lic
School d octor atte n d e d p a t i e n t s in the hom es of poor cro fte rs,
the r e s i d e n t s so m e tim es handled th e d ifficulty o f re la tin g
th e m s e lv e s to the doctor by tr e a tin g him, a s b es t they could,
a s if he were not p rese n t. It may a l s o be added t h a t a team
ca n tr e a t an individual a s if he were not p r e s e n t, doing th is
not b e c a u s e it i s the natural thing or the only f e a s ib le thing
to do, but a s a pointed way o f e x p r e s s in g h o s tility to an
ind iv id u al who h a s conducted him self improperly.
In such
s it u a ti o n s , the important show i s to show the o u tc a s t th a t
he i s b eing ignored, and the a c tiv ity th at i s c a r rie d on in
o rd er to d e m o n strate t h is may i t s e l f be o f second ary
im portance.
We h a v e co n s id e re d some ty p e s of p e r s o n s who are not,
in a sim ple s e n s e , perform ers, a u d ien c e, or o u ts id e r s , 'and
who have a c c e s s to inform ation and re g io n s we would not
e x p e ct of chem. We c o n s id e r now four a d d itio n a l d isc re p a n t
r o les, involving, in the main, p e r s o n s who are not presen t
during a perform ance but who have un ex p e cted information
about it.
F irs t, there i s an important role th a t might be c a lle d
' s e r v i c e s p e c i a l i s t . ’ It is filled by in d iv id u a ls who s p e c i a l i z e
in the co n s tru c tio n , repair, and m ain te n an c e of the show
th e ir c l i e n t s m aintain before other people.
Some of t h e s e
w orkers, lik e a r c h i t e c t s and furniture sa le sm e n , s p e c i a l i z e
in s e t t i n g s ; some, su c h a s d e n t i s t s , h a i r d r e s s e r s , and
d erm a to lo g is ts, deal with p erso n a l front; some, su c h a s
sta ff e c o n o m is ts, a c c o u n ta n ts , law yers, and r e s e a r c h e r s ,
formulate the fac tu al e l e m e n ts o f a c l i e n t ’s verbal d isplay,
th a t is , h is team’s argum ent-line or in te lle c t u a l position.
On th e b a s is of c o n c rete r e s e a r c h it would seem that
s e rv ic e s p e c i a l i s t s ca n hardly atte n d to the n e e d s of an
96
individual perform er without acquiring a s much, or more
d e s tr u c tiv e inform ation about some a s p e c t s of the indiv id u al's
perform ance a s th e individual him s elf p o s s e s s e s .
S ervice
s p e c i a l i s t s are lik e mem bers of the team in th at th e y learn
th e s e c r e t s o f the show and o b ta in a b a c k s ta g e view of it.
U nlike members of th e team, how ever, th e s p e c i a l i s t d o e s
not s h a re the risk, the guilt, and the s a t i s f a c t i o n of p r e s e n tin g
before a n a u d ie n c e the show to which he h a s contributed.
And, u n lik e members of the team, in le a rn in g the s e c r e t s of
o th e rs, th e o th e rs do not learn c o r resp o n d in g s e c r e t s about
him.
It i s in t h is con tex t th a t we can u n d e r s ta n d why
p r o fe ssio n a l e t h i c s often oblig e th e s p e c i a l i s t to show
‘ d i s c r e tio n , ’ i . e . , not to give away a show w hose s e c r e t s
h i s d u t i e s hav e made him privy to.
T h u s , for example,
p s y c h o th e r a p i s ts who vic ario u sly p a r ti c ip a te s o widely in
the d o m e stic warfare of our tim e s are p led ged to rem ain s ile n t
about what they have le arn ed , e x c ep t to their s u p e rv is o rs.
When the s p e c i a l i s t i s of higher general s o c i a l s t a t u s
than th e in d iv id u a ls for whom he p rov ides a s e rv ic e , his
g en e ral s o c ia l valu atio n of them may be confirmed by the
p a rtic u la r th in g s he must l e a m about them. In some s i t u a t i o n s
th is b ecom es a s ig n ific a n t factor in m aintaining the status
quo.
T h u s in American towns upper-middle c l a s s b an k e rs
come to s e e th at the ow ners o f.so m e small b u s i n e s s e s p rese n t
a front for tax p u r p o s e s that is in c o n s is te n t with their banking
t r a n s a c t io n s , and th a t oth e r b u sin e ssm e n p r e s e n t a confident
p u b lic front of solv e n cy w hile p riv ately r e q u e s tin g a loan in
an ab jec t, fumbling manner. M id d le-cla ss d o c t o rs on charity
duty who must tre a t shameful d i s e a s e s in shameful surround­
i n g s are in a sim ilar position, for they m ake it im p o s sib le
for a lo w e r - c la s s p erso n to protect him s elf from the in tim ate
in s ig h t of h is s u p e ro rd in a te s.
Similarly, a landlord le a r n s
th a t all of his te n a n t s a c t a s if they were the sort who alw a y s
paid their rent on tim e but th a t for some t e n a n t s t h is a c t i s
only an a c t.
P e r s o n s who are not s e rv ic e s p e c i a l i s t s are
so m e tim es given the same d is i llu s io n i n g view.
In many
org a n iz a tio n s, for example, a n e x e c u tiv e o fficer is required
to o b se rv e the show of b u stlin g co m petence th a t the p erso nnel
m a in ta in s , although he may s e c re tly p o s s e s s an a c c u r a te
and low opinion of some of th o se who work under him.
Som etim es we find, of c o u rse , that the general s o c ia l
s t a t u s of the c l ie n t i s higher than th a t of the s p e c i a l i s t s
who are r eta in ed to attend to h is front.
In s u c h c a s e s an
in te r e s ti n g dilemma of s t a t u s o cc u rs, with high s t a t u s and
low inform ation control on one side, and low s t a t u s and high
97
in form ation control on th e other. In s u c h c a s e s it is p o s s i b l e
for th e s p e c i a l i s t to become o v erim p re ssed with the weak­
n e s s e s in the show th a t h i s b e tte r s put on and to forget the
w e a k n e s s e s in h is own.
In c o n s e q u e n c e , suc h s p e c i a l i s t s
so m e tim e s d evelop a c h a r a c t e r is ti c am b iv alen c e, feelin g
c y n i c a l about the ' b e t t e r ' world for the s a m e r e a s o n s that
make them v ic ario u sly intim ate with it.
T h u s the janitor,
by v irtu e of the s e r v ic e he provides, le a r n s v hat kind of
liquo r the t e n a n t s drink, what kind of food they e a t, w hat
l e t t e r s they r e c e iv e , w hat b ills they le a v e unpaid, and w hether
th e la d y o f the apartm ent is m e n stru a tin g behind her un­
co n tam inated front, and how c le a n the t e n a n t s kee p the
k itc h eh , bathroom, and other back reg ions. 1 Similarly, the
American filling sta tio n m anager is in a p o sitio n to learn
th a t a man who a f f e c t s a new C a d illa c may buy only a d o lla r ’s
worth of gas, or buy a cut-pric e variety, or seek to wotk the
s t a t i o n for free se rv ic e.
And he a l s o knows that the show
so m e men put on of m asculine know-how about c a r s is false,
for they can n e ith e r d ia g n o se the trouble with th eir car
co rrec tly , a h h o u g h c la im in g to, nor drive up to the g a s o lin e
pumps in a co m p ete n t way. So, too, p e r s o n s who se ll d r e s s e s
le arn th at c u s to m e rs of whom they would not h a v e expected
it so m e tim e s have dirty underw ear and that c u s to m e rs
u n a b a s h e d ly judge a garment by i t s c a p a c ity to m is re p re se n t
the f a c ts . T h o s e who s e ll men’s c lo th in g learn th a t the gruff
show men maintain of being lit tle co n c e rn e d with how they
look i s merely a show and that strong, s i l e n t men will try
on s u it afte r suit, hat a f te r h a t, until they a p p e a r in the mirror
e x a ctly a s they want to s e e th e m s e lv e s . So a ls o , policem en
Ie a m from the th in g s th at rep u ta b le b u s in e s s m e n w ant them
to do and not do that the p ill a r s of s o c ie t y have a s lig h t
tilt. 2 Hotel m aids learn that male g u e s ts who make p a s s e s
at them u p s t a i r s are not quite what the s e e m l i n e s s u* their
d o w n s ta irs conduct s u g g e s ts . 3 And hotel se cu rity offic e rs,
or h o u se dicks, a s they are more commonly c a l i . d , Ieam
th a t a w a s t e b a s k e t may co n c e a l two re je c te d d rafts of a
s u ic id e note :
Darling—
B y the tim e yo u g e l this I w ill be it here nothing yo u ra n
d o w ill hurt m e l i y the time y o u read t h i s , nothing y o u c o n do w ill be
a b l e to h u r t 4
l S ee Ray Gold, * T he C hica g o F l a t J a n i t o r ’ (Unpublished 'Master's t h e s i s ,
D epartm ent of Sociology, U niv ersity of C h ica g o, 1950), e s p e c i a l l y chap.
iv, ‘T h e G a r b a g e .’
2 Wesdey, op. c it., p. 131.
3 Writer’s srudy o f an island hotel.
4 C o l l a n s , op. c it., p. 156.
98
showing that the final f e e lin g s of a d e s p e r a te ly uncompromis­
ing p erso n were som ew hat rehearse:! in order to str ik e ju st
the right note mid in any c a s e were not final.
S ervice
s p e c i a l i s t s of q u e s tio n a b le repute who m aintain an offic e in
th e back r e g io n s of a city so th a t c l i e n t s will not be s e e n
se ek in g a s s i s t a n c e c le a rly provide an other example.
In Mr
H u g h es’ w ords:
common s c e n e in fiction d e p i c t s a lady of d egree se ekin g,
v eiled and alo n e, the a d d r e s s of the fo rtu n eteller or dte midwife of
doubtful p r a c t i c e in nn ob sc u re co rner of the city . T h e anonymity of
certain s e c t i o n s of c i t i e s allo w s p e o p le to s e e k s p e c i a l i z e d s e r v i c e s ,
l e g itim a te but em b a r ra ss in g a s well a s illejtimate , from p e r s o n s
with whom they would not want to be se en by members o f t h e i r own
s o c ia l c i r c l e . •
T he s p e c i a l i s t may, of c o u rse , carry his anonymity with
him, a s d o e s the exterm inator who a d v e r tis e s that he will
c o m e to the c l i e n t ’s h o u se in a van that w ea rs a plain wrapper.
Any gu ara n tee of anonym ity is , of co u rse , a rather b la ta n t
claim th a t the c l ie n t has need of it and is w illing to make
use of it.
While it i s p lain that the s p e c i a l i s t w hose work r eq u ires
him to ta k e a b a c k sta g e view of other p e o p le ’s perform an ces
will be an em barra ssm e nt to them, it must be a p p re c ia te d
that by c h a nging the perform ance which s e rv e s as a point of
reference other c o n s e q u e n c e s c a n be seen.
We regularly
find that c l ie n t s may reta in a s p e c i a l i s t not in order to obtain
help with a show they are p u ttin g on for o th e rs but for the
very act that i s provided by having a s p e c i a l i s t attend them—
e s p e c ia ll y if he h a s a higher general s t a t u s than his c l ie n ts .
Many women, it seem s, go to beauty p arlours to be fussed
over and c a lle d madam and not merely b e c a u s e they need to
have their hair done.
It h as som e tim es been claim ed, for
example, that in Hindu India the procurement of proper s e rv ic e
s p e c i a l i s t s for r itu a lly sig n ific a n t t a s k s i s o f crucial
s ig n ific an c e in confirming o n e ’s own c a s t e p o sitio n . 2
In
such c a s e s a s th e se , the performer may be in te r e ste d in
being known by the s p e c i a l i s t who s e r v e s him and not by
the show that the s e r v ic e a llo w s him la te r to perform. And
so we find that s p e c ia l s p e c i a l i s t s a r is e who fulfil n e e d s
that are too shameful for the c lie n t to ta k e to s p e c i a l i s t s
before whom he is ordinarily not shameful. T h u s the perform­
ance th a t a c lien t s ta g e s for his doctor som etim es fo rc e s
th e c lien t to go to a p h arm a cist for a b o rtiv es, c o n tra c e p tiv e s ,
and v ene real d i s e a s e cu re s. 3
Similarly, in America, an
l E . C . H u g hes a n d Helen M. Hughes, Where P e o p le Meet (G lencoe, 111.:
F ree P r e s s , 1952), p. 171,
2 F or th is and o ther d a t a on India, and foe s u g g e s t i o n s in g eneral, I am
in d eb ted to McKim Marriott.
•'V einlein, op. e i t p. 106.
99
individual involved in u nseem ly e n ta n g le m e n ts may ta k e
h is tr o u b le s to a Negro law yer b e c a u s e of the sham e he might
le e l before a w hite one. 1
It is ap p a ren t th a t s e r v ic e s p e c i a l i s t s who p o s s e s s
e n tru s te d s e c r e t s are in a p o sitio n to explo it their knowledge
in order to gain c o n c e s s i o n s from the performer w h o se s e c r e t s
they p o s s e s s .
T h e law , p r o fe ssio n a l e t h ic s , and enlig htened
s e lf - in t e r e s t often put a sto p to the g r o s s e r forms of black­
mail, but sm all c o n c e s s i o n s d e l ic a te ly re q u e s te d are freq uently
u n c h e c k e d by t h e s e forms of s o c ia l control.
P e r h a p s the
t e n d e n c y to p la c e a lawyer, a c c o u n ta n t, econom ist, or other
s p e c i a l i s t s in verbal fronts on a retainer, and to bring th o se
who are on a retain er into the firm partly r e p r e s e n ts an effort
to en su re d is c r e t i o n ; once the verbal s p e c i a l i s t becom es
|>art of the organ iz atio n , presum ably new m ethods ca n be
em ployed to e n s u re Jbis tr u s tw o r th in e s s .
By bringing the
s p e c i a l i s t into one’s o rg a n iz a tio n and even one's team, th e re
i s also g r e a te r a s s u r a n c e that he will employ h is s k i l l s in
the i n te r e s ts of o n e’s show and not in the i n t e r e s t s of p r a is e ­
worthy but irre le v a n t m a tte rs s u c h a s a b a la n c e d view, or
the p r e s e n ta t io n of in te r e s tin g th e o re tic a l d a ta to che s p e c i a l ­
is t 's p ro fe s s io n a l a u d ie n c e . 2
A note sh o u ld be added about one variety of s p e c i a l i s t
role, the role of 't r a i n i n g s p e c i a l i s t . ’ In d iv id u a ls who tak e
th is role have the com plic ate d t a s k of te a c h in g the performer
how co build up a d e s ir a b le im p re ssio n w hile at the same
time taking the part of the future a u d ien c e and illu stratin g
by p u n ish m en ts th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f im proprieties.
P a r e n ts
1 William H. Hale, ' T h e C a reer Developm ent of t h e Negro L a w y e r ' (Unp ub lish ed P h . D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Departm ent of Sociology, U n iversity o f
C h icag o, 1949), p . 72.
2 T h e s p e c i a l i s t in verbal fronts who i s brought into t h e o rg an izatio n will
b e e x p e c t e d to a s s e m b l e a n d p r e s e n t d ata in such a way a s to lend
maximum sup p ort to the claim s the team i s m aking at the t i n e .
The facts
o f the c a s e will ordi narily be an incidcn ral matter, merely one ingredient
to be co n s id ered a l o n g wich o th e r s, such as the lik e ly arg u m en ts of
o n e 's opponents, the p r e d i s p o s i ti o n of the p u b lic ac large to which the
team may want to a p p eal for support, che p r in c ip le s co which ev eryone
c o n cer n ed will fe el o b lig ed to give l i p - s e r v i c e , etc. I n te re s tin g ly enough,
t h e individual who h e l p s co l l e c t and formulate the arm y o f faces u se d
in a te a m ’s verbal show may a l s o be em ployed in che d i s t i n c t l y different
t a s k of p r e s e n t i n g or c o n v e y ia g t h i s tronc in per son co th e au d ie n c e .
It i s rhe d if fe r e n c e between w r i t in g t h e ceremony for a sh o w and
performing the ceremony in che show.
Here there i s a potencial dilemma.
The more the s p e c i a l i s t can be made to s e t a s i d e h i s p r o fe s sio n a l
s t a n d a r d s and co n s i d e r only che i n t e r e s t s of the team which employs
him, th e more use ful may be che argum ents he formulates for them ;
but the more he h a s a rep u tatio n for being an ind ep en d en t p r o fe s s i o n a l ,
i n t e r e s t e d only in the ba la n c e d f a c t s of the c a s e , che more effe ccivc
h e i s likely to be when he a p p e a r s before the au dience an d presencs
h i s f in Jin g s.
A very rich so u rce of data on t h e s e m atters is to be
found in Wilensky, op. cil.
100
and s c h o o l t e a c h e r s are p erh a p s the b a s i c e x a m p le s of t h is
r o le in our s o c i e t y ; th e s e r g e a n t s who drill officer c a d e t s
provide a further example.
P e rfo rm e rs often feel u n e a sy in th e p r e s e n c e of a trainer
w h ose l e s s o n s th e y h a v e long s i n c e le arn ed and taken for
granted.
T r a in e r s tend to e v o k e for the performer a vivid
im age of h im self that he had r e p r e s s e d , a se lf-im ag e of som e­
one engaged in the clum sy and e m b a rra ssin g p r o c e s s of
becoming. T h e perform er can make him s elf forget how foolish
h e o n c e w a s , but he cannot make the tra in e r forget.
As
R ie z le r s u g g e s t s about any sham eful fac t, * if o th e rs know,
th e fa c t i s e s t a b l i s h e d and h is im age of h im self i s put beyond
h is own power of remembering and forg e ttin g .’ 1
Perhaps
there is no c o n s i s t e n t e a s y s t a n d that we c a n ta k e to p e r s o n s
who h a v e s e e n behind our current front—p e r s o n s who ‘ knew
u s w h e n ’—if a t th e s a m e tim e th e y are p e r s o n s who must
sym bolize the a u d i e n c e ’s r e sp o n se to u s and c a nnot, th e re fo re,
be a c c e p te d a s o ld team -m ates might be.
T h e s e r v ic e s p e c i a l i s t h a s been mentioned a s one type
of p erson who i s n o t a performer yet h a s a c c e s s to backreg io n s and d e s t r u c t i v e information.
A se c o n d typ e is the
person who p la y s th e role o f 'c o n f i d a n t . '
C o n fid a n ts are
p e r s o n s to whom th e performer c o n f e s s e s his s in s , freely,
d e ta ilin g th e s e n s e in which t h e im pression given during a
perform ance w a s merely an im p re ssio n .
T y p ic a lly c o n f id a n ts
are lo c a te d o u ts i d e and p a r tic ip a te only v ic a r io u s ly in back
and front region a c tiv ity .
It i s to a p erso n of t h i s kind,
for in s t a n c e , that a h usba nd brings home a d aily ta le of how
he fared in o ffic e stratag e m s,, in trig u e s, unspoken feelings,
and b lu f fs ; and when he w rites a le tte r r e q u e stin g , r e sig n in g
from, or a c c e p tin g a job it is th is person who will check
through th e draft to make sure th e le tte r s tr ik e s e x a c tly the
right note.
And when ex-d ip lo m ats and ex-boxers write their
memoirs, th e rea ding public is tak en behind the s c e n e s and
b ec o m e s a watered-down confidant of one of th e great show s,
a l b e it one that i s by then q uite over.
A p e rso n in whom another c o n f id e s, u nlike the s e rv ic e
s p e c i a l i s t , d o e s n o t make a b u s i n e s s of r e c e iv in g such conf i d a n c e s ; he a c c e p t s th e information without ac ce p tin g a
fee, a s an e x p re ssio n of the friendship, tr u s t, and regard
th e informant f e e l s for him.
We find, however, that c l ie n t s
often attem pt to transform t h e i r s e rv ic e s p e c i a l i s t s in to
c o n f id a n ts ( p e r h a p s a s a m e a n s o f e n s u rin g discretion),
R i e z l e r , op. c it.,
p.
458.
101
e s p e c ia ll y when the work of the s p e c i a l i s t i s merely to lis te n
and ta lk , a s i s the c a s e with p r i e s t s and p s y c h o th e r a p i s ts .
A third role rem a in s to be c o n s id e r e d .
L ik e th e role of
s p e c i a l i s t and confid ant, the ro le of c o lle a g u e affords th o s e
who play ir some inform ation about a perform ance they do not
atten d .
C o l le a g u e s may be defined a s p e rs o n s who p r e s e n t the
s a m e routine to th e sam e kind of a u d ie n c e but who do not
p a r ti c ip a te to g e th er, a s te am -m a tes do, at the sa m e tim e and
p la c e before the sam e p a r tic u la r a u d ie n c e . C o lle a g u e s , >as it i s
s a id , s h a re a community of face.
In having to put on th e same
kind of perform ance, they com e to know ea ch o th e r’s d if f i c u lt ie s
and p o in ts of v i e w ; w hate v er th e ir to n g u e s, they com e to sp e ak
th e sa m e s o c ia l la n g u a g e .
And w hile c o l le a g u e s who co m p ete
for a u d i e n c e s may kee p some s tr a t e g ic s e c r e t s from one another,
they cannot very well, hid e from one an other c e r ta in th in g s
th a t they hid from the a u d ien c e.
T h e front that is m aintained
before o th e r s n e e d not be m a in ta in ed among th e m s e lv e s ;
rela xation b ec o m e s p o s s i b l e .
H u g h es h a s re c e n tly provided
a sta te m e n t of th e c o m p le x e tie s o f th is kind of c o lle a g u e
so lid a r ity .
Parc of th e working co d e of a p o s i t i o n i s discretion*, it al l o w s the
c o l l e a g u e s co e x c h a n g e c o n f i d e n c e s co n cern in g th eir r e l a t i o n s co ocher
people.
Among t h e s e c o n f i d e n c e s one finds e x p r e s s i o n s of cy n icis m
co n cern in g their m i s s i o n , cheir co m p eten ce, and the f o ib le s of cheir
s u p e r i o r s , t h e m s e l v e s , their c l i e n t s , th eir s u b o r d in a te s , and the public
a t larg e.
S u ch e x p r e s s i o n s take th e burden from one's s h o u ld e rs and
s e rv e a s a d e f e n c e a s w e l l . T h e u nsp o k e n mutual c o n f i d e n c e n e c e s s a r y
to them r e s t s on two a s s u m p t i o n s co n cern in g one's fellows.
T h e firs t
is th at t h e c o l l e g a u e will not m i s u n d e r s ta n d , the s e c o n d is that he
■viil no t r ep eat to un in iated e a r s .
T o be su re th at a new fellow will
not m isu n d ers ta n d r eq u ires a s p a rrin g match of so c ia l g e s t u re s .
The
z e a l o t who tu rn s the sp a rrin g m atch into a real b attle, who t a k e s a
friendly i n itia tio n to o s e ri o u s l y , is not likely to be tru sted with the
l i g h t e r sort of comment on on e's work or with d o u bts and m is g i v i n g s ;
nor can h e learn th o s e p a r t s of the working code which arc communicated
only by h in t and ge s tu re .
He is no t t o be tr u s t e d , for, though he i s
no t fit for st r a t a g e m s , he is s u s p e c t e d of being prone to tr e a so n .
In
o rder chat men may co m m unicate freely and c o n f id e n tia lly they must
be able to take a good deal of each other 's s e n t i m e n t s for granted.
T h ey must feel e a s y a b o u t th e ir s i l e n c e s a s well a s abo u t th eir
utterances. 1
A good s ta te m e n t of some other a s p e c t s of c o lleg ial so lid ­
arity i s given by Simone d e B e a u v o ir; her intention i s to
d e s c r ib e th e p e c u lia r s itu a tio n of women, her e f fe c t i s to tell
us about all c o lle g ia l g ro u p s:
I he female f riend s h ip s t h a t she s u c c e e d s in k eep in g or forming
a r e p r e c i o u s to a woman, but they ar e very differen t in kind from
r e l a t i o n s b etw een men.
T h e l a t t e r co m m unicate a s i n div idu als through
i d e a s and p r o j e c t s of perso nal i n t e r e s t , while women are confined
within their ge neral feminine lot and bound to gether by a kind of immanent
com plicity.
And what they look for f irs t of all among t h e m s e lv e s
1Hughes and Hughes, K’Aere People Meet, pp. 168-169.
102
is th e affirm ation of the u niv erse they have in common.
T h e y do not
d i s c u s s o pin io n s a n d general i d e a s , hue ex ch an g e c o n f i d e n c e s and
r e c i p e s ; ihcy a r e in l e a g u e co c r eate a kind of c o u ntcr-un ivers e, the
v a l u e s of whi ch will outweigh m a s c u lin e v a l u e s .
C o l l e c t i v e l y they
find s t r e n g t h to sh a ke off th eir c h a i n s ; they n eg ate the s e x u a l domination
of the m a l e s by a d m ittin g their frigidity to one another, while der id in g
the m en ’s d e s i r e s or t h e i r c l u m s i n e s s ; an d diev q ues tio n ironic ally
the moral a n d i n te lle c tu a l sup e rio rity of th eir hu sb a n d s, and of men
m g e n e r a l.
_
-
They compare e x p e r i e n c e s ; p r e g n a n c i e s , b irth s , t h e i r own and cheir
c h i l d r e n ’s i l l n e s s e s , a nd h o u se h o ld c a r e s become th e e s s e n t i a l e v e n t s
o f t h e human sto ry .
T h e i r work is n o t a t e c h n i q u e ; by p a s s i n g on
r e c i p e s for coo kin g and the l ik e , they endow it with the dignity of
a s e c r e t s c i e n c e founded on oral trad ition. *
It should be ap p a ren t, tlien, why th e te rm s u s e d to d e s ig n a t e
o n e ’s c o l le a g u e s , lik e th e terms use d to d e s ig n a t e o n e s team­
mates, come to be in-^group term s, and why term s u s e d co
d e s ig n a te a u d i e n c e s tend to be lo a d ed w ithout group sentim ent.
it i s in te r e s tin g to note that when te am -m a tes come in
c o n ta c t with a stran g e r who i s their c o llea g u e, a so rt of c e r e ­
monial or honorific team membership may be temporarily
a c c o rd e d th e newcomer.
T h ere is a so rt of visiting-firem an
complex whereby te am -m a tes tr e a t their v is ito r a s if he had
.suddenly come into very in tim ate and long -stand ing r e la tio n s h i p s
with them .
Whatever their a s s o c ia tio n a l p rero g a tiv e s, he
te n d s to be given club rig h ts. T h e s e c o u r t e s i e s are e s p e c ia lly
given when the v is ito r and the h o s t s happen to have received
their trainin g in the sam e e s ta b l is h m e n t or from th e same
tr a in e r s, or both.
G ra d u a te s of the sa m e h o use hold, the sam e
p ro fe ssio n a l sc h o o l, th e sa m e pen iten tiary , th e sa m e P u b lic
School, or the sam e sm all town provide c l e a r ex a m p le s.
When
‘ old b o y s ’ meet, it may be difficult to s u s t a in b a c k s ta g e h o rse ­
play and th e dropping o f o n e’s customary pose may become
an o b lig a tio n an d a p o se in its e lf , but it i s more difficu lt to
do anything e l s e .
An in te r e s tin g im plication of t h e s e s u g g e s tio n s i s that
a team w hich c o n s ta n tly perform s i t s ro u tin e s to the sam e
a u d ie n c e may yet be s o c ia lly more d is ta n t from th is audience
than from a c o llea g u e who momentarily co m e s into c o n ta c t
with the te am .
T h u s the gentry in th e is l a n d community
previously mentioned knew their crofter neighbours very well,
h aving played out the gentry role to them s in c e childhood.
Vet a gentry v isito r to the i s l a n d , properly sp onsored and
introduced, could, in some s e n s e s , become more intim ate with
th e is la n d gentry in th e c o u r se of an afternoon t e a than could
a crofter during a lifetime of c o n t a c t with h i s gentry neighbours.
It may be su g g e s te d th a t the good will one c o lle a g u e c e r e ­
monially e x te n d s to an other is p erh a p s a kind of pea ce offering:
1'ic H e n u v o ir. «;». c i t . , p. M 2 .
103
' Y o u d o n ’t cell on us and we won’t te ll on you.’
T h is partly
e x p l a in s why d o c to rs and sh o p k e e p e rs often giv e pro fe ssio n a l
c o u r t e s i e s or r e d u c tio n s in price to th o se who are in some
way c o n n e c te d w ith the trade.
We have here a kinvl of bribery
of th o s e who are well enough informed to become sp o tte r s .
T h e nature of c o l le a g u e s h i p a llo w s u s to understan d som e­
thing about the im portant s o c ia l p r o c e s s of endogamy, whereby
a family of one c l a s s , c a s te , o c c u p a tio n , religion, or e th n icity
te n d s to r e s tr ic t i t s m arriage t i e s to f a m ilie s of the sam e
status.
P e r s o n s who are brought to g e th er by affinal t i e s are
brought to a p o sitio n from which th ey can s e e behind e a c h
o th e r's front; t h i s i s a lw a y s e m b a rra ssin g but it i s l e s s
e m b a r ra s s in g if the new com ers b a c k s ta g e have th e m s e lv e s
been m aintaining the s a m e kind of show and have been privy
to the sam e d e s tru c tiv e information. A m is a llia n c e is something
th a t brings b a c k s ta g e and into the team som eone who sh o u ld
be kept o u tsid e or at l e a s t in the a u d ie n c e .
It is to be noted th a t p e r s o n s who are c o l le a g u e s in one
c a p a c ity , and h enc e on te rm s of som e rec iproc al fam iliarity,
may not be c o l le a g u e s in other r e s p e c t s . It i s so m e tim es felt
th a t a c o lle a g u e who i s in other r e s p e c t s a man of l e s s e r
power or s t a t u s may o ver-extend his c la im s of fam iliarity and
th r e a te n the s o c ia l d is t a n c e th at ought to be m aintained on
the b a s i s of th e s e other s t a t u s e s . In American s o c ie ty , middlec l a s s p e r s o n s of low minority-group s t a t u s are often th rea ten e d
t h i s way by the p resum ption of their lo w e r - c la s s brethren.
As H u g h e s s u g g e s t s in r eg a rd to in te r -r a c ia l c o lle a g u e
relatio ns:
T h e dilemma a r i s e s from che face that, w hile it i s bad for the
p r o f e s s i o n to l e t laymen s e e r ifts in th eir ran ks, it may be bad f o r che
in dividual to be a s s o c i a t e d in the e y e s of h i s a c t u a l or p o t e n t i a l p a t i e n t s
with p e r s o n s , even c o l l e a g u e s , of so d e s p i s e d a group a s t h e Negro.
T h e favoured way of avo idin g th e dilemma i s co shun c o n t a c t s with
t h e Negro p r o f e s s i o n a l . 1
Similarly, em p lo y ers who p aten tly have lo w e r - c la s s s t a t u s ,
a s do some American filling s ta tio n m a nage rs, often find that
th e ir e m p lo y ee s e x p e c t th a t th e whole o pera tion w ill be
conducted in a b a c k s ta g e m anner an d th a t com mands and
d ir e c tio n s will be i s s u e d only in a p le a d in g or joking fa shion.
Of c o u r s e , t h is kind of threat i s in c re a s e d by the fact th a t
n o n -c o lle a g u e s may sim ila rly sim plify the s itu a tio n and judge
t h e in d ividual too much by the c o l le g i a l company he kee p s.
But here again we deal with i s s u e s th a t ca n n o t be fully explored
u n l e s s we ch a n g e the point of r e f e re n c e from one performance
to another.
1 Hu g hes an d Hughes, KAere P e o p le Meet, p. 172.
104
J u s t a s some p e r s o n s a re th ought co c a u s e difficulty by
n>aking too much of their c o lle a g u e s h ip , so o th e rs c a u s e trouble
by not m aking enough o f it.
It i s a l w a y s p o s s i b l e for a
d is a ff e c te d c o lle a g u e to turn r e n e g a d e and sell out to the
a u d ien c e the s e c r e t s of the a c t that h is o netim e brethren are
still perform ing.
Every role has i t s defrocked p r i e s t s to tell
us what g o e s on in th e m onastery, and the p r e s s h a s alw a y s
shown a liv e ly i n t e r e s t in t h e s e c o n f e s s i o n s and expose's.
Thus a d o ctor will d e s c r ib e in print how h i s c o l le a g u e s s p l i t
fees, s te a l e a c h o th e r ’s p a t ie n ts , and s p e c i a l i z e in u n n e c e s s a r y
o p e r a tio n s rhar require the kind of a p p a r a tu s w hich g iv e s th e
p a tie n t a dram atic medical show for h is money. 1 In Burke’s
term, we a re thereby su p p lie d with inform ation about th e
'r h e t o r i c of m e d ic in e .’ J Of co u rse , in a very lim ited s e n s e ,
whenever any n o n -c o lle a g u e i s allow ed to becom e a confidant,
som eone will hav e had to be a renegade.
R e n e g a d e s often take a moral sta n d , s a y in g that it is
b e tte r to be tr u e to the id e a ls of the role th a n to the performers
who f a ls e ly p re se n t th e m s e lv e s in it.
A d iffe ren t mode of
d isa ffe c tio n o c c u r s when a c o lle a g u e " g o e s n a t i v e ’ or becom es
a b a c k slid e r, making no attem pt to m aintain th e kind of front
which h is auth o rized s t a t u s m a k es or le a d s h is c o l le a g u e s
and th e au d ien c e to e x p e c t of him. Such d e v i a n ts a re s a id to
' l e t down the s i d e . ’ T h u s in th e islan d community stud ied
by the writer, the in h a b ita n ts , in an effort to p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s
a s p r o g re s s iv e farm ers to v i s i t o r s from the o u ts i d e world, felt
somewhat h o s ti le to the few c ro fters who apparently d id n ’t
care and who refu sed to sh a v e or wash, or c o n s tru c t a front
yard, or to su p p la n t the tha tche d roof of th e ir c o ttag e with
something
le ss
sym bolic of tra d itio n a l p e a s a n t s ta tu s .
Similarly, in C h ica g o there i s an organ iz atio n of blind war
v e t e r a n s who, m ilitant in their d e s ir e not to a c c e p t a p itia b le
role, tour the c ity in order to check up on fellow blind men
who let down the sid e by ap p e a lin g for a lm s on s tr e e t corners.
L e w i s G. Arrowsmith,
'lercury, XXII, 1-10.
' T h e Young Doctor in New Y o rk ,’ The A merican
^ K en n eth iJurlcc, A R hetoric o f M o tiv e s (New Yor k: P re n t i c e - l l a l l , 1953).
r . 171.
App lying t h is s t a te m e n t to our p u r p o s e s , we could o b s e r v e t h a t even
the m edical equipm ent o f a doctor's o ffice i s n o t to be judged purely for
i t s d i a g n o s t i c u s e f u l n e s s , hue a l s o hfi3 a function in the rhetoric o f
niedicine. Uliatevef it i s a s a p p a r a t u s , i t a l s o a p p e a l s a s im ag ery; and
1 f '» man h a s been tr e a te d to a fulsom e s c ri e s of t a p p i n g s , sc t u ti n i z i n g s ,
an d l i s t e n i n g s , with the aid of v a r i o u s s c o p e s , m eter s, and g a u g e s , he.
may f e e l c o n t e n t to have p a r t i c i p a t e d a s a p a t i e n t in su ch h istrio n ic
a c tiu n , though a b s o lu te ly no m aterial t h in g h a s b een do ne for him, w h e r e a s
h e might count h im se lf c h e a t e d if he were given a t e a l cure, bu t without
the p a g e a n t r y . ’
105
A final note must be added about c o lle a g u e s h ip .
T h ere
are some c o l le a g u e grou pings w hose members are rarely held
r e s p o n s i b le for e a c h oth e r’s good co n d u c t. T h u s m others are
in som e r e s p e c t s a c o lle a g u e grouping, and y e t ordinarily the
m is d e e d s of one, or her c o n f e s s io n s , do not seem to affect
c l o s e l y the r e s p e c t th a t is a c co rd ed the other members. On
th e other hand, th e re are c o lle a g u e g ro u p in g s o f a more
c o rp o ra te c h a r a c te r , w hose members are so c l o s e l y identified
in the e y e s o f oth e r people th a t to so m e d eg re e the good
re puta tion of one p r a c titio n e r d e p e n d s on the good conduct of
th e o th e rs. If one member is e x p o s ed and c a u s e s a s c a n d a l,
th e n all lo s e some public repute.
As c a u s e and effect of
su c h id e n tif ic a tio n we often find th a t the m embers of the group­
in g are form ally org an iz ed into a s in g l e c o l le c tiv i ty which is
allo w ed to r e p r e s e n t the p ro fe s s io n a l i n t e r e s t s of the grouping
an d a llp w e J to d is c ip li n e an y member who t h r e a te n s to d is c r e d it
the d efin itio n of th e s iru a tio n fostered by the other members.
O bviously, c o l l e a g u e s of th is kind c o n s titu t e a kind of team,
a team th a t diffe rs from ordinary te a m s in th a t the mem bers of
i t s a u d ien c e are not in im m ediate f ac e-to -fac e c o n ta c t with
one an o th er and must com m unicate th e ir r e s p o n s e s to one
an o th er at a tim e when the s h o w s they have s e e n a re no longer
before them.
Similarly, the c o l le g i a l re n e g a d e is a kind of
traitor or tu rn coa t.
T h e im p lic a tio n s of t h e s e f a c t s about c o l le a g u e groupings
force us to modify a li t t l e the original framework of defin itio n s.
We m ust in c lu d e a marginal type of ' w e a k 1 a u d ie n c e w hose
members are not in f ac e-to -fac e c o n t a c t with one an o th e r during
a perform ance, but who come e v e n tu a lly to pool their r e s p o n s e s
to the perform ance they have in d e p en d e n tly s e e n . C o lle a g u e
groupings are not, of c o u rse , the only s e t s of perform ers who
find an a u d i e n c e of th is kind.
For exam ple, a departm ent of
s ta te or foreign office may lay down the c u rre n t official line
to d ip lo m ats who are .s c a tte r e d throughout the world. In their
s tr ic t m a in te n an c e of th is line, and in the intim ate co-ordination
of the c h a r a c t e r and tim ing of their a c tio n s , th e s e d ip lo m ats
o b v io u sly function, or are meant to function, a s a sin g le team
p u ttin g on a sin g le world-wide performance. But of c o u r s e , in
suc h c a s e s , the s e v e r a l members of the a u d ie n c e are not in
im m ediate fa c e - to -f a c e c o n ta c t with one another.
106
C IIA PTK R V
COMMUNICATION OUT OF C H A R A C T E R
When two te a m s p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s to e a c h o th e r for
p u rp o s e s of in te ra c tio n , the members of e a c h team tern! to
(Maintain th e lin e th a t they are what they claim to b e ; they
te nd to s ta y in c h a r a c te r . B a c k s t a g e fam iliarity i s s u p p r e s s e d
l e s t th e interplay of p o s e s c o l l a p s e and all the p a r ti c ip a n ts
find th e m s e lv e s on the s a m e team, a s it were, with no one
le ft to p la y to. E ac h p a rtic ip a n t in the in te r a c tio n ordinarily
en d e a v o u r s to know and kee p h is p la ce , m ain taining w hatever
b a la n c e of formality and inform ality h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d for
th e in te ra c tio n , ev e n to the point of ex ten d in g th is treatm ent
to his own te am -m a tes. At the sa m e tim e, each team te n d s to
s u p p r e s s i t s c a n d id view of i t s e l f and of th e other team,
p r o je c tin g a co n c e p tio n of s e l f and a co n c ep tio n of other that
i s r e la tiv e ly a c c e p ta b le to t h e other.
And to en su re t h a t
com m unication will follow e s ta b l is h e d , narrow c h a n n e ls , ea ch
team i s prepared to a s s i s t the other team, ta c itly and ta ctfully,
in m aintaining th e im p re ssio n it is attem p tin g to foster. Of
co u rse , at moments of great c r i s i s , a new s e t o f m otives may
su ddenly become e ffec tiv e and the e s t a b l i s h e d s o c ia l d i s t a n c e
between the te a m s may sha rp ly in c re a s e or d e c r e a s e , i but
when the c r i s i s i s p a s t, the prev io u s working c o n s e n s u s is
lik e ly to be r e - e s t a b lis h e d , a lb e it bashfully.
Underneath and behind th is working c o n s e n s u s , and the
gen tlem an ’s ag reem ent not to disrup t the in te ractio n upon
which th is lim ited c o n s e n s u s is based, there are, ty p ic a lly ,
l e s s a p p a r e n t c u r r e n ts of communication.
If th e s e c u r r e n ts
were not und ercurrents, if th e se c o n c e p tio n s were officially
com m unicated i n s t e a d of com m unicated in a s u r re p tit io u s
way, they would co n tra d ict and d is c r e d it the d e fin itio n s of
th e s itu a tio n offic ia lly p rojected by the p a r tic ip a n ts.
When
'A n ex am p le i s found in a r e c e n t study of a h o s p i t a l ward o n which
ex p erim ental treatm ent was given to v o lu n te e r s su fferin g from m etabo lic
d i s o r d e r s a b o u t whi ch little w a s known and for which little co uld be done.
In fa ce of the r e s e a r c h d e m a n d s made upon the p a t i e n t s a n d the gen eral
leeling of h o p e l e s s n e s s about p r o g n o s i s , the usu a l sh arp line betw een
doctor an d p a t i e n t was b lunted.
Doctors r e sp e c tf u lly c o n s u lte d with
tliuit p a t i e n t s a t length abo u t sym ptom s, and p a t i e n t s came to think of
t h e m s e lv e s in p ar t a s r e s e a rc h a s s o c i a t e s .
See K en ee C lair e Fox, M
■Sociological Study of S t r e s s : P h y s i c i a n and P a t i e n t on a R e s e a r c h Ward,’
Un pu blish ed Ph. L). d i s s e r t a t i o n , Depar tm ent of S o cial R e la ti o n s , Kadcliff
C o l l e g e , 195 3 .
107
w e stu d y a s o c i a l e s t a b l is h m e n t, t h e s e d is c re p a n t s e n tim e n ts
a r e alm ost a lw a y s found.
T h e y de m o n stra te th a t w hile a
performer may a c t a s i f h i s r e s p o n s e in a s it u a ti o n were
im m ediate, unthinking, and s p o n ta n e o u s , and w hile he him s elf
may think t h i s to be the c a s e , still it will a l w a y s be p o s s i b le
for s i t u a t i o n s to a r i s e in which he will convey to one or two
p e r s o n s p r e s e n t th e u n d ersta n d in g th a t the sh o w he i s m ain ta in ­
in g i s only and merely a show .
T h e p r e s e n c e , then, of
com munication out o f c h a r a c t e r p r o v id e s o n e argum ent for the
propriety of s tu d y in g p erform ances in te rm s o f t e a m s and in
term s of p o te n tia l in te ra c tio n d isru p tio n s . It may be r e p e a te d
th a t no claim i s made th a t s u r re p tit io u s c o m m u n ic a tio n s are
any more a r e fle c tio n of the re a l r e a lity than a re the o fficial
co m m unication s with which they are i n c o n s i s t e n t ; the point
i s th a t th e perform er i s ty p ic a lly involved in both, and th is
dual inv olvem ent must b e carefu lly m anaged l e s t o ffic ia l
p r o je c tio n s be d i s c r e d ite d . O f the many t y p e s o f com munication
in which the perform er e n g a g e s and which con v e y inform ation
in c o m p atib le with the im pre ssio n o ffic ia lly m aintained during
in te r a c tio n , four t y p e s will be c o n s id e r e d : treatm ent o f the
a b s e n t,
s ta g in g ta lk , team c o llu s io n , and tem porary r e ­
a lignm e nts.
Treatment of the Absent
When t h e m em bers o f a te a m go b a c k s ta g e w here the
a u d ie n c e c a n n o t s e e or h ea r them, th e y very regularly d erogate
the a u d ie n c e in a way th a t i s in c o n s i s t e n t with the ( ac e-to -fac e
treatm ent th a t i s given to the au d ien c e.
In s e r v ic e tra d e s ,
for example, c u s to m e r s who are tr e a te d r e sp e c tf u lly during
the perform ance a re often ridiculed, g o s s i p e d abo ut, c a r ic a tu r e d ,
c u rse d , an d c r it ic iz e d when the performers are b a c k s t a g e ;
here, too, p la n s may be worked out for ' s e l l i n g ’ them, or
em ploying
' a n g l e s ’ a g a i n s t them,
o r pac ify in g t h e m . 1
Similarly, th e re are very few friend ship r e la tio n s h i p s in which
there i s not some o c c a s io n when a t t i t u d e s e x p r e s s e d about
the friend- behind h i s back are grossly inc o m p atib le with the
o n e s e x p r e s s e d about him to h is face.
Sometimes, o f c o u rse , the o p p o site of derogation occ urs,
and performers p r a is e their a u d ie n c e in a way that would be
im p e rm issib le for them to do in the a c tu a l p r e s e n c e of the
a u d ien c e. B u t s e c r e t d erogation s e e m s to be much more common
than s e c r e t p r a is e , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e such d erogation s e r v e s
1 See,
for exam ple, th e c a s e report on ' C e n t r a l H a b e r d a s h e r y ' in Robert
Dubin, ed ., Unman R e l a ti o n s in A d m i n is tra tio n (N ew Yo rk : P re n tie c-M all,
1951) pp. 560*563.
108
to m aintain the s o lid a r ity of th e team, d em o nstratin g mutual
regard a t th e e x p e n s e of t h o s e a b s e n t and c o m pensa ting,
p erh a p s, for the l o s s of s e lf - r e s p e c t that may occur when the
au dience
must
be ac co rd ed
accom m odative fa c e -io -fa c e
treatm ent.
Two common te c h n i q u e s o f derogating th e a b s e n t a u d ie n c e
may be su g g e s te d .
F ir s t, we often find that when performers
are in the region in which they will appear before the au dien ce,
and when th e a u d ien c e h a s left or not yet arrived, the perform ers
will so m e tim e s play out a sa tir e on their inte raction with the
au d ien c e, and with some members of the team ta k in g the role
of th e au d ien c e. F r a n c e s Donovan, for exam ple, in d e s c r ib in g
the s o u r c e s of fun a v a ila b le to s a l e s - g i r l s , s u g g e s ts the
fo llo w in g :
Dot u n l e s s they are busy the g irls do noc rem ain long ap art. An
i r r e s i s t i b l e a t tr a c tio n d raw s them to g eth er a^ ain .
At every opportunity
they p l a y the game o f ‘ customer,* a game which t h e y h ave in vented an d
of w hich they never se em to t i t e —a game which for c a ricatu re and
com edy, 1 have n e v e t s e e n s u r p a s s e d on any s t a g e . One girl t a k e s the
p ar t of the sa l e s w o m a n , ano ther that o f the c u s to m e r in s e a r c h of a
d r e s s , an d to gether they pu t on a n a c t t h a t would d e l i g h t the heart of a
v a u d e v ille au d ie n c e . 1
A sim ilar s itu a tio n i s d e s c r ib e d by D enn is K in ca id in h is
d is c u s s io n of th e kind of s o c ia l c o n tac t th a t n a tiv e s arranged
for the B ritish during the early part of B ritish rule in I n d ia :
If th e young factors found li t t le p l e a s u r e at t h e s e en tertain m en ts,
th e i t ho sts» for a l l the s a t i s f a c t i o n they would a t other tim es have
d eriv ed from R a ji's g race and K a l i a n i 's wit, wer e too u n e a s y to en joy
their own pa rty till the g u e s t s had gone. T h e n follo w ed a n entertainm ent
o f w h ich few E n g lis h g u e s t s wer e aware.
T h e d o ors would be sh u t,
an d t h e d a n c in g girls , e x c e l l e n t mim ics like all Ind ian s, would give
an im itation of the bored g u e s t s who had j u s t left, and the uncom fortable
t e n s io n of the l a s t hour would be d i s p e l l e d in b u r s t s of happy laughter.
And w hile the E nglish p h a e t o n s c l a t t e r e d home R a ji and k a l i a n i would
be d r e s s e d up to c a r ic a tu r e E n g lis h co s tu m e a n a be ex ecu tin g with
i n d e c e n t exaggeration an O r ie n ta liz e d versio n of E ng lish d a n c e s , th o s e
m in u ets an d country d a n c e s which se em ed so inn o cen t and natu ral to
E n g li s h e y e s , so different from the p ro v o cativ e p osturin g of Indian
n a u tc h - g irls , but which to Ind ians appeared utterly s c a n d a l o u s . 2
Among other th in g s, th is a c tiv ity s e e m s to provide a kind of
ritual p rofanation o f t h e front region a s well a s o f th e
au d ien c e, 3
Secondly, we quite regularly find th a t a c o n s i s t e n t
differen ce a p p e a r s between te rm s of referenc e and te rm s of
1 F r a n c e s Donovan,
The S a l e s l a d y ( C h i c a g o : U niv ersity o f C h i c a g o P r e s s ,
1929), p. 39. S p e c if ic e x a m p l e s are given on pp. 39-40.
2 D en nis K in caid , B ri t i s h S o c i a l L i f e in India, 1608-1937 ( L o n d o n : Routledge,
1938), pp. 106-107.
3 A r e l a t e d tendency may be mentioned.
In many o f fi c e s chat are di vided
into ran ked reg io n s, the lun ch tim e break will find the topmost level
le a v in g th e s o c i a l e s t a b l is h m e n t and e v ery o n e e l s e in it moving up a
region for lunch or for a few m oments of a f t e r l u n c h talk .
Momentary
p o s s e s s i o n of the wo rk-p lac e of o n e 's su p e ro r d in a te s s e e m s to offer,
among o t h e r th in g s, an oppor tunity to p ro fan ize -it in so m e ways.
109
ad d r e s s . In the p r e s e n c e of the a u d ie n c e , the perform ers tend
to u s e a favourable form of a d d r e s s to them. T h is inv olves,
in American s o c ie t y , a p o lite ly formal term, su c h a s ' s i r ’ or
'M r — or a warmly fam iliar term, su c h a s first name or nic k ­
name, the formality or inform ality b eing determined by the
w is h e s of th e p e rso n a d d r e s s e d . In th e a b s e n c e of th e a u d ien c e,
th e a u d ie n c e te n d s to be referred to by bare surname, first
nam e where th is i s not p e r m is s ib le to their f a c e s , nickname,
or slig h tin g pronunciation of full name.
Sometimes members
of the a u d ie n c e are referred to not even by a s lig h tin g name
hut by a code ti t l e which a s s i m i l a t e s them fully to an a b s tr a c t
ca te g o ry . T h u s d o c to rs in the a b s e n c e of a p a tie n t may refer
to him a s ‘ the c a r d i a c ’ or ' t h e s t r e p ; ’ barb ers privately refer
to th e ir c u s to m e r s a s ' h e a d s of h a i r .’ So, too, the a u d ie n c e
may be referred to in their a b s e n c e by a c o l le c tiv e term combin­
in g d i s t a n c e and derogation, s u g g e s tin g an ingroup-outgroup
sp lit.
T h u s m u s i c ia n s will c a ll c u s to m e rs s q u a r e s ; n a tiv e
American o ffic e g ir ls may s e c r e tl y refer to th e ir foreign
c o l le a g u e s a s 'G . R .’s ; ’ 1 A merican s o l d i e r s may s e c re tly
refer to E n g lis h s o ld ie r s with whom they work a s ' L i m e y s ; ’ 2
pitchm en in c a r n iv a ls p r e s e n t their s p ie l before p e r s o n s whom
th e y refer to in p riv a te , a s rubes, n a t iv e s , or to w n e rs; and
J e w s act out th e r o u tin e s o f th e p are nt s o c ie t y for an a u d ie n c e
which i s c a lle d th e goyim.
P e r h a p s t h e c r u e l e s t term of all
i s found in s i t u a t i o n s where an individual a s k s to be c a lle d
by a fam iliar term to h i s face, and th is i s to le ran tly done, but
in h is a b s e n c e he is referred to by a formal term.
T h u s on
t h e is la n d s tu d ied by the w riter any v is ito r who a s k ed the
lo c al c r o fte rs to c a ll him by h is firs t nam e was s o m e tim es
o b lig e d to h is fac e, but in the a b s e n c e of the v is ito r a formal
term of re f e r e n c e would push him back into what was felt to
be h is proper p la c e .
1 hav e s u g g e s te d two sta n d a rd ways in which perform ers
dero g a te th e ir a u d i e n c e s —mock ro le-pla y ing and uncomplimentary
te rm s of refe re n c e .
T h e r e are oth e r sta n d ard ways.
For
exam ple, when no member of the a u d ie n c e i s p r e s e n t, the
German R e f u g e e s .’ S ee G ro ss , op. c i l ., p. 186.
2 S c e Daniel G l a s e r , ' A Study of R e la ti o n s b etw een B ritish and American
h n lisce d Men a t ‘S M A H F ’, ' U n p u b lish e d M a ster's t h e s i s , Dep artm ent of
Sociology, U niv ersity of C hica g o, 1947. Mr G las er s a y s , p. 16 :
‘ T h e term ' l i m e y , ’ a s u s e d by the A m erican s in p la c e of ' B r i t i s h ,
was g en erally em ployed with derog atory i m p lic a tio n s. T h ey would refrain
from u s i n g i t in the p r e s e n c e o f the B ritish though the la t t e r u sually
cith er d i d n ’t know what it m ean t or d i d n ’t g ive it a derogatory si g n i f i c a n c e .
Ind eed, th e A m erican s’ c a r e in this r e s p e c t w as rnuch like t h a t of Northern
w h iles who use t h e term 'n ig g e r * but refrain from usin g it in front of a
Negro.
T h i s ni cknam e phenomenon i s , of co u r se , a common feature of
ethnic r e l a t i o n s in which c a te g o r ic c o n t a c t s p r e v a il.'
110
members o f th e team may refer to a s p e c t s of their routine in a
c y n i c a l or purely te c h n ic a l way, giving forceful e v id e n c e to
t h e m s e lv e s that they do not take the sa m e view of th eir a c tiv ity
a s the view they m aintain for th e ir a u d ie n c e . A further sta n d a rd
derogation may be c ite d .
When team -m ates are warned that
th e a u d ie n c e is approaching, the team -m ates may hold off
th e ir perform ance, pu rp o sely , until the very l a s t minute, until
th e a u d ie n c e alm ost c a t c h e s a g lim p se of b a c k s ta g e ac tiv ity .
Sim ilarly, the team may ra c e in to b a c k s ta g e r e la x a tio n the
moment th e a u d ie n c e h a s departed. By m eans o f th is purposely
rapid sw itc h into or out of th eir act, the team in a s e n s e can
co n tam in ate and pro fa n ize the a u d ie n c e b y b a c k s ta g e conduct,
o r rebel a g a in s t th e oblig a tio n of m aintain ing a show before
the a u d ien c e, or make extrem ely c le a r the d iffe re n c e betw een
team and a u d ie n c e , and do all of t h e s e th in g s without quite
being c a u g h t out by th e au d ien c e.
Still an o th er sta n d a rd
a g g r e s s io n a g a i n s t th o se a b s e n t o c c u r s in the k idd ing and
ribbing a member of th e team r e c e i v e s when he i s about to
le a v e (o r merely d e s i r e s to leave) h is team -m ates and r i s e or
fall or move la te r a lly into the ran k s of the a u d ie n c e . At such
tim e s the team -m ate who is ready to move can be tr e a te d a s
if he has a lre a d y moved, and a b u s e or fam iliarity ca n be heaped
upon him with impunity, and, by im plication, upon the a u d ie n c e .
And a final in s t a n c e of a g g re ssio n is found when som eone
from th e a u d ie n c e i s o fficially brought into the team. Again,
he may be jokingly m istreated and ' g i v e n a hard tim e ,’ for
much the s a m e r e a so n th a t he was ab u s e d when he d ep arted
from the team he h a s ju st left. 1
The te c h n iq u e s of derogation which have been co n s id e re d
point out th e fa c t tha t, v erbally, in d iv id u a ls a r e tr e a te d
re la tiv e ly well to th e ir f a c e s and r e la tiv e ly badly behind their
bac ks.
T h is s e e m s to be one of the b asic g e n e r a liz a tio n s
th a t c a n be made abo u t in te ra c tio n , but we should not s e e k in
our all-too-hum an natu re an ex p lan a tio n of it.
As previously
su g g e ste d , b a c k s ta g e derogation of the audien ce s e r v e s to
maintain the morale of th e team.
And when the a u d ie n c e is
p r e s e n t, c o n s id e r a t e treatm ent of them is n e c e s s a r y , not for
th e ir sa k e , or for th e ir s a k e merely, but so that c o n tin u a n c e
of peaceful and orderly in te r a c tio n will be a s s u re d .
The
‘ a c t u a l ’ (ee lin g s of th e perform ers for a member of the a u d ie n c e
(.whether p o s it iv e or n eg a tiv e ) seem to have li t t l e to do with
rhe q u estion, eith er a s a determ inant of how th is member of
the a u d ie n c e is tre a te d to h is face or as a determ inant of how
1 Cf. Kenneth Burke, A R h eto ric o f M o tiv es, p. 234 ff., who g i v e s a so c ia l
a n a l y s i s of the i nd iv idu al being in itiated , u s i n g a s a k ey word 'h a z i n g . '
HI
he i s tre a te d behind h is back. It may be true that b a c k s ta g e
a c tiv ity often t a k e s th e form of a co un c il o f war; but when
two te am s meet on che field of in te raction it s e e m s chat they
g en e ra lly do not m eet for p e a c e or for war. T hey meet under
a temporary truce, a working c o n s e n s u s , in order to get th e ir
b u s i n e s s done.
Staging Talk
When te am -m a tes a re out of th e p r e s e n c e of th e au d ien c e,
d i s c u s s i o n often turns to problem s of s ta g in g .
Q u e s t io n s
a r e r a is e d about the con d itio n of sign equ ip m en t; s ta n d s , lin e s,
an d p o s it io n s are te n ta t iv e l y brought forth and ' c l e a r e d ' by
th e a s s e m b le d m e m b ersh ip ; the m erits and d em erits of a v a ila b le
front re g io n s are a n a ly z e d ; th e s i z e and c h a r a c te r of p o s s i b l e
a u d i e n c e s for the perform an ce a r e c o n s id e r e d ; p a s t perform ance
d is r u p tio n s and likely d is r u p tio n s are ta lk e d a b o u t; new s about
th e te a m s of o n e ’s c o l le a g u è s i s tra n s m itte d ; th e reception
given on e’s l a s t perform ance i s mulled o v er in what are sometim e s c a lle d ' p o s t m o r te m s ;’ wounds a r e lic k e d and morale
i s s tren g th en e d for th e next perform ance.
S tagin g talk, when c a lle d by other nam es suc h a s g o ssip ,
' s h o p ta lk ,’ e t c . , i s a well-worn notion.
I have s t r e s s e d it
here b e c a u s e it h e lp s point up th e f a c t that in d iv id u a ls with
widely different s o c ia l r o l e s liv e in the s a m e clim a te of drama­
tu rg ic al e x p e r ie n c e .
The t a l k s that com ed ia n s and s c h o la r s
g iv e are quite different, but th e ir talk about th e ir work i s quite
sim ilar.
To a s u r p ris in g degree, before the talk, t a lk e r s talk
to th e ir friends about what will and will not hold th e a u d ie n c e ,
what will and will not give o ffe n c e ; afte r th e ta lk , all ta lk e r s
t a lk to their frie n d s about the kind of hall they s p o k e in, th e
kind of a u d ie n c e they drew, and the kind of reception they
o b ta in e d .
S tag in g talk h a s a lre ad y been referred to in the
d i s c u s s i o n of b a c k s ta g e a c tiv ity and colleg ial s o lid a rity and
will not be further d i s c u s s e d here.
Team Collusion
When a p a rtic ip a n t c o n v e y s som ething during in te raction,
we e x p e c t him to com m unicate only through the lip s of th e
c h a r a c te r he h a s c h o s e n to project, openly a d d r e s s in g all of
h is rem arks to the w hole in te ra c tio n s o that all p e r s o n s prese nt
are given equal s t a t u s a s r e c ip ie n t s of communication.
Thus
112
w hispering, for exam ple, i s often c o n s id e re d improper and i s
prohibited, for it c a n destro y the im p re ssio n th a t th e performer
i s only what he a p p e a r s to be and that th in g s a r e a s h e h a s
claim ed them to .be. 1
In s p i t e of the ex p e ctatio n that ev e ry th in g said by the
perform er will be in kee p in g with the d e finition of th e situ a tio n
fo s te r e d by him, he may convey a great deal daring an inter­
a c tio n chat i s out of c h a r a c t e r and convey i t in suc h a way a s
to prevent the a u d ie n c e a s a w hole from r e a liz in g that anything
out of k e e p in g with th e definition of th e situ a tio n h a s been
convey ed.
P e r s o n s who are adm itted to t h is s e c r e t commun­
ication a r e p la c e d in a c o l lu s iv e r e la tio n s h ip to one an other
v is - a - v is th e rem ainder of th e p a r tic ip a n ts.
By acknow ledging
to one an other that th e y are kee p in g r ele v an t s e c r e t s from the
o th e rs p rese n t, th ey ac k n o w led g e to one an other that the show
of candour they m aintain, and the show o f being only t h e
c h a r a c t e r s they o ffic ia lly project, i s merely a show.
By m eans
o f suc h by-play, performers ca n affirm a b a c k s ta g e s o lid a r ity
even w hile e n g a g ed in a performance, e x p r e s s in g with impunity
u n a c c e p ta b le th in g s about th e a u d ie n c e a s well a s th in g s about
th e m s e lv e s that the a u d ie n c e would find u n a c c e p ta b le . I shall
c a ll 't e a m c o l l u s i o n ’ any c o llu s iv e com munication which i s
c a re fu lly conveyed in such a way as to c a u s e no threat to
the illu sio n that i s b eing fo stere d for th e a u d ie n c e .
O ne important kind o f team co llu sio n is found in th e system
of s e c r e t s i g n a l s through which performers ca n s u r re p titio u s ly
r e c e iv e or transm it p ertinen t inform ation, r e q u e s ts for a s s i s t ­
an c e, and o th e r m a tte rs of a kind r ele v an t to the s u c c e s s f u l
p r e s e n ta tio n of a performance. T y p ic ally , t h e s e sta g in g c u e s
come from, or to, the direc to r of the perform ance, and it greatly
s im p lifie s h is t a s k of managing im p re ssio n s to h a v e suc h a
su b te rra n ean lan g u ag e a v a ila b le .
Staging c u e s often r e la te
th o se e nga g ed in p re se n tin g a performance to th o s e who are
offering a s s i s t a n c e or direction b a c k s ta g e .
T h u s, by m eans
o f a foot-buzzer, a h o s t e s s can g iv e d ir e c tio n s to her kitc h en
s t a f f w hile a c tin g a s If s h e i s fully in volved in th e m eal-tim e
c o n v e r s a tio n . Similarly, during radio and te le v is io n p roductions
a vo cab ulary of s ig n s i s employed by t h o s e in th e control room
l fn r e c r e a t i o n a l g am es , w h ispered h u d d l e s may be defined a s a c c e p ta b le ,
a s they may before a u d i e n c e s s u c h a s children or fo re igners to whom
l i t t l e c o n s i d e ra t i o n need be given. In s o c i a l a rra n g em ents in which k n o t s
or c l u s t e r s of p e r s o n s hold s e p a r a te c o n v e r s a ti o n s in e a c h o t h e r ’s v is i b l e
p r e s e n c e , an effort i s often made by the p a r t i c i p a n t s in e a c h c l u s t e r to
a c t a s i f what they are sa y in g c o u ld be s a id in the other c l u s t e r s eveïi
though i t i s not.
113
to guid e perform ers, e s p e c i a l l y a s re g a rd s th eir timing, without
allow ing th e a u d i e n c e to become aw a re that a system o f control
com m unication i s in op era tio n in addition to the com munication
in which perform ers and a u d i e n c e a re o ffic ia lly p a rtic ip a tin g .
So a ls o , in b u s i n e s s o f fic e s , e x e c u t iv e s who want to term in ate
in te r v ie w s both rapidly and ta ctfu lly will train th e ir s e c r e t a r i e s
to in terrupt in te r v ie w s at the p ro per time with th e proper e x c u s e .
Another e x a m p le may b e taken from th e kind of s o c ia l e s t a b l i s h ­
ment in Am erica in which s h o e s a r e commonly so ld . Sometimes
a cu s to m e r who w a n ts a s h o e of la r g e r s i z e than t h e on e that
i s a v a ila b le or th e o n e th a t fits may be h an d le d a s f o llo w s:
T o im p re ss th e c u s t o m e r a s to the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h is st r e t c h i n g
t h e s h o e , the s a l e s m a n may t e l l the c u s to m e r chat he is going to s t r c t c h
th e s h o e s on the thirty-four la st. T h i s p h r a s e t e l l s the wr apper no t to
s t r e t c h the s h o e s , but to wrap them up a s they are an d hold them undet
the co u n ter for a sh o rt w hile. ‘
S ta g in g c u e s are, of c o u rse , em ployed between performers
an d a sh ill or c o n fe d e r a te in the au d ien c e, a s in the c a s e of
‘ c r o s s fire* betw e en a pitchm an and h i s p la n t am ong t h e
s u c k e r s . More commonly w e find t h e s e c u e s employed among
te am -m a tes while engaged in a perform ance, t h e s e c u e s in
fact providing us with one r e a s o n for employing th e co n c e p t
of team in s t e a d of a n a ly z in g in te ra c tio n in term s of a pattern
of in dividual perform ances. T h is kind of team-mate c o llu sio n ,
for exam ple, p la y s an important ro le in im pre ssion management
in American s h o p s . C le rk s in a given sto r e commonly develop
their own c u e s for handling the perform ance p rese n ted to the
cu stom er, although c e r ta in te rm s in the vocabulary seem to be
r e la tiv e ly s ta n d a r d iz e d and occur in the sa m e form in many
s h o p s a c r o s s the country . When c l e r k s are members of a foreign
lan g u ag e group, a s is so m e tim es th e c a s e , th e y may employ
t h is
la n g u a g e for s e c r e t com m u n ic atio n —a p r a c t i c e a l s o
employed by p a re n ts who s p e ll out words in front of young
c hildren an d by members of our b etter c l a s s e s who talk to
e a c h o th e r in F re n c h about th in g s they do not want their
c hildren, th e ir d o m e s tic s , or their trad e sm e n to hear. However,
th is ta c ti c , like w hispering, is c o n s id e r e d crude and im p olite ;
s e c r e t s c a n be kep t in th is way but not the fact that s e c r e t s
a re being kept.
U nder suc h c irc u m s ta n c e s , team -m ates can
hardly m aintain th e ir front of s i n c e r e s o li c ii u d e for th e custom er
(or f r a n k n e s s to th e ch ild re n , e t c . ) . H arm le ss-so u n d in g p h r a s e s
which the c u s to m e r th in k s he u n d e r s ta n d s are more useful to
salespersons.
F o r example, if a cu sto m e r in a sh o e sto re
deeply d e s ir e s , sa y , a B width, the s a le s m a n c a n c o n v in ce
the custom er th a t that is what s h e i s g e ttin g :
'D a v i d G eller, 'L i n g o of the Shoe S a l e s m a n , '
.14
tmer ican 'tpre rh. I \ , -KV
. . . . th e s a le sm a n will c a l l to a n o th e r s a le sm a n down th e a i s l e
an d s a y , " B e n n y what s i z e I s t h is s h o e ?'1 By c a l l i n g the sa l e s m a n ,
' Benny ‘ he im plies th at the a n s w e r should be t h a t the width i s B. 1
An engaging illu s tr a ti o n of th is kind of c o llu sio n i s g ive n in
a paper on th e Borax furniture house :
Now rhat the custo m e r i s in the s to r e , s u p p o s e s h e c a n ’t be sold?
T h e p r i c e i s too hig h ; she must co n s u l t her h u s b a n d ; s h e is only
sh o p pin g. T o let h er walk, ( i .e ., e s c a p e without buying) i s tr e a so n in
a Borax H o u s e. So an S.O.S. i s se n t o u t by the s a l e s m a n through o n e
o f the nu merous fo ot-p u s h es in the sto re. In a flash the ’ m a n a g e r ' is
on the s c e n e , preo ccu p ied with a s u i t e and wholly o b liv io u s o f the
Aladdin who s e n t for him.
" P a r d o n me, Mr Dix on,” s a y s the s a l e s m a n , s im u la tin g re lu c ra n c e
in d istu r b in g su ch a busy pe r so n a g e . " I wonder if you could do som eth ing
for my c u s to m e r. S he th ink s th e p r ic e of t h i s su ite is too high. Madam,
t h i s i s our manager, Mr Dixon."
Mr Dixon d e a r s his thr oat i m p re s s iv e ly , l i e i s a ll of six f e e t , h a s
iron-grey h air a n d w ears a Maso nic pin on the l a p e l of h i s coat- Nobody
would s u s p e c t from h is a p p e a r a n c e t h a t he i s only a T .O . man, a s p e c i a l
s a l e s m a n ro whom difficult c u s to m e rs are turned over.
" Y e s , " s a y s Mr Dixon, stroking b i s w ell- sh av en chin, *1 se e.
You go on, B en n ett. I’ll tak e care of madam m y se lf. Pm not so b usy
■u the moment anyhow.*
T h e s a l e s m a n s l i p s aw ay , v a l e t - l ik e , though h e ’ll give Dixoo hell
if he muffs chat s a l e . 2
T he pra c tic e d e s c r ib e d here of 1 T . O . ’i n g ’ a c ustom e r to an o th e r
s a le s m a n who ta k e s the ro le of th e m anag er is app a ren tly
common in many re ta il e s ta b l is h m e n ts .
O th e r i ll u s tr a ti o n s
may b e ta k e n from a report on t h e la n g u a g e of furniture
salesm en :
' G i v e me the number of t h is a r t i c l e , ’ i s a q u e s t io n co ncerning the
p rice of the a r t i c l e . T h e forthcoming r e s p o n s e i s in co de.
T h e codc
i s u n iv e r sa l throughout the U n ite d S t a t e s a n d is con v ey ed by simply
d o u b ling the c o s t , the s a le sm a n knowing what p e r c e n ta g e of profit to
ad d on to t h a t . 3
V erlier i s use d a s a command . . . . m eaning ' l o s e y o u r se lf . 1 It i s
employed when a s a l e s m a n w an ts t o let an o th er s a l e s m a n know thar the
l a t t e r 's p r e s e n c e i s in terfe ring with a sa le . 4
In the se m i-ille g al and
h ig h -p re ssu re fring es of our
com mercial life, it is common to find that team -m ates use an
e x p lic itly le arned vocabulary through which information crucial
to the show can be se c r e tly conveyed. P re su m a b ly th is kind
of code i s not commonly found in thoroughly r e s p e c ta b le
c i r c le s . 5 We find, however, that team -m ates everywhere employ
^ David Gelier, op. c i t . t p. 284.
2 Conant, op. c t t ., p. 174.
■^Charles Miller, ' F urniture L in g o ,' A merican S p eech , VI, 128.
A l b i d . %p. 126.
5 An e x c e p t i o n , of c o u r s e , i s found in t h e b o s s - s c c r e t a r y r elatio n in
r e s p e c t a b l e e s t a b l is h m e n t s .
E squire E ti q u e t t e , for ex am p le, ap p ro v es
the follo w in g ; p. 24 .
M f you s h a re youc office with your s e c re ta ry , you w ill do well to
arra ng e a sig n a l which m eans yo u'd l i k e h e r to g et out while you t a l k to
a v isito r in p r i v a t e . "Will you leave u s a lo n e for a while, M is sS m ic h * ”
e m b a r r a s s e s ev ery bo d y; it's e a s i e r all ar ound if you c a n convey the same
i d e a , by p rearrang em en t, with so m e th in g like, * Will you s e e if you can
s e t t l e that b u s i n e s s with the m erch an d isin g departm ent, M iss Sm ith?"'
115
an informally and often u n c o n s c io u s ly le a rn e d vocabulary of
g e s tu r e s and loo k s by which c o l lu s iv e s ta g in g c u e s can be
conveyed.
Sometimes t h e s e informal c u e s or ' h i g h s i g n s ' will in it ia t e
a p h a s e in a perform ance. T h u s, when ‘ in com pan y,1 a h usba nd
may c o n v e y to h is -wife, by s u b t l e sh a d in g s in h is tone of
v o ic e , or a change in his p o stu re, that th e tw o of them will
d e fin ite ly now s ta r t making th e ir f a re w e lls.
T h e conjugal
team ca n then m aintain an a p p e a r a n c e of unity in ac tio n w hich
loo k s s p o n ta n e o u s but often p r e s u p p o s e s a s tr ic t d i s c ip li n e .
Sometimes c u e s are a v a ila b le by w hich o n e performer can
warn an other that the o th e r is beginning to a c t out of lin e .
T he kick under the ta b le and the narrowed e y e s have become
humorous e x a m p le s.
A p ia no a c c o m p a n is t s u g g e s t s a way by
which d e v ia tin g c o n c e rt s i n g e r s can be brought back into t u n e :
He (the a c c o m p a n i s t ) d o e s t h is by gettin g more s h a r p n e s s into h is
to n e, so th at h i s tone will p e n e t r a t e to the s i n g e r ’s e a r s , over or rather
thr ough h is v o ice. P e r h a p s one o f the n o t e s in th e pi anoforte harmony
i s the very no te that the sing er s h o u ld be s in gin g , and so he m a k e s
t h i s n o te pred o m inate.
When t h i s a c t u a l n o te i s n o t writcen in the
piano fo rte p a r t , he must ad d it in the tr e b l e c l e f , where it will p ip e
loud a n d c l e a r foe the s i n g e r to hear. If the l atter i s s ing in g a quarter
of a to n e s h a rp , or a quarter o f a tone flat, i t will b e an extraordinary
feat on h i s p a r t to co ntin ue to s i n g out o f tune, e s p e c i a l l y i f the
a c c o m p a n i s t p l a y s the v o c a l line with him for the whole p h r a s e . O n ce
havin g s e e n the dan g er s i g n a l the acc o m p a n i s t will c o n t i n u e to be on
the qui v i v e and will so u n d th e si n g e r 's note from time to tim e. 1
T h e sam e w riter g o e s on to sa y som ething th a t a p p l i e s to
many k in d s of pe rfo rm a n c e s:
A s e n s i t i v e si n g e r w ill n eed only th e most d c l i c a t c of c u c s from
h i s partn er. Indeed they can be s o d e l i c a t e chat even die s i n g e r h im se lf
while p rofitin g by them will not be c o n s c i o u s l y aw are of Cnem. T h e
l e s s s e n s i t i v e the sin g e r, the more p oin ted and therefo re the more
o bv io u s t h e s e c u e s will h av e to be. 2
Another ex am ple may be c i t e d from D ale’s d i s c u s s i o n of how
civil s e rv a n ts during a meeting ca n c u e their m in ister that
he i s on tr e a c h e ro u s g r o u n d :
But in the co u r se of c o n v e r s a ti o n new and un f o re s e e n p o in ts may well
arise.
If a civ il se rv a n t at the com m ittee then s e e s h i s M in ister talcing
a line which h e th i n k s wrong, h e will nor sa y s o f l a t l y ; he will e ith e r
sc r i b b l e a note to the Minister or he will d e l i c a t e l y p u t forward som e
f a c t or s u g g e s t i o n a s a minor m o dificatio n of h i s M inister's view . An
e x p e r ie n c e d M inister will p e r c e i v e the red light a t o nce and gently
withdr aw , or at l e a s t p o stp o n e d i s c u s s i o n .
It will be c lear that the
m ixture of M in is ters and civil s e r v a n t s in a Co m m ittee r e q u i r e s on
o c c a s i o n so m e e x e r c i s e of t a c t and som e q u ic k n e s s of percep tio n on
both s i d e s . 3
th a t
Very frequ ently informal sta g in g c u e s will warn te am -m a tes
the a u d ien c e has sudd e n ly come into their p r e s e n c e ; 4
1 Moore, op. c i t ., pp. 56-57.
p. 57.
3 Dale, op. c it., p. 141.
A well-known f o rm ally -leam ed cu e of t h i s kind i s found in the v is u a l signal
116
or that the c o a s t i s c l e a r and thar rela x atio n of o n e’s front i s
now p o s s i b l e ; or that while it may seem all right to drop o n e ’s
guard of d is c re tio n , th e re are in fac t members of the a u d ie n c e
p re se n t, making it in a d v is a b le to do s o : 1 o r that an innocent'o o k in g member of the a u d ie n c e i s really a s p o tte r or s h o p p e r
or som e one who is in o th e r w ays more or l e s s than he se em s.
It would be d iffic u lt for any team —a family, for exa m p le—
to m anage the i m p r e s s io n s it f o s te r s without suc h a s e t of
warning s i g n a l s .
A re c e n t memoir co n c ern in g a mother and
d a u g h te r who liv e d in o n e room in London pro v id es che
following e x a m p le :
On the way p a s t G enn aro 's 1 becam e filled wich ap p r e h e n s io n about
our lunch, wondering how my mother would take to S co tty ( a m anicur ist*
c o l l e a g u e s h e w a s bringing home to lun ch for t h e f i r s t time) a n d what
Sco tty would think of my mother, and we w ere no so o n e r on th e s t a i r c a s e
than 1 s t a r t e d to talk in a loud v o ice to warn her chat 1 w a s not a l o n e .
I n deed , t h is w a s q u ite a signal between us, for when two p e o p le live
in a s i n g l e room ther e i s no t e llin g what s o r t o f u n t i d i n e s s can meet
th e u n e x p e c t e d v i s i t o r s eye. T h ere w a s nearly a l w a y s a co okin§-pan
or a dirty p l a t e where it should not be, or s t o c k i n g s or a p e t t i c o a t
d ryin g ab ov e the s t o v e . My mother, warned by the r a i s e d voice o f her
e b u l l i e n t d a u g h te r , would ru sh round l i k e a c i r c u s d a n c e r hid ing the
pan or the p l a t e or the s t o c k i n g s , and then tu m h e r s e l f in to a p illa r of
frozen dignity, very calm , all read y for the v isito r . If s h e h ad c l e a r e d
th i n g s up too q u ic k ly , and forg otten so m e th in g ver y o bv iou s, 1 would
s e e her v i g ila n t eye fixed upon it and I would be e x p e c t e d to do some*
th in g about i t without e x c i t i n g the v i s i t o r 's a t t e n t i o n . 2
It may be noted, fin ally , that th e more u n c o n s c io u s ly t h e s e
c u e s a r e le arn ed and em ployed, the e a s i e r it will be for the
members of a team to co n c e a l even from th e m s e lv e s that they
do in fact function a s a team. As p rev io u sly su g g e s te d , even
to i t s own members, a team may be a s e c r e t s o c ie ty .
C l o s e ly a s s o c i a t e d with sta g in g c u e s, we find th a t te a m s
work out ways of c o n v e y in g exten de d verbal m e s s a g e s to one
an o th e r in su c h a way a s to pro tec t a projected im p re ssio n
chat might be d isru p te d were th e a u d ie n c e to a p p r e c ia te that
employed in b r o a d c a s ti n g s t u d i o s w hich lire rally or s y m b o lic a lly r e a d s :
‘ You a r e on the a i r . '
Another broad g e s t u re i s rep o rted by P o n so n b y ,
np, c i t , p. 102 :
' T h e Queen (V ictoria) often went to s l e e p durin g t h e s e h o t d r iv e s,
a n d in o rd er that s h e sho u ld no t be s e e n like t h i s by a crowd in a v illa g e ,
1 use d to dig my s p u r s in to the h o r s e w heneve r 1 s a w a lar ge crowd ah ead
a nd make the a s t o n i s h e d anim al jump abo ut and m ake a n o i s e .
P rin c ess
[Beatrice a l w a y s knew t h a t t h is meant a crow d, an d if the Queen d i d n 't
wake with th e n o i s e 1 m ade, she woke her h e r s e l f . '
A ty pical w arning cu e i s i l l u s t r a t e d by K ath erine Archibald, op, c it.,
in her stu dy of work in a sh ip y a rd :
*
At tim es when work w a s e s p e c i a l l y sla c k I h a v e myself sto o d guard
a t t h e door o f a tool s h a c k , ready' to warn of the a p p ro ach of a super*
in ten d en t or a front-office b o ss , w hile for day af ter day nine or ten l e s s e r
b o s s e s and workmen p lay ed poker with p a s s i o n a t e a b s o rp tio n .'
C r i m i n a l s commonly employ s i g n a l s of t h i s kind to warn their c o l l e a g u e s
th a t ' l e g i t ' e a r s are l i s t e n i n g to them or le g i t e y e s are w a tc h in g them ;
in crim in al a r g o t t h i s warning i s c a lle d 'g i v i n g the o f f i c e .'
2 Mrs Robert lle n r e y , M adeleine Grown Up (New Y o r k : Dutton, 1953), PP*
'16-47.
117
inform ation of th is kind w a s being co n v e y ed .
Again w e may
c i t e an illu s tr a tio n from the B r itis h civil s e r v i c e :
It i s a very dif fe r e n t m atter when a ci v i l s e r v a n t is c a l l e d on to
watch over a Dill in i t s p a s s a g e through P a r lia m e n t, or to go down to
e i t h e r H o u s e for a d e b a t e . He c a n n o t s p e a k in h i s own p e r s o n ; h e can
only supply the M in ister with m a te r ia l and s u g g e s t i o n s , and hop e t h a t
he will make good u s e o f them . It n eed har dly be s a i d th at the M inister
i s carefu lly * briefed* b efore hand for a n y s e t s p e e c h , a s on the se co n d
or third r e a d i n g o f a n im p ortan t Dill, or the in trod uctio n o f the
Dep artm en t's ann u al e s t i m a t e s : for s u c h an o c c a s i o n the M in ister i s
s u p p lie d with full n o t e s on ev ery p o in t li k e l y to be r a i s e d , even with
a n e c d o t e s an d Might r e l i e f 1 of a d e c o r o u s o fficial nature. He him self,
h is P r i v a t e S e c r e t a r y , a n d t h e P e r m a n e n t S ecretary probably sp e n d a
good deal of time a n d labour in s e l e c t i n g from t h e s e n o t e s the m ost
ef fe c t iv e p o i n t s to e m p h a s i z e , arrangin g them in th e b e s t o rder and
d e v i s in g an i m p r e s s iv e p e r o ra tio n . All this i s e a s y both for the Minister
an d h i s o f f i c i a l s ; it is done in q u iet and a t l e i s u r e . Dut th e crux is
th e reply a t the end o f a d e b a t e . T h e r e the M inister m u s t mainly depend
on h im self.
It i s true t h a t the c i v i l s e r v a n t s s i t t i n g w ith p a t i e n t
e n d u r a n c e in the l i t t l e g allery on the S p e a k e r 's right or ac the en tran ce
to the H o u s e o f L o rd s , h av e n o te d down i n a c c u r a c i e s a nd d i s t o r t i o n s
of fact, f a l s e i n f e r e n c e s , m i s u n d e r s ta n d in g s of th e Go vernm ent p r o p o s a l s
a nd s i m i l a r w e a k n e s s e s , in the c a s e p r e s e n t e d by O pp o s itio n s p e a k e r s :
b u t ir i s often d i f f i c u l t co g e t t h is ammunition up to the firing-lin e.
Som etim es the M inis ter’s P a r lia m e n ta ry P riv a te S e c r e ta r y wili r ise from
h i s s e a t j u s t beh ind h is c h ief, s t r o l l c a r e l e s s l y a l o n g to t h e official
g a l i e t y and hold a w h isp e re d c o n v e r sa tio n with the civ il s e r v a n t s :
so m e ti m e s a n o t e will be p a s s e d alon g to the M i n i s t e r : very r a r e ly he
h i m s e l f will co m e for a moment and a s k a q ues tio n .
All t h e s e li t t le
co m m u n icatio n s m u st go on u nder the e y e s of the H o u s e , a n d no Minister
c a r e s to se e m l i k e an a c t o r who d o e s not know h i s part ar.d r e q u ire s
to be prompted. 1
B u s i n e s s e tiq u e tte , p e r h a p s more c o n c ern ed with s tr a te g ic
s e c r e t s than with moral o n e s , offers the follow ing s u g g e s t i o n s :
. . . Guard your end of a phone c o n v e r s a ti o n if an o u t s i d e r i s within
e a r s h o t . If you are t a k i n g a m e s s a g e from someone e l s e , a nd you want
to be su re y o u ’v e got i t s t r a i g h t , d o n 't r e p e a t t h e m e s s a g e in th e u su a l
f a s h i o n ; i n s t e a d , a s k the c a l l e r to r e p e a t it, so your clario n t o n e s
w o n 't an n o u n ce a p o s s i b l y p r iv a te m e s s a g e to a ll b y s t a n d e r s .
. . . Cover your p a p e r s before an o u t s i d e c a l l e r a r r i v e s , or make a
h ab it o f k eep in g them in fo lders or under a co v er in g b lank sh e e r.
. . . If you m u st s p e a k to someone e l s e in your o r g a n i z a t i o n when
lie i s with an o u t s i d e r , or with an y o ne who is not co n cern ed with your
m e s s a g e , do it in su c h a way chat che chird per so n d o e s n ’t p i c k up any
information.
You might u se the intero ffice t e le p h o n e r a th e r than the
in tercom , s a y , or w rite y o u r m e s s a g e on i note you can hand over
i n s t e a d of s p e a k i n g your p i e c e in p u b l i c . 2
A v i s i t o r who is e x p e c t e d sho u ld be a n n ou nced im m ed iately . If you
are c l o s e t e d with an o th er p e r s o n yo ur se cre ta ry i n t e r r u p t s you to say
so m eth ing l i k e , q Your t h ree o ’clock a p po in tm en t is her e.
I thought
y o u ’d lik e to k n o w , ”
(She d o e s n ' t mention the v i s i t o r ’s name in the
h e a r in g of an o u t s i d e r .
If y o u arc not likely to remember who your
‘ th r e e o ’c lo ck a p p o i n t m e n t ’ i s , s h e w r i t e s th e name on a s lip of pap et
and h a n d s it to you, or u s e s your p r iv a te phone i n s t e a d of th e l o u d sp e a k e r
sy s t e m . ) 3
S tagin g c u e s have been s u g g e s te d a s one main type of
team c o l l u s i o n ; an o th er ty p e in v o lv e s co m m unications which
function chiefly to confirm for the performer the fact that he
i D a l e , op. c i t . , pp. M8-149.
2 E sq uire E ti q u e t t e , op. cif., p. 7.
E l l i p s i s d o t s the a u t h o r s ’.
* Esquire Etiquette, op. cit., pp. 22-23.
118
d o e s not rea lly hold with th e working c o n s e n s u s , thac th e
show he p u ts on i s only a show, thereby providing him self
with at l e a s t a priv ate d efe n c e a g a i n s t the c la im s made by the
a u d ie n c e .
We may la b e l th is a c tiv i ty 'd e r i s i v e c o l l u s i o n ; ' it
ty p ic a lly in v o lv e s a s e c r e t d erogation of the a u d ie n c e although
so m e tim es c o n c e p tio n s of the a u d ie n c e may be conve y ed that
are too com plim entary to fit w ithin the working c o n s e n s u s .
We have here a furtive public co unterpart of w h at was d e s c r ib e d
in th e seccion c a l l e d 'T r e a t m e n t of th e A b s e n t .’
D erisive co llu sio n o c c u r s most frequently, perhaps, between
a perform er and hi nisei f. School c hildren provide exam ples of
t h is when they c r o s s their fingers w h ile te llin g a lie or stick
out their to n g u e s when th e t e a c h e r momentarily moves to a
po sitio n where s h e c a n n o t s e e th e tribute. So, too, em p loyees
will often grim ace a t their b o s s , or g e s t i c u l a t e a sile n t c u r s e ,
performing t h e s e a c t s of contem pt or insub ord ination at an
a n g l e s u c h th a t th o s e to whom t h e s e a c t s are directed c a n n o t
s e e them. P e r h a p s th e most timid form of th is kind of c o llu s io n
i s found in th e pra c tic e of ' d o o d l i n g 1 or of ‘ going a w a y ’ to
im aginary p l e a s a n t p la c e s , w hile still m aintaining som e show
of performing the part of lis te n e r.
D e risiv e c o llu sio n a l s o o c c u rs between members of a
team when they are p r e s e n tin g a perform ance. T h u s, while a
s e c r e t co d e of verbal i n s u l t s may p erh a p s be employed only
on the lu n a tic fringe of our co m m ercial life, th e re i s n o
com m ercial e s ta b lis h m e n t so re p u ta b le th a t i t s c le r k s do not
c a s t e a c h other knowing lo o k s when in the p r e s e n c e of an
u n d e s ira b le c lie n t or a d e s ir a b le c l i e n t who c o n d u c ts h im self
in an u n d es ira b le way.
Similarly, in our s o c ie t y it is very
d ifficult for a husband and wife, or two c l o s e friends, to sp e n d
an even ing in c o nv iv ial in te r a c tio n with a third person w ithout
a t s o m e tim e lo oking a t e a c h oth e r in su c h a way a s to
c o n tra d ic t s e c r e tly the a t titu d e they a r e o ffic ia lly maintaining
toward the third person.
A more damaging form of th is kind of a g g r e s s io n ag a in st
th e a u d i e n c e is found in s it u a ti o n s where one member of a
team perform s his part for th e s p e c i a l and s e c r e t am usem ent
of his te a m -m a te s ; for exam ple, he may throw him self into
h is part with an a f f e c tiv e e n th u sia sm that is at o n c e ex a g g erated
and p r e c is e , but s o c l o s e to what the a u d ie n c e e x p e c ts that
th e y d o not q u ite r e a liz e , or are not sure, that fun is being
made of them. 1 A somewhat sim ila r form of co llu sio n o cc u rs
’ Su g gested by Howard S. Be ck cr in a p e r s o n a l co m m unication. Mr Becker
s r a t e s rliat j a z z m u s i c i a n s obliged to p lay ’ c o r n y ’ music will s o m e tim es
play it a l i t t le more corny than n e c e s s a r y , the s l i g h t ex agg eratio n se rvin g
n s a m e a n s by which the m u s i c i a n s c a n co nvey to e a c h other th eir contempt
for the aud ien ce.
11 9
when o n e team member a tte m tp s to t e a s e an o th er while both
a r e e n g a g e d in a perform ance.
T h e im m ediate ob je ct here
w ill be to make o n e ’s team -m ate alm o st b u rst out laughing,
o r a lm o st trip, or a lm o st l o s e h i s p o is e in oth e r w ays.
For
exam ple, in the is l a n d to u r is t h o te l s tu d ie d by t h e writer, th e
cook would s o m e tim e s sta n d a t th e k itc h en e n tra n c e to th e
front r eg io n s of th e hotel and so le m n ly a n s w e r with dignity
and in sta n d a rd E n g lis h the q u e s t i o n s put to him by hotel
g u e s t s , w hile from within the k itc hen th e m aids, s tr a ig h t- fa c e d ,
would s e c r e t l y but p e r s i s t e n t l y g o o se him.
By m ocking the
the a u d ie n c e or t e a s i n g a team -m ate, th e performer ca n show
not only th a t he i s not bound by th e o ffic ia l in te r a c tio n but
a l s o th a t h e h a s th is in te r a c tio n s o much u n d er control that
he can toy wirh it at will.
A final form of d e r is i v e by-play may be m entioned. O ften
w hen an individual is in te r a c t in g with a se c o n d individual
who is o ffe n siv e in so m e way, h e will try to c a tc h th e e y e
of a third in d iv id u a l—one who i s d efin e d a s an o u ts id e r
to the i n te r a c t io n —and in th is way confirm that he i s not to
be held r e s p o n s i b le for th e c h a r a c t e r or behav iour of th e se co n d
in d iv id u al.
It may be noted in c o n c lu s io n that all o f t h e s e
form s of d e r is i v e c o llu s io n te n d to a r is e alm ost involuntarily,
by c u e s th a t are co n v e y e d before th e y c a n be c h e ck e d .
Reoligning Actions
It h a s bee n s u g g e s te d th a t when in d iv id u a ls com e to ge ther
for th e pu rp o se of in te ractio n , e a c h a d h e r e s to the part that
h a s been c a s t for him within his team ’s routine, and e a c h
jo in s with h is te am -m a tes in m a inta ining the a p p ro p riate mixture
of formality and inform ality, o f d i s t a n c e and intim acy, toward
the members of the oth e r team.
T h is d o e s not mean th a t te am ­
m a tes will open ly tre a t one a n o th e r in th e sa m e w ay a s they
openly t r e a t t h e a u d ie n c e , but it d o e s u su a lly mean th a t team­
m a te s will tr e a t on e an o th e r d iffe ren tly from th e way th a t would
be most ' n a t u r a l 1 for them. C o l lu s iv e com m unication h a s been
s u g g e s te d a s one way in w hich te am -m a tes c a n free th e m s e lv e s
a l it tle from the r e s t r i c t i v e re q u ire m e n ts of in te r a c tio n betw een
t e a m s ; it is a kind of d e v ia tio n from ty p e w h ich th e a u d ien c e
i s m eant to remain unaw are of, a n d it te n d s , therefore, to le a v e
the status quo in ta c t . However, perform ers rarely seem c o n ten t
w ith sa fe c h a n n e ls for e x p r e s s in g d is c o n te n t with the working
c o n s e n s u s . T h e y often attem p t to s p e a k out of c h a r a c te r in
a w ay th a t w ill be heard by t h e a u d ien c e but w ill not openly
th r e a te n e i th e r the integrity of th e tw o te am s or the s o c ia l
120
d i s t a n c e between them.
T h e s e temporary unofficial, or
co n tro lled re a lig nm e nts, often a g g r e s s iv e in cha racter, provide
an in t e r e s t i n g a r e a for study.
When two te am s e s ta b l is h an o fficial working consensus
a s a g u a r a n te e for s a fe s o c i a l in te ractio n , we may usually
d e te c t an unofficial lin e of com munication which ea ch team
d ir e c ts a t the other.
T h is u nofficial com munication may be
ca rrie d on by innuendo, mim icked a c c e n t s , w ell-placed jo k e s,
s ig n ific a n t p a u s e s , v e ile d h in ts , purposeful kidding, e x p r e s s iv e
ov erto n e s, and many other sig n p r a c tic e s .
R u le s regarding
th is laxity a re quite s tr ic t. T he com m unicator h a s the right to
deny th a t h e ' m e a n t a n y t h i n g 1 by h i s ac tio n , sh o u ld h is
r e c ip ie n t s a c c u s e him to his f a c e of h av ing co n v e y ed som ething
u n a c c e p ta b le , and th e r e c ip ie n t s have th e right to a c t a s if
nothing, or only som ething in n o c u o u s, h a s been conveyed.
In many kinds of s o c ia l in te r a c tio n , unofficial com munication
p rovides a way in which o n e team can ex ten d a defin ite but non­
com prom ising in v itatio n to th e other, r e q u e s tin g that s o c ia l
d is t a n c e and formality be i n c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d , or th a t both
te am s sh ift the in te ra c tio n to one involving the perform ance
of a new s e t of r o le s . T h is is so m e tim es known a s 'p u ttin g
out f e e l e r s ’ and in v o lv e s guarded d i s c l o s u r e s and hinted
dem ands. By m eans of s ta te m e n ts th a t a re c a refu lly am biguous
or that hav e a s e c r e t meaning to th e in itia te , a performer is
a b le to d is c o v e r , w ithout dropping h is d e f e n s iv e sta n d , w hether
or not it is s a f e to d i s p e n s e with the c u rre n t defin itio n of the
s itu a tio n .
F or exam ple, s in c e it is not n e c e s s a r y to retain
s o c ia l d is t a n c e or be on guard before th o s e who are o n e ’s
c o l le a g u e s in o cc u p atio n , ideology, e th n ic ity , c l a s s , e t c ., it
i s common for c o l le a g u e s to dev e lo p s e c r e t s ig n s which seem
innoc uous to n o n -c o lle a g u e s w hile a t the s a m e tim e they convey
to th e i n it ia t e that he is among his own and can relax the
p o s e he m a in ta in s toward th e public.
T h u s the murderous
T h u g s o f n in e tee n th -ce n tu ry India, who hid t h e i r annual
d e p r e d a tio n s behind a nine-m onth show o f civic-m inded a c tio n s ,
p o s s e s s e d a code for r e c o g n iz in g one ano th er. As one w riter
su g g e sts:
When T h u g s meet, though st r a n g e r s , ther e is so m e th in g in th eir
m anner which soon d i s c o v e r s i t s e l f to e a c h other, a nd to a s s u r e the
su rm ise th u s ex c ite d , one e x c l a i m s ' A l e e K h a n ! ' which , on being
r e p e a t e d by t h e other party, a recognition of each o t h e r ’s h a b i t t a k e s
place . . . *
Similarly, men of th e B ritish working c l a s s can be found who
still a s k a s tr a n g e r 'h o w far E a s t ’ i s h e ; fellow F re e m a s o n s
‘ Col. [ . L . S l e e m a n ,
n. d.), p. 79.
T k u g s or a Million Murders ( L o n d o n : S am pson Low,
121
know how to a n s w e r th is p as sw o rd and know th a t afte r they
do a n s w e r it th o s e p r e s e n t ca n r e la x into in to le r a n c e for
C a th o li c s and th e e f f e te c l a s s e s .
In A nglo-Am erican s o c ie t y
t h e surnam e an d the a p p e a r a n c e of p e rso n s to whom one is
intro d u c ed se rv e a s im ila r function, te llin g one which of the
se g m e n ts o f t h e population i t will b e im p o litic to c a s t
a s p e r s i o n s a g a in s t.
T h e guarded d i s c l o s u r e by w hich two members o f an intim ate
s o c i e t y make t h e m s e lv e s known to e a c h oth e r is perhaps the
l e a s t s u b tle v ersio n of d i s c l o s i v e com m unication. In everyday
life , where in d iv id u a ls have no s e c r e t s o c ie t y to d i s c l o s e
th e ir membership in, a more d e l i c a t e p r o c e s s is involved.
When in d iv id u a ls a r e unfam iliar with e a c h o th e r’s o p in io n s
and s t a t u s e s , a feeling-out p r o c e s s o c c u r s w hereby o n e
in d ividual adm its h is v ie w s or s t a t u s e s to another a l i t t l e at
a tim e. After dropping h is guard j u s t a l i t t l e he w a its for the
o th e r to show r e a so n why it is s a f e for him to do t h is , and
a f te r th is r e a s s u r a n c e he can sa fe ly drop h is guard a lit tle
b it more.
By p h r a s in g e a c h s t e p in th e a d m issio n in an
am biguous way, th e in d ividual i s in a p o sitio n to halt the
p rocedure of dropping h is front at th e point where he g e t s no
confirm ation from the other, and at th is point he can a c t a s if
h i s l a s t d is c lo s u r e w ere not an overture at all.
T h u s when
two p e rso n s in c o n v e r s a tio n are a tte m p tin g to d isc o v e r how
ca re fu l they a re going to have to be about s ta tin g th e ir true
p o litic a l o pinion s, one of them ca n halt h is gradual d is c lo s u r e
o f how far left or how far right he is ju s t a t the point where
t h e o th e r h a s come to th e f u rth e s t extrem e o f his a c tu a l b eliefs.
In s u c h c a s e s , the person with th e more extrem e v ie w s will
ta c tf u lly act a s if his view s are no more extrem e than the
o th e r ’s.
T h i s p r o c e s s of g radua l guard e d d i s c l o s u r e i s a l s o
i l l u s tr a te d by so m e of the mythology and a few of the f a c ts
a s s o c i a t e d with s e x u a l life in our s o c ie t y . T he s e x u a l relation
i s d efine d a s one o f intim acy with in itia tiv e superordination
for the male. In fact, courting p r a c tic e s inv olve a concerted
ag g r e s s io n a g a in s t the alignm ent between the s e x e s on the
part of th e male, a s he a tte m p ts to m anoeuvre som eone for
whom h e m ust a t f irs t sh ow r e s p e c t into a p o s itio n o f
su b o rd in a te in tim acy. However, an even more a g g r e s s i v e action
a g a in st the alignm ent between the s e x e s is found in s it u a ti o n s
where the working c o n s e n s u s is d efin e d in terms of supero rdinatio n and d is t a n c e on the part of a performer who happens
to be a woman and su b ord ination on the part of a performer
who hap p e n s to be a man.
T h e p o s s i b ility a r i s e s that the
122
male performer will r ed e fin e th e sicuation to em p h a siz e h is
s e x u al su p e ro rd in a tio n a s o p pose d to h i s socio-econo m ic
sub o rd in atio n . 1
In our p r o le ta ria n l it e r a tu r e , for example,
i t i s th e poor man who in tro d u c e s t h i s r ed e fin itio n in regard
to a rich w oman; Lady Chatterley's J^over, a s h a s often been
remarked, i s a c le a r- c u t ex am ple.
And when we study s e rv ic e
o c c u p a t io n s , e s p e c i a l l y lowly o n e s , in e v ita b ly we find that
p r a c titio n e r s hav e a n e c d o t e s to te ll about th e tim e they or
one of th e ir c o l le a g u e s redefined the s e r v ic e relacion inco
a s e x u a l one (or had it re d e fin e d for them).
T a l e s o f such
a g g r e s s iv e re d e fin itio n s a r e a s ig n i f ic a n t part of th e myth­
ology not only of p a r tic u la r o c c u p a tio n s but a l s o of the male
su b c u ltu re generally.
T em porary realignm ents through which iir e c tio n of the
in te ra c tio n may be s e iz e d in an uno fficial way by a subordinate,
or uno ffic ia lly e x te n d e d by a s u p e ro rd in a te, attain som e kind
of s t a b ili ty and in stic u tio n a liz a tio n in what is so m etim es
c a l l e d ' d o u b le -ta lk .’ 2
By th is com m unication tech n iq u e two
in d iv id u a ls may convey inform ation to on e a n o th e r in a manner
or on a m atter chat i s i n c o n s is te n t with th e ir o fficial rela tio n ­
ship.
D ouble-talk in v o lv e s th e kind of innuendo that can
be c o n v e y e d by both s i d e s and carried on for a s u s t a i n e d period
of tim e.
It i s a kind of c o l lu s iv e com munication differenc
from other ty p e s of co llu sio n in thac th e c h a r a c t e r s a g a in s t
whom th e c o llu s io n i s su sta in e d are projecced by th e very
p e r s o n s who en ter into the c o llu s io n .
T y p ic a lly double-talk
o c c u rs during in te ractio n betw een a su b o rd in a te and a super­
ord in ate co n c ern in g m a tte rs which are o ffic ia lly o u ts i d e th e
th e com p ete n ce and ju risd ic tio n of th e su bordinate buc which
a c tu a lly depend on him.
By em ploying double-talk the sub­
o rd in a te c a n i n it ia t e lin e s of ac tio n without giving open
recognition to the e x p r e s s iv e im plica tion of such in itia tio n
and w ithout putting into jeopardy th e s t a t u s d iffe re n c e between
h im s e lf and h i s su p e ro r d in a te . B a rr a c k s an d j a i l s ap pa ren tly
abound in d o uble -talk. It i s a l s o commonly found in s it u a ti o n s
’ P e r h a p s b e c a u s e of r e s p e c t for the F re u d i a n e t h i c , so m e s o c i o l o g i s t s
se em t o a c t a s i f it wou ld be io bad t a s t e , im pious, or s e lf- re v e la to ry to
d e f i n e se x u a l in te r c o u rs e a s p a r t o f t h e ce rem onial sy s tem , a r ecipro cal
r itu a l performed to confirm sy m b o lically a n e x c l u s i v e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .
T h i s c h a p t e r d raw s h eavily on K enneth Burke, who cle a r ly t a k e s the
s o c i o lo g i c a l view in d e f in in g c o u r t s h i p a s a p r i n c i p le of rh e t o ri c through
w h ich s o c i a l e s t ra n g e m e n t s a r e tr a n s c e n d e d .
S ee Burke, A Grammar
o f M o tiv es, p. 208 ff. and p p. 267-268.
2 In ev ery d ay s p e e c h t h e term 'd o u b l e - t a l k ' is a l s o u s e d in two o th er s e n s e s :
it i s u se d to re fe r to s e n t e n c e s in w h ich s o u n d s have been i n j e c t e d which
s e e m a s if they mi^ht be m eaningf ul bu t r e a l l y are n o t ; i t i s use d to re fe r
to p r o t e c t i v e l y am biguous a n s w e rs t o q u e s t io n s for w hich the a s k e r d e s i r e d
a c l e a r c u t reply.
123
where the su b o rd in a te h a s h a d long e x p e r ie n c e with th e job
w h e r e a s the su p e ro rd in a te h a s not, a s in th e s p lit which o c c u r s
in government o f f ic e s betw een a 'p e r m a n e n t ’ deputy m in iste r
and a p o litic a lly a p p o in ted m iniste r, and in th o s e c a s e s where
the s u b o r d in a te s p e a k s th e la n g u a g e of a group of e m p lo y ee s
but h i s su p e ro r d in a te d o e s not.
We may a l s o find double-talk
in s it u a ti o n s where two p e r s o n s e n g a g e in i l l i c i t a g re e m e n ts
with ‘e a c h other, for by t h is te c h n iq u e com m unication may
o c c u r and yet n e ith e r p a r tic ip a n t n e e d p l a c e him s elf in th e
h a n d s of the o ther.
A sim ila r form of c o l lu s io n i s som e tim es
found betw e en two t e a m s which must m aintain the im pression
o f being r e la tiv e ly h o s ti le or r e la tiv e ly d is t a n t toward each
other and yet find i t m utually p ro fitab le to com e to an agreem ent
on c e r ta in m a tte rs , providing th is d o e s not e m b a r ra s s th e
o p p o sitio n a l s ta n d they a r e o b lig e d to be ready to m aintain
to w ard e a c h other. 1 In other w ords, d e a l s can be made without
c r e a t i n g th e m u tu a l-so lid a rity r e la tio n s h i p which d ea lin g
u s u a lly l e a d s to. More important, p e rh a p s, double-talk regularly
o c c u r s in in tim a te d o m e stic and work s i t u a ti o n s , a s a s a fe
m e a n s of making an d re fu sin g r e q u e s ts and com mands that
could not be open ly made o r openly r e fu se d w ithout altering
the r e la tio n s h i p .
I h a v e c o n s id e r e d som e common r e a lig n in g a c t i o n s —move­
m e n ts around, or over, or away from the lin e betw een the t e a m s ;
p r o c e s s e s such a s "n o f f ic ia l grumbling, guarded d i s c l o s u r e s ,
and do ub le -talk were given a s i n s t a n c e s .
1 would lik e to
add a few more ty p e s to th e pic tu re.
When the w orking c o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d between two te am s
i s one in volving avow ed o p p o sitio n , we find th a t th e d iv isio n
of la b o u r within e a c h team may u ltim ately le ad to momentary
re a lig n m e n ts o f th e kind that make us a p p r e c ia te that not only
a rm ie s hav e the problem of fra te rn iz a tio n .
A s p e c i a l i s t on
one team may find that he h a s a great deal in common with
h i s o p p o s ite number on the oth e r te am and that to g e th e r they
ta lk a la n g u a g e which te n d s to align them to g e th e r on a sin g le
team in o p p o sitio n to all the rem aining p a r ti c ip a n ts .
T h us,
during
labour-m anagem ent n e g o tia tio n s ,
o ppo sin g la w y e rs
may find th e m s e lv e s exch an g in g c o l l u s i v e lo o k s when a layman
on e i th e r team m a k es a p a te n t legal gaffe. When th e s p e c i a l i s t s
a r e not perm anently p art of a p a r tic u la r team but ra th e r hire
th e m s e lv e s out for th e duration of n e g o t ia t io n s , they a r e likely
to be more loyal in some s e n s e to t h e i r c a tli n g and th e ir
l S e e D ale, op. c i t . , pp. 182-183, foe an i l l u s t r a t i o n of t a c i t co m p ro m is es
b e tw e e n two team s o f fi c i a l l y o p p o se d to e a c h other.
S ee a l s o Melville
Dalton, 'U n o f f i c i a l Uaion-Managem ent R e l a t i o n s , ’ A m erica n S o ci o l o g i c a l
R e v i e w , XV, p p . 611-619.
124
c o l l e a g u e s chan to rhe team they happen at the time to
be se rv in g .
If, th en, th e im p re ssio n of o p p o sitio n between
che te a m s i s to be m ain ta in ed , the c r o s s - c u t tin g l o y a ltie s o f
s p e c i a l i s t s will have to be s u p p r e s s e d or e x p r e s s e d surrep­
tit io u s ly . T h u s American la w y e rs, in s e n s i n g th a t th e ir c l ie n t s
w ant them to be h o s ti le to th e o p p o sin g law yer, may wait
until a b a c k s ta g e r e c e s s before hav in g a friend ly colleg ial
c h a t about the c a s e in p r o g re ss.
In d i s c u s s i n g the role that
c ivil s e r v a n t s play in parliam entary d e b a te s , Dale m a k e s a
s im ila r s u g g e s t i o n :
A sec d e b a t e on one s u b j e c t . . . . a s a rule t a k e s only one day .
If a D epartm ent i s so unlucky a s to have a long a n d co n te n tio u s BUI in
Committee of th e w hole House, the M inister a nd th e c i v i l s e r v a n t s in
c h a r g e of it m u st be th ere from 4 p.m. till 11 p.m. ( s o m e tim e s much l a t e r
if th e 1! o ' c l o c k rule i s su s p en d ed ), p e r h a p s day a f t e r day from Monday
till T h u rs d ay ev ery w e e k . . . . H ow ever, the c i v i l s e r v a n t s g e t one
co m p en sation for th eir s u f f e ri n g s .
It i s a t t h is time t h a t they a r e most
likely to renew a n d e x t e n d t h e i r a c q u a i n t a n c e s in the H o u s e . T h e s e n s e
of p r e s s u r e i s l e s s both am on£ Members an d among o f f i c i a l s than during
a s e t d e b a t e of one day : i t is l e g itim ate to e s c a p e ftom the debating
ch am ber to th e smoking*room ot t h e terrac e a nd e n g a g e in ch eerful
co n v e r s a ti o n while a n oto rio u s bote is moving a n am en dm en t which
ev eryo ne know s to be im p o s s i b l e .
A ce r ta in camar ad erie a r i s e s among
all en g aged night a f t e r nigh t upon a B ill, G o v e r n m e n t Op p osition , and
civ il s e r v a n t s a l i k e . 1
In te r e s tin g ly enough, in some c a s e s e v e n b a c k s ta g e frater­
n iz a tio n may be c o n s id e re d too much o f a th rea t to the show.
T h u s b a s e b a ll p la y e rs w h o se te a m s will r e p re se n t opposing
s i d e s of fans are required by le a g u e ruling to refrain from
co n v iv ial c o n v e r s a tio n with o n e an o th er ju st before the game
sta rts.
T h i s i s a read ily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e rule.
It would not be s e em ly to
s e e p l a y e r s ch in nin g a s if th ey were a t an aftern oo n t e a , an d t h e n hope
to su p p o rt the point chac they go af ter e a c h other h e ll- b e n t for leather,
w h ich they do, a s soon a s t h e game beg in s .
T h ey have to a c t like
o p p on en ts all the time. 2
In all of t h e s e c a s e s involving fra te rn iz a tio n between opposing
s p e c i a l i s t s , th e point i s not th a t the s e c r e t s of the te am s will
be d i s c l o s e d or their in t e r e s t s made to suffer (although t h i s
may o c c u r a n d may appear to occur) but rather th at th e im ­
p r e s s io n of opp ositio n that is fo ste re d betw een th e te a m s may
be d is c r e d ite d .
T h e contribu tion of th e s p e c i a l i s t must app e ar
to be a s p o n ta n e o u s re s p o n s e to the f a c t s o f t h e c a s e , in d e­
p en d e n tly p la c in g him in o p p o sitio n to th e other te a m ; when
he f r a te r n iz e s with h is o p p o site number th e te c h n ic a l valu e
of h is contribution may not suffer, but, d ra m a tu rg ic a lly s p e ak in g ,
it i s shown up for what it i s —the p u r c h a s e d performance of
a routine ta sk .
I do not mean to imply by t h i s d i s c u s s i o n th a t fratern ization
1 UUe, op. cit., p. 150.
-Pin elli, op cif., p. 169
125
o c c u r s only betw een s p e c i a l i s t s tem porarily t a k in g s i d e s
a g a i n s t e a c h other.
Whenever lo y a l t i e s c r o s s - c u t , a s e t of
in d iv i d u a ls may loudly form o n e pair of te a m s w hile quietly
forming another.
O ften, when two te a m s e n t e r s o c ia l in te r a c tio n , we can
id e n tify one a s hav in g th e low er gen e ral p r e s ti g e and th e o th e r
team the higher.
O rdinarily, when we think of rea lig n in g
a c t i o n s in suc h c a s e s , we think of efforts on the part of th e
low er team to a l t e r th e b a s i s o f in te ra c tio n in a direc tio n more
f av o u rab le to them or to d e c r e a s e th e s o c ia l d i s t a n c e and
formality betw e en th e m s e lv e s and the higher te am . In te re s tin g ly
en ough, th e re are o c c a s i o n s when it s e r v e s t h e w ider g o a ls
o f th e h ighe r te am to low er b arriers and admit the low er team
to g r e a te r intim acy and e q u a lity with it.
G ra n tin g th e co n ­
s e q u e n c e s of e x te n d in g b a c k s t a g e fa m ilia rity to o n e ’s l e s s e r s ,
it may be in o n e ’s lon g -ra n g e in t e r e s t to do s o momentarily.
T h u s , in o rder to p re v e n t a strik e , Mr Barnard t e l l s u s he
d e lib e r a te ly s w o re in th e p r e s e n c e of a com m ittee r e p r e s e n tin g
unem ployed w o rk ers an d a l s o t e l l s u s th a t he i s aw a re o f the
s ig n i f ic a n c e o f t h i s :
In my judgment, confirm ed by o t h e r s w h o s e o pinion I r e s p e c t ,
it is a s a g e n e r a l rule e x c e e d in g l y bad p r a c t i c e fot one In a su p e rio r
p o s i t i o n to s w e a r at or in th e p r e s e n c e of t h o s e o f su b o r d in a te or inferior
sta tu s » e v e n though t h e l a t t e r h av e no o b j e c tio n to o a t h s a n d even
tho u gh they know th e su p e rio r i s a c c u s t o m e d to c u r s i n g . I h av e known
very few men who could do it w itho ut a d y e r s e r e a c t i o n s on rhelr i n flu e n ce.
I s u p p o s e th e r e a s o n is t h a t w h a t e v e r low ers the d ign ity of a su p e rio r
p o s i t i o n m a k e s it more d if fi c u l t to a c c e p t d if fe r e n c e of p o s i t i o n .
Also ,
w h e r e a s i n g l e o r g a n iz a tio n i s in v o lv ed in w h ich the s u p e ri o r p o s itio n
i s sy m b olic o f the w h o le o r g a n iz a tio n , the p r e s t i g e of t h e la t t e r i s
t hought t o be inju re d .
In the p r e s e n t c a s e , a n e x c e p tio n , t h e o a t h w as
d e l i b e r a t e a n d a c c o m p a n i e d by hard p ounding of the t a b l e . 1
A s im ila r situ a tio n is found in th o s e mental h o s p i t a l s
w here m ilieu th e ra p y is p r a c tis e d .
By bringing the n u rse and
even a t t e n d a n t s into what are u su a lly s a c r o s a n c t s t a f f con­
f e r e n c e s , t h e s e non-m edical s t a f f p e r s o n s c a n fee l th a t the
d i s t a n c e betw e en th e m s e lv e s and the d o c to rs i s d e c r e a s in g
a n d may show more r e a d i n e s s to ta k e th e d o c t o r s ’ point of
view toward th e p a t ie n t s .
By s a c r if ic in g the e x c l u s i v e n e s s
o f t h o s e at th e top, it i s felt th a t th e morale of th o s e at the
bottom ca n be in c re a s e d .
A s ta id report of th is p r o c e s s i s
given us by Maxwell J o n e s in h is report on E n g lis h e x p e rie n c e
with milieu th e ra p y :
1 C hester
I. Barnar d,
O rga n iz a tio n and M anagement (Cam bridge, M a s s . :
H arvard U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1949), n. pp. 73-74.
T h i s kind o f con d u ct must
be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the rough la ng u ag e an d behavio ur employed
by a s u p e ro r d i o a t e who s t a y s within the t eam made up of h i s e m p l o y e e s
a nd ' k i d s ' them in to work.
126
In che un it we h av e a t te m p te d co d e v e lo p the role of the d o c to r to meer
our lim ite d tr e a tm e n t goat a n d h av e trie d t o av oid p t e i e n c e .
T h is has
m ean t a c o n s i d e r a b l e break from h o sp ita l tradition.
Vic d o no t d r e s s
to conform co th e u su a l c o n c e p t of th e p r o fe s sio n a l man.
Vt'e have
av o id ed the w hite c o a t , prom inent s t e th o s c o p e , a n d a g g r e s s i v e p e r c u s s i o n
hammer a s e x cen s io n s of our body image. 1
A ctua lly, when we stu d y the in te ra c tio n between two
te a m s in everyday s i t u a t i o n s we find that often the su pe r­
o rd in ate team will be e x p e c te d to unbend just a little . F o r one
thing, su c h rela x a tio n of front p rovides a b a s is for b arte r;
t h e s u p e ro rd in a te r e c e iv e s a s e r v i c e or good of some kind,
w hile th e su b o rd in a te r e c e iv e s an indu lgent gran t of intim acy.
T h u s , th e r e s e rv e which u p p e r - c la s s p eo p le in Britain m aintain
during in te ractio n with trad e sm e n and petty o f fic ia ls h a s been
known to g ive way momentarily when a p a r tic u la r favour must
be a s k ed of t h e s e su b o rd in a te s.
A lso, such rela xatio n of
d i s t a n c e p rovides one m eans by which a fe e lin g of sp o n ta n e ity
and involvemenc can be g e n e ra te d in th e in te ractio n .
In any
c a s e , in te ra c tio n between two te am s often i n v o lv e s th e taking
o f very sm all lib e r tie s , if only a s a m e an s of t e s tin g the ground
to s e e if u n e x p e c te d a d v a n ta g e might not be taken of th e
o p p osing sid e .
When a performer r e f u s e s to keep his p la c e , w hether it
i s of higher or low er rank than th e a u d ie n c e , we may e x p e c t
that the director, if th e re is one, and the a u d ie n c e may well
become i ll - d i s p o s e d toward him.
In many c a s e s , the rank
and file a re a l s o lik e ly to o b je c t to him.
As previously
su g g e s te d in r e f e re n c e to r a te b u s te r s , any e x tra c o n c e s s io n
to t h e a u d i e n c e on the part of o n e member o f the team is a
th re a t to th e sta n d the o th e rs have taken a n d a threat to th e
s e c u rity they obtain from knowing and co n tro llin g th e stand
they will h a v e to ta k e . T hus, when o n e te a c h e r in a school
i s d e e p ly sy m p a th e tic to her c h a r g e s , or e n t e r s into th e ir play
during r e c e s s , or i s w illing to come into c l o s e co ntac t with
th e l o w - s ta t u s o n e s among them, the other t e a c h e r s will find
that th e im p re ssio n they are trying to m ain ta in o f what
c o n s titu t e s ap propriate work i s th re a te n e d . 1 In fact, when
p a rtic u la r perform ers c r o s s the lin e that s e p a r a t e s th e team s,
when som eone b ecom es too intim ate, or too indulgent, or too
a n ta g o n is tic , we may exp e ct a c ir c u it of r e v e rb e ra tio n s to be
s e t up which a f f e c ts the su b o rd in ate te am , the s u p e ro rd in a te
___________
team, and th e p a rtic u la r t r a n s g r e s s o r s .
1 Maxwell
J o n e s , T he T hera p e u tic Comm unity (New Y o rk:
1953), p. 40.
2 P e r s o n a l communication ftom H e l e n Biaw, sc h o o l te a c h e r .
127
B a s i c Books,
A h int of su c h re v e rb e ra tio n s may be c i t e d from a rec en t
stu d y of m e rc h ant seam en, in w hich t h e au th o r s u g g e s t s that
when o f f ic e r s quarrel in m a tte rs regarding ship duty, th e seam en
will a v a il th e m s e lv e s of the breach by offering th e ir com m iser­
a t i o n s to the o ffic e r chey feel h a s been w ronged:
In d oin g t h i s ( p l a y i n g up to one of the d i s p u t a n t s ) t h e crewmen
e x p e c t e d th e officer to r e l a x in h i s s u p e r i o r at t i t u d e an d to allow the
men a c e r t a i n e q u a lity w h ile d i s c u s s i n g t h e si t u a t i o n . T h i s so o n led
to th eir e x p e c t i n g c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s —s u c n a s st a n d in g in th e w h e e l- h o u se
i n s t e a d of on the w in g s of t h e brid g e.
T h e y to o k a d v a n ta g e o f t h e
m a t e s ' d i s p u t e to e a s e th e ir su b o r d in a te s t a t u s . 1
R ecenc tr e n d s in p s y c h ia t r ic trea tm e n t pro v id e u s with other
e x a m p le s ; I would lik e to mention so m e of th e s e .
O ne i n s t a n c e may be taken from th e Maxwell J o n e s ’ report,
although h is study pu rpo rts to be an argumenc for e a s i n g s t a t u s
d if f e r e n c e s betw een s ta f f l e v e l s an d betw e en p a t i e n t s and s ta f f :
T h e in teg rity o f the n u r s e s ’ group can be u p s e t by th e in d isc r e tio n
o f a n y one m em ber: a n u t s e who a l l o w s her s e x u a l n e e d s to be met in
an o v e r t way by t h e p a t i e n t a l t e r s the p a t i e n t ’s a ttitu d e towards the
whole n u r s i n g group an d m akes t h e n u r s e 's th e r a p e u tic role a l e s s
e f f e c t iv e o n e . 2
A nother i ll u s tr a ti o n i s found in B e tte lh e i m ’s com m ents on h i s
e x p e r ie n c e in c o n s tr u c tin g a th e r a p e u ti c m ilieu at th e S onia
Shankman O rth o g e n ic School at th e U n iv e r sity o f C h i c a g o :
Within the t o t a l s e t t i n g o f the t h e r a p e u t i c milieu, p e r s o n a l s e c u r i t y ,
a d e q u a t e i n s t i n c t u a l g r a t i fi c a t i o n a n d group s u p p o r t all s e n s i t i z e the
ch ild to ince r-p ersonal r e l a t i o n s . It would, of c o u r s e , d e f e a t t h e p u t p o s e s
o f m ilieu ther apy i f the children w ere not a l s o s a fe g u a rd e d from the
k in d of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t they h av e a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c e d in th e ir original
se ttin g s.
Staff c o h e r e n c y is th erefo re an important s o u r c e of p erso n al
s e c u r i t y to the c h ild r e n a s the s t a f f members remain impervious to the
c h i l d r e n ’s at t e m p t s to p l a y off one s t a f f member a g a i n s t ano ther.
O r i g i n a l ly , many c h ild r e n win the affe ctio n of o n e p a r e n t only a t the
c o s t o f a f f e c t io n a te c l a i m s on th e oth er. A c h i l d ’s m ean s of co n tro llin g
t h e fam ily sicuarion by p i t t i n g one p a r e n t a g a i n s t t h e o th er i s often
d e v e l o p e d on t h i s b a s i s , but g i v e s him no more than a r e l a t i v e s e c u r i t y .
C h ildren who h a v e u s e d t h i s t e c h n i q u e with p a r t i c u l a r s u c c e s s are
e s p e c i a l l y h a n d i c a p p e d in t h e i r a b i l i t y to form u nam b iv alen t r e l a t i o n s h i p s
l a t e r on. In an y c a s e , a s the ch ildren r e c r e a t e o e d ip a l s i t u a t i o n s in th e
sc h o o l they a l s o form p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e or am b iv alen t a t t a c h m e n t s to
v ario us s t a f f m em bers. It is e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een
c h ild ren a n d in d iv id u a l s t a f f mem bers do n o t affe c t the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of
s t a f f m em bers to e a c h other.
Without c o h e r e n c e in t h is a r e a o f th e
to t a l m ilieu s u c h a t t a c h m e n t s mig ht d e t e r i o r a t e into n eu ro tic r e l a t i o n s h i p s
a nd d e s t r o y the b a s i s of id e n t i fi c a t io n and s u s t a i n e d a ffe c t io n a te
attachm ents. 3
A fin al ill u s t r a t i o n may be ta k e n from a group th e ra p y project,
in w hich s u g g e s t i o n s a re s k e tc h e d in for hand lin g rec urrent
in te r a c t io n d if f i c u lt ie s c a u s e d by tro u b le so m e p a t i e n t s :
Attem pts are made to e s t a b l i s h a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p with th e
d octor.
P a t i e n t s often a t t e m p t to c u l t i v a t e th e i l l u s i o n of a s e c r e t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g with the d o c t o r by, for e x a m p le , try in g t o c a t c h h i s ey e
■ B eattie,
op. c i l . ,
2 Maxwell J o n e s ,
pp.
op.
25-26.
ciU, p.
38.
3 Br uno B e tr elh eim a n d Emmy S y l v e s t e r , ‘ Milieu T h e r a p y , ’ P s y c h o a n a l y t i c
R e v i e w , XXXVI, 65.
128
if one p a t i e n t b rin gs up so m e th in g th a t so u n d s ' c r a z y . ' If they s u c c e e d
in g e t t i n g a r e s p o n s e from the do ctor which they can in t e r p re t a s
i n d i c a t i n g a s p e c i a l bond, i t can be very disru p tin g to the group. S in ce
th i s ty p e of d a n g e r o u s by-play i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y non-verbal, th e
d o cto r m u st e s p e c i a l l y control h i s own non-verbal a c t i v i t y . 1
P e r h a p s th e s e c i ta t io n s te ll us more about the parriy hidden
so c ial se n tim e n t? o f th e w riters th a n about t h e gene ral
p r o c e s s e s that can o cc u r when so m e o n e s t e p s out o f line, but
r e c e n tly , in the work o f S tanton and Schw artz, we have been
given a fairly d e t a ile d report o f the circ u it of c o n s e q u e n c e s
which a r i s e s when the line between two te am s i s c r o s s e d . 2
It w a s s u g g e s t e d th a t a t tim es o f c r i s i s lin e s may
momentarily break and m embers of o p p o sin g te am s may moment­
arily forget th e ir app ro p riate p l a c e s with r e s p e c t to on e another.
It w as a l s o s u g g e s te d that c e r ta in p u r p o s e s can so m e tim es be
se rve d, apparently, when b arriers betw een te am s a r e lowered,
and . th at to a c h ie v e t h e s e p u r p o s e s s u p e ro rd in a te te am s may
temporarily join with the low er ran k s. It m ust be added, a s a
kind of lim iting c a s e , th a t in te r a c t in g te am s so m etim es seem
to be prepared to ste p ou t o f the d ram atic framework for their
a c tio n s and giv e th e m s e lv e s up for ex te n d e d p e rio d s of time
to a prom iscuous orgy of c l in ic a l, re lig io u s, or e th ic a l a n a l y s i s .
We can find a lurid v ersion of t h i s p r o c e s s in e v a n g e lic a l
so c ia l movements w hich employ th e open c o n f e s s io n . A sinner,
som etim es adm ittedly not of very high s t a t u s , s ta n d s up and
t e l l s to th o s e who a r e p r e s e n t th in g s h e would ordinarily attem pt
to co n c e a l or r a tio n a liz e a w a y ; he s a c r i f i c e s h is s e c r e t s and
h i s s e lf- p r o te c tiv e d i s t a n c e from o th e rs, and t h i s s a c r if ic e
te n d s to induce a b a c k s ta g e s o lid a rity among all p rese nt.
Group therapy affords a s im ila r m echanism for th e building up
o f team s p ir it and b a c k s ta g e s o lid a r ity .
A p sy c h ic s in n e t
1 F l o re n c e B. P o w d erm ak er an d o t h e r s , 'P r e l i m i n a r y R e port for the N atio n al
R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l : Group T h etapy R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t , ’ p. 26. ( T h i s r e s e a r c h
h a s s i n c e been r epo rted by Powderm aker and' Jero m e D . F ra n k , Group
P s y c h o t h e r a p y (Cam bridge, M a ss.: Har var d U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1953).)
Defrayal of on e's team by catch in g t h e e y e of a mem ber of the other
team i s , o f c o u r s e , a common o c c u r e n c e .
It may fee n o t e d t h a t in everyday
l i f e re fu s a l to en ter in to momentary c o l l u s i v e com munication of t h i s kind
when one h a s been invired to do s o i s i t s e l f a minor affront ro th e inviter.
One may find oneseLf in a dilemma a s to w hether to b etray the o b ject of
the r e q u e s t e d c o l l u s i o n or t o affront th e p erso n r e q u e s t i n g the co l l u s i o n .
An ex am p le i s provided by Ivy Compton-Burnett, A F a m i ly a nd a Fortune
( L o nd o n: Eyre & Sp oeti sw oode, 1948), p . 13*
" B u t 1 w a s not s n o r in g ," s a i d B lan c h e, i n th e e a s i e r tone of l o s i n g
g r a s p of a s i t u a t i o n .
* 1 s h o u ld h ave known i t m yse lf.
It wou ld not be
p o s s i b l e to be aw ake and m a k e a n o i s e an d no t h e a r i t . 71
’ J u s t i n e g a v e an a r c h loo k a t a n y on e who w ou ld r e c e i v e it. Edgar
did so a s a du ty and ra pidly withd rew h i s e y e s a s a n o th e r . 1
2 Alfred H. S tan to n and Morris S. S chwartz, ' T h e Management of a T ype of
I n s titu tio n a l P a r t ic ip a ti o n in Mental I l l n e s s , 1 P s y c h i a t r y , XII, 13-26.
in t h i s p a p e r t h e w riters d e s c r i b e n u r se - s p o n s o r s h i p o f p a r t i c u l a r p a t i e n t s
in term s of i t s e f f e c t s upon o th e r p a t i e n t s , the staff, an d t h e t r a n s g r e s s o r s .
129
s ta n d s up and t a l k s about h im s e lf and i n v i t e s o th e rs to talk
about him in a way th a t would be im p o s s ib le in ordinary in te r ­
ac tio n .
Ingroup s o lid a r ity te n d s to result, and th is ' s o c i a l
s u p p o r t,’ a s i t i s c a lle d , presum ab ly h a s th e r a p e u ti c value.
(By everyday s ta n d a r d s , th e only thing a p a tie n t l o s e s in th is
way i s h is s e lf - r e s p e c t.) P e r h a p s an echo o f th is i s a l s o to
be found in the n u rse-d o cto r m e e tin g s p rev io u sly mentioned.
It may be th a t t h e s e s h if ts from a p a r t n e s s to intim acy
oc c u r at tim e s of c h ro n ic str a in . Or p e r h a p s we ca n view them
a s part o f an a n ti-dra m aturgic al s o c ia l movement, a c u lt of
c o n f e s s io n .
P e r h a p s such low ering of b arriers r e p r e s e n ts
a natu ra l p h a s e in th e s o c ia l c h a n g e which transform s one
team into a n o th e r : presum ab ly o p p o sin g te a m s tra d e s e c r e t s
s o that th e y can s ta r t at th e beginning to c o l le c t a new s e t
o f s k e l e t o n s for a newly sh a re d c l o s e t .
In any c a s e , we find
th a t o c c a s i o n s a r is e when o p p o sin g te am s, be they in d u stria l,
m arital, n a tio n a l, e t c . , seem ready not only to te ll th e ir s e c r e t s
to th e sa m e s p e c i a l i s t but a ls o to perform t h i s d is c lo s u r e in
t h e e n e m y ’s p r e s e n c e . 1
In c o n c lu s io n I would lik e to s u g g e s t that one of the most
fruitful p l a c e s to study rea lig n in g a c tio n s , e s p e c i a l l y temporary
b e t ra y a ls , may not be in h ie ra rc h ic a lly o r g a n iz e d e s t a b l is h m e n ts
but during informal co n v iv ial in te r a c tio n among r e la tiv e e q u a ls.
In fact, th e s a n c ti o n e d o c c u rre n c e of t h e s e a g g r e s s i o n s s e e m s
to be one of the d efining c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f our c o nvivial life .
It is often e x p e c te d on suc h o c c a s i o n s that two p e r s o n s will
e n g a g e e a c h other in a sp a rrin g c o n v e r sa tio n for th e benefit
o f l i s t e n e r s and that e a c h will attem pt, in an u n s e r io u s way,
to d is c r e d it the p o sitio n taken by th e other.
F lir tin g may
o c c u r in which m a le s will try to destro y th e f e m a le s ’ p o s e
of virginal u n a p p ro a c h a b ility , w hile fem a les may attem pt to
force from m a le s a commitment of co n c e rn w ithout a t the same
tim e w eaken ing th e ir own d e fe n siv e p o sitio n .
(Where th o s e
who flirt are at th e sam e time members of d ifferent connubial
te a m s , r e la tiv e ly u n s e r io u s b e t r a y a ls and s e l l - o u t s may also
occ ur.)
In c o n v e r s a tio n a l c i r c l e s of five or six, b a s ic a lig n ­
m ents a s betw een one con ju gal pair and another, or between
h o s t s and g u e s t s , or betw een men and women, may be lighth e a rte d ly s e t a s i d e , and th e p a r ti c ip a n ts will s ta n d rea dy to
shift and r e sh ift team a lig n m e n ts with l i t t l e provocation,
jo k in g ly joining th eir p r e v io u s a u d ie n c e a g a i n s t th e ir prev io u s
'A n exam ple may be s e e n in the claim ed role of the T a v i s t o c k group a s
t h e r a p i s t s for ’ working th r o u g h ' th e antago nis m of labour a nd managem ent
in ind u strial e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .
See the co n s u l ta ti o n r e c o r d s rep orted in
E l i o t J a q u e s , T h e Changing Culture o f a F acto ry ( L o n d o n : T a v i s t o c k Ltd .,
1951).
130
te a m -m a te s by m e an s o f open betrayal o f them or by mock
c o l lu s iv e com m unication a g a in s t them. It may a l s o be d efine d
a s fittin g if som eone p r e s e n t of high s t a t u s be made drunk and
made to drop h i s front a n d beco m e intim ately a p p r o a c h a b le by
h i s som ew haC -lessers.
T h e s a m e a g g r e s s i v e to n e i s often
ac h ie v e d in a l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d way by p la y in g g a m e s or
jo k e s in which th e p erson who i s the butt will b e led
u n s e rio u s ly , into ta k in g a p o sitio n th a t i s lu d ic ro u sly untenable.’
QJOOOUJXUÜ
In t h i s c h a p t e r I h a v e c o n s id e re d four ty p e s of communi­
ca tio n out of c h a r a c t e r : treatm ent of the a b s e n t ; s ta g in g t a l k ;
te am c o l l u s i o n ; and r e a lig n in g a c tio n s .
E a c h o f t h e s e four
t y p e s o f c o n d u c t d i r e c t s a tte n tio n to t h e s a m e p o in t: t h e
perform ance given by a team i s not a sp o n ta n e o u s , im m ediate
r e s p o n s e to t h e s it u a ti o n , absorbing all of the team’s e n e r g ie s
and c o n s titu t in g th e ir s o le s o c ia l r e a l i t y ; the performance i s
so m e thing the team members c a n sta n d back from, b ac k far
enough t o im agine or p la y out sim u lta n e o u sly o th e r k in d s of
p erfo rm an ce s a t t e s t i n g to o th e r r e a litie s . Whether t h e perform ers
feel th e ir official offering i s the ‘ r e a l i s t ’ r e a lity o r not,
th e y will give s u rre p titio u s ex p re ssio n to m ultiple v e r s io n s
of r e a lity , e a c h te n d in g to be incom patible with th e o th e rs.
131
C H A P T E R VI
T H E A R T S OF IM PRESSIO N M ANAGEM ENT
In t h i s c h a p te r I would lik e to bring to g e th e r w hat h a s
been s a id or im plied about the a t t r i b u t e s th a t a r e required o f
a performer for th e work of s u c c e s s f u l l y s t a g i n g a c h a r a c te r ,
by referrin g briefly to som e of th e t e c h n iq u e s of im p re ssio n
m anagem ent in which t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s are e x p r e s s e d .
A s an
in tro d u c tio n to t h i s attem pt, it may be well to s u g g e s t , in
some c a s e s for th e se c o n d tim e, some of th e prin cip al ty p e s
of p erform ance d is r u p tio n s , for it i s t h e s e d is r u p tio n s which
th e te c h n i q u e s o f im p r e s s io n m anagem ent functio n to avoid.
In th e beginning of th is report, in c o n s id e r in g th e general
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p erfo rm an ce s, it w as s u g g e s te d th a t th e
perform er m ust act with e x p r e s s i v e r e s p o n s i b ilit y , s in c e many
minor, in a d v e r te n t a c t s hap pen to be well d e s ig n e d to con v e y
im p r e s s io n s in a p p ro p ria te at the time.
T h e s e e v e n t s were
c a lle d 'u n m e a n t g e s t u r e s . ’
P o n so n b y g iv e s an ill u s tr a tio n
of how a d ir e c to r ’s attem pt to avoid a n unm eant g e s tu re led
to th e o c c u r re n c e o f another.
O n e of th e A t t a c h é s from th e L e g a t i o n was to c a n y t h e cu s h io n on
w hich th e in s i g n i a w ere p l a c e d , and in otd er to p r e v e n t t h e i r fallin g off
I s tu c k the p in a t th e back of the Star through t h e v e l v e t c u s h i o n . T h e
Attaché', ho w evet, w as not c o n t e n t with t h is, but s c c u r e d the end of
t h e p in by the c a t c h to make doubly su r e .
T h e r e s u l t w as t h a t when
P r i n c e A lex an der, h aving m ade a s u i t a b l e s p c e c h , tried to g e t hold of
t h e Star, he found it firmly fixed to th e cu s h i o n an d spe n t so m e rime
in g e t t i n g it lo o se . T h i s rath er .spoilt the most i m p r e s s iv e moment of
the ccrcm ony. 1
It should be added that the in d iv idual h e ld r e s p o n s i b le for
co ntrib u tin g an unm eant g e s tu re may ch iefly d is c r e d it h is
own perform ance by th is , a te am -m a te’s perform ance, or th e
perform ance being s ta g e d by h i s a u d ien c e.
When an o u ts i d e r a c c i d e n ta lly e n te r s a region in which a
perform ance is being given, or when a member of the a u d ie n c e
in a d v e r te n tly e n t e r s the b a c k s ta g e , th e in tru d e r is lik e ly to
c a tc h th o s e p r e s e n t flagrante delicto.
T h ro ugh no o n e ’s
in te n tio n , the p e r s o n s p r e s e n t in th e region may find that
they have p a te n tly been w itn e s s e d in a c tiv i ty that i s q u ite
in c o m p a tib le with the im p re ssio n th a t they are, for w ider s o c ia l
r e a s o n s , in a p o s itio n to m aintain to the intruder.
We deal
h ere with what are s o m e tim e s c a l l e d 'in o p p o r t u n e i n t r u s i o n s . ’
'P o n s o n b y ,
op.
eft., p. 351.
132
T h e p a s t rife an d c u r r e n t round o f a c t i v i t y o f a given
perform er ty p ic a lly c o n t a in at l e a s t a fe w f a c t s w hich, if
in tro d u c e d d urin g th e perfo rm ance, would d i s c r e d i t or a t l e a s t
w eaken the c l a im s a b o u t s e l f th a t the perform er w a s atte m p tin g
io p r o je c t a s part o f th e d e fin itio n of th e s it u a t i o n .
These
f a c t s may in v o lv e w e ll-k e p t dark s e c r e t s or n e g a tiv e ly - v a lu e d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th a t e v e r y o n e can s e e but no one r e fe rs to.
When su c h f a c t s a r e in tro d u c e d , e m b a r ra s s m e n t is the usual
r e s u lt . T h e s e f a c t s can, of c o u rse , be brought to o n e ’s a tte n tio n
by un m eant g e s t u r e s or inopporcune in tr u s io n s . H ow ever, they
a re more f re q u en tly in tro d u c e d by in te n tio n a l v erba l s t a t e m e n t s
c r non-verbal a c t s w hose full s i g n i f i c a n c e i s not a p p r e c i a t e d
by :he in d iv id u a l who c o n t r i b u t e s them co the in te r a c t io n .
F o llo w in g common u s a g e , su c h d is r u p tio n s of p r o je c tio n s may
be c a lle d ' f a u x p a s . ’ Where a perform er u n th in k in g ly m a k es
ari in c entional co n trib u tio n w hich d e s t r o y s h is own te a m ’s
inv-'.£e we may s p e a k of ‘ g a f f e s ’ or : b o n e r s . ’ Where a performer
je c p s-fd iz e s the im a g e of s e l f p r o je c te d by the oth e r te am , we
may s p e a k o f ' b r i c k s ’ or of the perform er h a v in g ' p u t his
foot in i t . ' :
Unm eant g e s t u r e s , inopporcune i n tr u s io n s , and faux Das
are s o u r c e s o f e m b a r r a s s m e n t and d i s s o n a n c e w h ic h a re
ty p ic a l ly u n in te n d e d by the- person who is r e s p o n s i b l e for
making them and w hich woa.lo be a v o id e d w ere th e in d iv id u a l
tc ‘< now in a d v a n c e th e c o a s c q u e n c e s of h i s a c t i v i t y . H ow ever
th e :? a re s i t u a t i o n s , often c a l l e d ' s c e n e s , ' in w hich a n
in d iv id u a l a c t s in s u c h a way a s to d e s tro y or s e r i o u s l y th r e a te n
th e p o lite a p p e a r a n c e of c o n s e n s u s , and w hile he may not a c t
si.~:.;ly in o rd er to c r e a t e suci? d i s s o n a n c e , he a c t s wich th e
kno w led g e th a t th is kind c f d i s s o n a n c e is lik e ly to r e s u lt .
T n e c o m m o n - s e n s e p h rase , ' c r e a t i n g a s c e n e , ’ is a p t b e c a u s e ,
in iiifect, a new s c e n e is c r e a te d by s u c h d is r u p tio n s .
The
p r e v io u s and e x p e c t e d in te r p la y betw een th e te a m s i s s u d d e n ly
forced a s i d e and a new drama forcibly t a k e s i t s p l a c e .
S io .iifican tly , th is new s c e n e often in v o lv e s a s u d d e n r e s h u f flin g
1 Ivriquette
m a n u a l s p ro vid e c l a s s i c w a r n in g s a g a i n s t s u c h i n d i s c r e t i o n s .
*'or e x a m p le ,
2"he L a w s o f E t i q u e t t e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : C a r e y , L e e &
o l a n c h a r d , 1336), p*. 1 0 1 :
‘ K th e r e is an y o ne in th e company whom you do not know, be c a r e f u l
how you Je t off any e p i g r a m s or p l e a s a n t l i t t l e s a r c a s m s . You might b e
ver y witty upon h a l t e r s to a man w h o s e fath er h ad been h a n g e d . T h e
first r e q u i s i t e for s u c c e s s f u l c o n v e r s a ti o n i s to know your c o m p an y w e l l . ’
A n other ex am ple o c c u r s in T h e C a no ns o f G ood B reed in g , op. c i t , t p. 80 : .
‘ In m e e t i n g a friend whom you h a v e n o t s e e n for so m e time, a n d of th e
s t a t e a n d h i s t o r y of w h o s e family you h a v e n o t been r e c e n t l y o r p a r t i c u l a rl y
informed, yo u s h o u ld avoid m ak in g e n q u i r i e s or a l l u s i o n s in r e s p e c t to
p a r t i c u l a r in d i v i d u a l s of h is fam ily t u n til you h a v e p o s s e s s e d y o u r s e l f o f
k n o w l e d g e r e s p e c t i n g them .
Some may be d e a d ; o t h e r s may h a v e m is­
b e h a v e d , s e p a r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s , or fa lle n u nd er so m e d i s t r e s s i n g c a l a m i t y . ’
133
a n d r e a p p o rtio n in g of t h e p r e v io u s te a m m em bers into two
new te a m s .
Some s c e n e s o c c u r w h e n t e a m - m a te s c a n no lo n g e r
c o u n t e n a n c e e a c h o th e r ’s in e p t p erfo rm an ce a n d blurt out
im m ed ia te p u b lic c r it ic is m of the very i n d i v i d u a l s with whom
th e y o ug ht to be in d r a m a tu r g ic a l c o -o p e ra tio n . Such m is c o n d u c t
i s often d e v a s t a t i n g to the p erfo rm ance w hich th e d i s p u t a n t s
o u g h t to be p r e s e n t i n g ; o n e e f f e c t of the quarrel i s to p ro v id e
t h e a u d i e n c e with a b a c k s t a g e view, and a n o t h e r i s to l e a v e
them with t h e f e e lin g th a t so m e th in g i s su r e ly s u s p i c i o u s
a b o u t a p erfo rm an ce w hen t h o s e who know it b e s t do not ag re e.
Another ty p e of s c e n e o c c u r s when th e a u d i e n c e d e c i d e s it
c a n no lo n g e r play th e gam e of p o l i t e in te r a c t io n , o r th a t it
no lo n g e r w a n ts to do so, an d s o c o n fro n ts th e perform ers
with f a c t s or e x p r e s s i v e a c t s w hich e a c h team know s w ill be
u n a c c e p t a b l e . T h i s i s w h a t h a p p e n s when an in d iv i d u a l s c r e w s
up h i s s o c i a l c o u r a g e an d d e c i d e s to ' h a v e i t o u t ’ with a n o th e r
or ' r e a l l y te ll him o ff.’ C rim inal t r i a l s h a v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
t h i s kind of o p e n d is c o r d , a s h a v e th e l a s t c h a p t e r s of murder
m y s t e r ie s , w here an i n d iv i d u a l who h a s th e re to f o re m a in ta in e d
a c o n v in c in g p o s e of in n o c e n c e i s c o n fro n te d in t h e p r e s e n c e
of o th e r s with u n d e n i a b le e x p r e s s i v e e v id e n c e th a t h is p o s e
i s o n ly a p o s e . A n o th e r kind o f s c e n e o c c u r s when th e in te r ­
ac tio n b e tw e e n two p e r s o n s b e c o m e s s o lo u d , h e a te d , or
o th e r w is e a t te n t io n - g e tti n g , t h a t n earby p e r s o n s e n g a g e d in
th e ir own c o n v e r s a t i o n a l in te r a c t io n a r e forced to becom e
w i t n e s s e s o r e v e n to t a k e s i d e s an d e n t e r the fray.
A final
t y p e o f s c e n e may be s u g g e s t e d .
When a p erso n a c t i n g a s a
one-m an te am c om m its h im s e lf in a s e r i o u s way to a c la im or
r e q u e s t and l e a v e s h im s e lf no way out s h o u ld t h is be d en ied
by the a u d i e n c e , he u s u a lly m a k e s s u r e th a t h i s c la im or r e q u e s t
i s th e kin d th a t i s lik e ly to be a pp rov e d and g ran te d by th e
audience.
If h i s m o tiv a tio n i s s tr o n g en ough, how ever, an
in d iv id u a l may find h im s e lf m ak ing a c la im or a n a s s u m p tio n
w hich he kn o w s th e a u d i e n c e may w ell r e j e c t .
He know ing ly
l o w e r s h is d e f e n c e s in th e ir p r e s e n c e , throw ing h im s e lf, a s
we s a y , on th e ir m ercy. By s u c h an a c t th e i n d iv i d u a l m a k e s
a p le a to the a u d i e n c e to t r e a t t h e m s e l v e s a s part of h is team
o r to a llo w him to tr e a t h im s e lf a s part k>( th e ir te a m . T h i s
sort of t h in g i s e m b a r r a s s in g e'nough, but when th e u n g u ard e d
r e q u e s t i s re f u s e d to the in d iv i d u a l’s f a c e , he s u f f e r s what we
c a n c a ll h u m iliatio n .
We hav e c o n s id e r e d so m e m ajor forms o f p e rfo rm a n c e
d is r u p tio n —u nm e ant
g estu re s,
inopp ortune i n tr u s io n s , faux
p a s , and s c e n e s .
T h e s e d is r u p tio n s , in e v e ry d ay te rm s , a r e
134
often c a l l e d ' i n c i d e n t s . ’ When an in c i d e n t o c c u r s , th e r e a lity
sp o n so re d by th e p erform ers i s th r e a te n e d . T h e p e r s o n s p r e s e n t
a r e lik e ly to r e a c t by bec o m in g f lu s te r e d , ill at e a s e , em­
b a r r a s s e d , n e r v o u s , a n d t h e lik e .
Q u ite l i t e r a l l y , th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s may find t h e m s e l v e s o u t o f c o u n t e n a n c e .
When
t h e s e f lu s te r i n g s or sy m p to m s o f e m b a r ra s s m e n t becom e p e r­
c e iv e d , the r e a l i t y th a t i s s u p p o r te d by th e p erfo rm an ce i s
lik e ly to be further j e o p a r d iz e d an d w e a k e n e d , for t h e s e s i g n s
of n e r v o u s n e s s in m o st c a s e s a re a n a s p e c t o f th e in d iv id u a l
who p r e s e n t s a c h a r a c t e r a n d no t a n a s p e c t o f th e c h a r a c t e r
he p r o j e c t s , t h u s f o rc in g upon th e a u d i e n c e a n im a g e of the
man behind th e m ask.
In o rd e r to p r e v e n t th e o c c u r re n c e o f i n c i d e n t s and th e
e m b a rra ssm e n t c o n s e q u e n t upon them , i t w ill be n e c e s s a r y
for all the p a r t i c i p a n t s in the in te r a c t io n , a s w ell a s t h o s e
who do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e , to p o s s e s s c e r ta in a t t r i b u t e s an d to
e x p r e s s t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s in p r a c t i c e s em p lo y ed for s a v i n g th e
show.
T h e s e a t t r i b u t e s and p r a c t i c e s w ill be r e v ie w e d u n der
th r e e h e a d i n g s : t h e d e f e n s i v e m e a s u r e s u s e d by perform ers
to s a v e t h e i r own sh o w ; t h e p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s u s e d by
a u d i e n c e and o u t s i d e r s to a s s i s t th e perform ers in s a v i n g the
p e rfo rm e rs’ s h o w ; and, fin a lly , the m e a s u r e s th e perform ers
m u s t t a k e ill order to m ake i t p o s s i b l e for th e a u d i e n c e and
o u t s i d e r s to employ p r o te c tiv e m e a s u r e s on t h e p e rfo rm e rs’
behalf.
Defensive Attributes and Practices
1.
D RA M A TURG ICAL L O Y A L T Y . It i s a p p a re n t t h a t if
a te a m i s to s u s t a i n the lin e it h a s ta k e n , t h e te a m - m a te s
m ust a c t a s i f they h a v e a c c e p t e d c e r ta in moral o b lig a tio n s .
T h e y m u st not v o lu n ta rily b e tra y th e s e c r e t s o f th e te a m ,
w hether from s e l f - i n t e r e s t or p r in c ip le . T h e y m ust n o t e x p lo it
th e ir p r e s e n c e in th e front r eg io n in ord er to s t a g e th e ir own
show , a s do, for ex a m p le , m a rria g e a b le s te n o g r a p h e r s who
s o m e tim e s e n c u m b e r th e ir o f fic e su rro u n d in g s w ith a lu s h
undergrowth of high fa sh io n . N or m u s t th e y u s e th e ir perform­
a n c e tim e a s an o c c a s i o n to d e n o u n c e th e ir team . T h e y m ust
b e w illin g to a c c e p t minor p a r t s with good g r a c e a n d perform
e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y w h en e v er, w h erev e r, an d for w h o m so e v e r the
team a s a w hole c h o o s e s . And th e y m u s t be ta k e n in by th e ir
own p erfo rm ance to the d e g re e th a t i s n e c e s s a r y to p reve nt
them from s o u n d in g h o llo w and f a l s e to the a u d i e n c e .
P e r h a p s th e key problem in m a in ta in in g lo y a lty of team
m em bers (and a p p a r e n tly with m e m b ers o f o th e r t y p e s o f
135
c o l l e c t i v i t i e s , too) i s to p r e v e n t t h e p erform ers from becom ing
so s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a t t a c h e d to the a u d i e n c e th a t t h e p erfo rm ers
d i s c l o s e co them th e c o n s e q u e n c e s for chem o f th e im p r e s s io n
th e y are b e in g g iv e n , o r in o th e r w ay s m ake the team a s a
w hole pay for t h i s a t t a c h m e n t . In sm all c o m m u n itie s in B r ita in ,
for e x a m p le , t h e m a n a g e rs o f s t o r e s w ill often be lo y a l to the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d will d e f i n e the pro d u ct b eing s o ld to a
c u s t o m e r in g lo w in g te rm s lin k e d by f a l s e a d v i c e , but c l e r k s
can fre q u e n tly be found who not o n ly a p p e a r to t a k e the r o le
o f th e c u s to m e r in g iv in g b u y in g - a d v i c e but a c t u a l l y do so . 1
So, too, f illi n g s t a t i o n m a n a g e rs s o m e tim e s d is a p p r o v e of
tip p i n g b e c a u s e it may l e a d a t t e n d a n t s to give u ndue free
s e r v i c e to t h e c h o s e n few w h ile o th e r c u s to m e r s a r e le f t w a iting.
O n e b a s i c te c h n i q u e th e te a m c a n employ to d e f e n d i t s e l f
a g a i n s t su c h d i s l o y a l t y i s to d ev e lo p h igh ingroup s o li d a r ity
w ith in the te a m , w h ile c r e a t i n g a b a c k s t a g e im a g e o f th e
a u d i e n c e w hich m a k e s th e a u d i e n c e s u f f i c ie n tly inhum an to
a llo w th e p erfo rm ers to c o z e n them with em o tio n a l a n d moral
im m unity. T o th e d e g r e e t h a t te a m - m a te s an d th e ir c o l l e a g u e s
form a c o m p le te s o c i a l com m unity w h ich o f f e r s e a c h perform er
a p l a c e and a s o u r c e o f moral su p p o r t r e g a r d l e s s o f w hether
o r n o t h e is s u c c e s s f u l in m a in ta in in g h is front befo re th e
a u d i e n c e , to th a t d e g r e e it would seem t h a t p erfo rm ers c a n
p r o te c t t h e m s e l v e s from d o ub t a n d g u ilt an d p r a c t i s e any kind
o f d e c e p t io n .
P e r h a p s we are to u n d e r s ta n d the h e a r t l e s s
a r t i s t r y of t h e T h u g s by r e f e r e n c e to the r e li g io u s b e l i e f s and
r itu a l p r a c t i c e s in to w hich th e ir d e p r e d a tio n s w ere in t e g r a t e d ,
a n d p e r h a p s we are to u n d e r s ta n d th e s u c c e s s f u l c a l l o u s n e s s
o f co n men by r e f e r e n c e to th e ir s o c i a l s o l i d a r i t y in w h a t th e y
c a l l th e ' i l l e g i t ’ world an d t h e i r w ell-fo rm u lated d e n i g r a tio n s
o f th e l e g i t i m a t e world.
P e r h a p s chis notio n a l l o w s u s to
u n d e r s ta n d in p a r t why g ro u p s th a t a r e a l i e n a t e d from or not
yet in c o rp o r a t e d into th e com m unity a re s o a b l e to go into
dirty-w ork t r a d e s a n d in to th e kind of s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s
w h ic h in v o lv e r o u tin e c h e a t in g .
A s e c o n d te c h n i q u e for c o u n t e r a c tin g the d a n g e r o f a f f e c tiv e
t i e s b e tw e en perfo rm ers and a u d i e n c e i s to c h a n g e a u d i e n c e s
p e r i o d i c a l l y . T h u s fillin g s t a t i o n m a n a g e rs u s e d to be s h if te d
p e r i o d i c a l l y from one s t a t i o n to a n o t h e r to p r e v e n t the formation
o f s tr o n g p e r s o n a l t i e s with p a r ti c u la r c l i e n t s .
It w a s found
t h a t when s u c h t i e s w ere a l lo w e d to form, t h e m a n a g e r
l In the i s l a n d com mun ity r efe rred to in t h i s r e p o r t , I h e a r d a cle r k s a y t o a
c u s t o m e r a s t h e c l e r k w a s h a n d i n g o v er a b o t t l e of ch erry pop t o him, <( I
do no t s e e ho w y o u c a n drin k t h a t s t u f f . ” No one p r e s e n t c o n s i d e r e d t h i s
t o be s u r p r i s i n g f r a n k n e s s , a n d s i m i l a r c o m m e n ts c o u l d be h e a r d ev ery
day in the s h o p s on t h e is l a n d .
136
so m e tim e s p la c e d th e i n t e r e s t s of a friend who n e e d e d cre d it
before t h e i n t e r e s t s o f th e s o c i a l e s ta b l is h m e n t. 1
Bank
m a n a g e rs an d m in i s te r s h a v e been r o u tin e ly s h if te d for s im ila r
r e a s o n s , a s h a v e c e r ta in c o lo n ia l a d m in is t r a to r s . Some fem ale
p r o f e s s i o n a l s pro v id e a n o th e r i l l u s tr a ti o n , a s th e follow ing
r e f e r e n c e to o r g a n iz e d p r o s titu t io n s u g g e s t s :
T h e S y n d i c a t e h a n d l e s t h a t t h e s e d a y s . T h e g i r l s d o n ’t s t a y in one
p l a c c lo n g en o ug h t o re a lly p e t on s p e a k i n g t e r m s w ith an y bo dy - T h e r e ^
n o t s o much c h a n c e of a girl f a llin g in love w ith s o m e g u y —you know,
an d c a u s i n g a s q u a w k .
Anyway, t h e h u s t l e r w ho's in C h i c a g o t h i s
w e e k i s in St. L o u i s n e x t t or m o ving aro u n d t o h a l f a d o z e n p l a c e s in
to w n be fore b e i n g s e n t so m e w h ere e l s e .
And t h e y n e v e r know w here
t h e y 'r e g o ing u n t i l t h e y 'r e to ld . 2
2.
DRAM ATURGICAL D IS C IP L IN E . It i s c ru c ia l for th e
m a in te n a n c e of the te a m ’s p e rfo rm an ce th a t e a c h member of
th e te am p o s s e s s dram a tu rg ica l discipline,, and e x e r c i s e it in
p r e s e n t i n g h is own part.
I refer to the fact that w hile the
performer is o s t e n s i b l y im m ersed a n d g iv e n o v er to th e a c tiv i ty
he i s perform ing, and i s a p p a r e n tly e n g r o s s e d in h i s a c t i o n s
in a s p o n ta n e o u s , u n c a l c u l a t i n g way, h e m ust n one th e l e s s
b e a f f e c tiv e ly d i s s o c i a t e d from h i s p r e s e n ta t io n in a way th a t
l e a v e s him free to c o p e with d ram a tu rg ica l c o n t in g e n c ie s a s
th e y a r i s e . He m u st offer a sh o w of i n t e l l e c t u a l and em otional
in v o lv e m e n t in the a c tiv i ty h e i s p ie s e n t in g , but m ust k eep
h im s e lf from a c tu a lly b e in g c a r rie d away by h is own s h o w
l e s t t h is d e s tr o y h i s in v o lv e m e n t in the t a s k of p u ttin g on a
s u c c e s s f u l p erfo rm an ce .
A perform er who i s d i s c i p l i n e d , d r a m a tu r g ic a lly s p e a k in g ,
i s so m e o n e who rem e m b ers h i s p a rt a n d - d o e s not commit unm eant
g e s t u r e s or faux p a s in perform ing it.
H e i s so m e o n e with
d i s c r e t i o n : he d o e s not g iv e th e sh o w aw ay by in v o lu n tarily
d isclo sin g its se c re ts .
H e i s s o m e o n e w ith ' p r e s e n c e of
m i n d ’ who c a n c o v e r up on th e s p u r o f t h e m om ent for
in a p p ro p r ia te b eh a v io u r on the part of h i s te a m -m a te s , w hile
all th e tim e m a in ta in in g th e im p r e s s io n t h a t he i s m erely p la y in g
h is part.
And if a d isru p tio n o f the perform ance c a n n o t be
a v o id e d or c o n c e a le d , th e d i s c i p l i n e d perform er w ill be p rep a re d
to offer a p l a u s i b l e r e a s o n for d is c o u n tin g t h e d is r u p tiv e e v e n t,
a jokin g manner to remove i t s im p o rta n ce , or d e e p apo lo gy
and s e lf - a b a s e m e n t to r e i n s t a t e t h o s e h e ld r e s p o n s i b l e for it.
T h e d i s c i p l i n e d perform er i s alg o so m e one with ' s e l f - c o n t r o l . '
' O f c o u r s e t h i s b e t r a y a l i s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y faked in so m e co m m ercial
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w here t h e c u s to m e r i s giv en a ' s p e c i a l * c u t p r i c e by a
c l e r k who c l a i m s to be d oin g t h is in o rd er to s e c u r e the buyer a s a s t e a d y
p e r s o n a l c u s to m e r.
2 C h a r l e s Hamilton, Men o f th e Under world (New Y o rk : Macm illan,
p. 222 .
137
1952),
He c a n s u p p r e s s h i s e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e to h i s p r iv a te pro blem s,
to h i s te a m - m a te s w hen th e y m ake m i s t a k e s , a n d to th e a u d i e n c e
when th e y in d u c e untow ard a f f e c tio n or h o s ti lity in him. And
h e c a n s to p h im s e lf from la u g h in g abo u t m a tte rs w hich are
d e f in e d a s s e r i o u s and s to p h im s e lf from ta k in g s e r io u s ly
m a t t e r s d e fin e d a s hum orous. In o th e r w ords, h e c a n s u p p r e s s
h i s s p o n t a n e o u s f e e l i n g s in o rd e r to g i v e th e a p p e a r a n c e of
s t i c k i n g to t h e a f f e c tiv e lin e , t h e e x p r e s s i v e status quo,
e s t a b l i s h e d by h i s te a m ’s p erform an ce, for a d is p l a y of pro­
s c r i b e d a f f e c t may not only le a d to im prope r d i s c l o s u r e s and
o f fe n c e to th e working c o n s e n s u s but may a l s o im p lic itly
e x t e n d to the a u d i e n c e the s t a t u s o f te a m member.
And th e
d i s c i p l i n e d perform er i s s o m e o n e w ith s u f f i c i e n t p o i s e to move
from p r iv a te p l a c e s of info rm ality to p u b lic o n e s of varying
d e g r e e s of form ality, w ithout a l lo w in g s u c h c h a n g e s to c o n f u s e
him. 1
P e r h a p s th e f o c u s of d r a m a tu r g ic a l d i s c i p l i n e i s to be
found in the m a n a g e m e n t of o n e ’s f a c e and vo ice. H ere is the
c r u c i a l t e s t of o n e ’s a b i lity a s a performer.
A ctua l a f f e c tiv e
r e s p o n s e m u st b e c o n c e a l e d a n d an a p p r o p r ia t e a f f e c tiv e
r e s p o n s e m ust be d is p l a y e d .
T e a s i n g , it o ften s e e m s , i s an
inform al i n it ia t io n d e v i c e em ployed by a te am to train and
t e s t the c a p a c i t y of i t s new m em bers to ' t a k e a j o k e , ’ th at
i s , tn s u s t a i n a frie n d ly m anner w h ile p e r h a p s not f e e lin g it.
When a n in d iv id u a l p a s s e s s u c h a t e s t o f e x p r e s s io n - c o n tr o l,
w h eth e r he r e c e i v e s it from h i s new te a m - m a te s in a s p ir it of
j e s t or from an u n e x p e c te d n e c e s s i t y of p la y in g in a s e r io u s
p erfo rm an ce , he ca n th e r e a f t e r v en tu re forth a s a p la y e r who
c a n tr u s t h im s e lf an d be t r u s t e d by o th e rs .
A very n ic e
il l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s i s g iv e n in a forthcom ing p a p e r by Howard
S. B e c k e r on m a riju an a sm oking.
B e c k e r r e p o r ts t h a t th e
i r r e g u la r u s e r of th e drug h a s a g re a t fe a r of finding h im self,
w hile under th e in f lu e n c e of th e drug, in th e im m edia te p r e s e n c e
o f p a r e n t s or work a s s o c i a t e s who will e x p e c t a n in tim ate
undrugged p erfo rm an ce from him.
A p p arently the irre g u la r
u s e r d o e s not becom e a confirm ed re g u la r u s e r u n til he l e a m s
h e c a n be ' high ’ and y e t c a r ry off a perform an ce before nons m o k e r s w ithout b e tra y in g h im s e lf .
T h e sa m e i s s u e a r i s e s ,
p e r h a p s in a l e s s d r a m a tic form, in ordinary family life , when
a d e c i s i o n h a s to be r e a c h e d a s to t h e po in t in th e ir tra in in g
a t w hich young m em bers o f th e team c a n be ta k e n to p u b lic
a n d s e m i-p u b lic c e r e m o n ie s , for on ly when th e c h ild i s re a d y
to k e e p control of h i s tem per will he be a tru stw o rth y p a r ti c ip a n t
on su c h o c c a s i o n s .
1 F o r an
ex am p le
sec
Page,
op.
cil.,
138
pp.
91-92.
3.
DRAM ATURGICAL C IR C U M SPE C T IO N - L o y a l ty and
d is c ip li n e , in the d ra m a tu rg ic a l s e n s e o f t h e s e te rm s, a r e
a t t r i b u t e s r e q u ir e d of te am -m a tes if th e s h o w they put on is
to be s u s t a i n e d . In a d d itio n , it will be u s e fu l i f th e m em bers
of th e te am e x e r c i s e f o re s ig h t and d e s i g n in d e term in in g in
a d v a n c e how b e s t to s t a g e a show . P r u d e n c e m u s t be e x e r c i s e d .
When th e re i s l i t t l e c h a n c e of b ein g s e e n , o p p o r tu n iti e s for
r e la x a ti o n c a n be t a k e n ; when th e re i s l i t t l e c h a n c e o f b ein g
put to a t e s t , th e c o l d f a c ts c a n be p r e s e n t e d in a glow ing
lig h t and the perform ers c a n p la y th e ir p a rt for a l l it is worth,
i n v e s t i n g ic with full d ig n ity .
If no c a r e and h o n e s t y are
e x e r c is e d , then d is r u p tio n s are lik e ly to o c c u r ; if rigid c a r e
a n d h o n e s ty a r e e x e r c i s e d , th e n th e perfo rm ers are not lik e ly
to be u n d e rsto o d ' on ly too well ’ but they may be m isu n d e rsto o d ,
in s u f f ic i e n tly u n d erstood, or g r e a tly lim ite d in w hat th e y c a n
build o u t of th e d ram a tu rg ica l o p p o r tu n iti e s o p e n to them. In
o th e r w ords, in th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e te a m , perform ers will be
req uired to e x e r c i s e prudence and c i r c u m s p e c ti o n in s ta g in g
the show , prep a rin g m a d v a n c e for lik e ly c o n t i n g e n c i e s and
e x p lo itin g th e o p p o r tu n itie s th a t rem ain.
T he e x e r c i s e or
e x p r e s s io n of dram a tu rg ica l c irc u m s p e c tio n t a k e s w ell-know n
form s; so m e of t h e s e te c h n i q u e s for m anaging i m p r e s s io n s
will be c o n s id e r e d h e r t.
O b v io u sly , o n e s u c h te c h n iq u e i s for th e te am to c h o o s e
members who a re lo y a l and d i s c ip li n e d , and a s e c o n d one i s
lor th e team to a c q u ir e a c l e a r id e a a s to how much lo y a lty
and d i s c i p l i n e i t c a n rely on from t h e m em bership a s a w hole,
for th e d e g r e e to which t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s are p o s s e s s e d will
m arkedly a f fe c t t h e lik e lih o o d of ca rry in g off a perform ance
and h e n c e th e s a f e t y of i n v e s t i n g t h e perfo rm an ce with
s e r i o u s n e s s , weight, and dig n ity .
We w ill a l s o find t h a t th e c i r c u m s p e c t perform er w ill attem p t
to s e l e c t th e kind of a u d i e n c e th a t w ill g iv e a minimum of
tro u b le in te rm s o f th e show th e perform er w a n ts to put on
a n d t h e sh o w he d o e s not w a n t to h a v e to put on. T h u s it i s
rep orted th a t t e a c h e r s often favour n e i th e r l o w e r - c l a s s p u p ils
nor u p p e r - c la s s o n e s , b e c a u s e both gro u p s may make it d ifficu lt
to m a in ta in in t h e c l a s s r o o m th e kin d o f d e f in itio n of th e
s it u a ti o n
w hich
affirm s th e p r o f e s s io n a l t e a c h e r role. 1
T e a c h e r s w ill t r a n s f e r to m i d d l e - c l a s s s c h o o l s for t h e s e
d r am a tu rg ica l r e a s o n s . So, too, it i s reported th a t som e n u r s e s
lik e to work in an o p e r a tin g room ra th e r th a n on a ward b e c a u s e
in the o p e r a tin g room m e a s u r e s are ta k e n to e n s u re t h a t th e
a u d ie n c e , who num bers only o n e, is soon o b liv io u s to th e
1 B e c k e r,
'S o c ia l C la s s
V ariations . .
139
op.
cit., pp.
461-462.
w e a k n e s s e s of th e show , p e rm ittin g th e o p e r a tin g te am to
r e la x and d e v o te i t s e l f to the t e c h n o lo g i c a l r e q u ir e m e n ts of
a c t i o n s a s o p p o s e d to the d r a m a tu rg ic a l o n e s . 1 O n ce th e
a u d i e n c e i s a s l e e p it i s e v e n p o s s i b l e to bring in a ' g h o s t
s u r g e o n ’ to perform th e t a s k s th a t o th e rs who were th e re will
l a t e r c l a im to h a v e done. 2 Sim ilarly,
g ive n t h e fa c t th a t
h u s b a n d and w ife a re req uired to e x p r e s s m arital s o li d a r ity
by both s h o w in g th e s a m e regard for t h o s e whom th e y e n te r ta i n ,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y to e x c l u d e from th e ir g u e s t s t h o s e p e r s o n s
about whom h u sb a n d and w ife feel d if fe r e n tly . 3 So a l s o , if a
man of in f lu e n c e an d p o w e r i s to make s u r e th a t he c a n ta k e
a frie n d ly r o le in o f fic e i n t e r a c t i o n s , then it w ill be u se fu l
for him to hav e a p r iv a te e l e v a to r an d p r o te c tiv e c i r c l e s of
r e c e p t i o n i s t s an d s e c r e t a r i e s s o t h a t no o n e ca n g et in to s e e
him whom he m ight h a v e to t r e a t in a h e a r t l e s s o r s n o b b is h
f a sh io n .
It will be a p p a r e n t th a t an a u to m a tic w ay of e n s u r i n g th a t
no member of th e te a m or no member of th e a u d i e n c e a c t s
im p rop erly i s to lim it th e s i z e of both t e a m s a s much a s
po ssib le.
O th e r th in g s b e in g e q u a l, th e fe w e r the members,
th e l e s s p o s s i b i l i t y of m i s t a k e s , ’ d i f f i c u l t i e s , ’ and tr e a c h e r i e s .
T h u s s a l e s m e n l i k e to s e l l to u n a c c o m p a n ie d c u s to m e r s , s i n c e
i t i s g e n e r a lly th o u g h t th a t two p e r s o n s in th e a u d i e n c e a r e
m uch more d if f i c u lt to 1 s e ll ’ than on e. So, too, in som e s c h o o l s
th e re i s a n informal ru le th a t no t e a c h e r is to e n t e r th e room
o f a n o th e r t e a c h e r w h ile t h e o th e r i s h o ld in g a c l a s s ;
a p p a r e n tly th e a s s u m p tio n is t h a t it w ill be lik e ly th e new
p erform er w ill do s o m e th in g th a t th e w a itin g e y e s of the s t u d e n t
a u d i e n c e w ill s e e a s i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e im p r e s s io n f o s te r e d
by t h e i r ow n t e a c h e r . 4 H o w ev er, th e re a r e at l e a s t two r e a s o n s
why t h i s d e v ic e o f lim itin g t h e number o f p e r s o n s p r e s e n t h a s
lim i t a t i o n s i t s e l f . F i r s t , so m e p e rf o rm a n c e s c a n n o t be p r e s e n te d
w ithou t th e t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e of a s i z e a b l e number of te a m ­
m a te s .
T h u s , a lth o u g h a g en e ral s t a f f a p p r e c i a t e s th a t th e
more o f f ic e r s th e r e a re who know the p l a n s for t h e n e x t p h a s e
o f a c tio n , th e more lik e lih o o d th a t som e one w ill a c t in s u c h a
' U n p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h r e p o rt by E d it h L e n t z .
It may be n o te d t h a t th e
p o l i c y s o m e t i m e s follo w ed of p i p i n g m u s i c by e a r p h o n e s to the p a t i e n t who
i s u n d e r g o i n g a n o p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t a g e n e r a l a n e s t h e t i c i s a m e a n s of
e f f e c t i v e l y rem oving him a s an a u d i e n c e for t h e s p o k e n word.
2 Solomon, o p. c i t . , p. 108.
3 T his
p o i n t h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d in a s h o r t s t o r y by Mary McCar thy, ' A
F r i e n d of the F a m i l y , ’ r e p r i n t e d in Mary M cCarthy, C a s t A C o ld E y e (New
Y o t k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e , 1950).
4 B e c k e r , ' T h e T e a c h e t in t h e Auth ority S y ste m of th e P u b l i c S c h o o l ,’
op. c i t . , p . 139.
140
way a s to d i s c l o s e s t r a t e g i c s e c r e t s , the s t a f f will s ti ll hav e
to le t e n ough men in on th e s e c r e t to pla n an d a rran g e th e
ev e n t.
S eco n d ly , it a p p e a r s th a t in d iv i d u a ls , a s p i e c e s of
e x p r e s s i v e equipm ent, a re more e f f e c tiv e in a c e r ta in s e n s e
than non-hum an p a r t s of the s e ttin g .
If, then, an in d iv id u al
i s to be g iv e n a p l a c e o f g r e a t dram a tic p ro m in e n ce, it may
be n e c e s s a r y to employ a s i z e a b l e c o u rt-fo llo w in g to a c h i e v e
an e f f e c tiv e im p r e s s io n of a d u l a ti o n aro u n d him.
1 h a v e s u g g e s t e d that by k e e p in g c l o s e to th e f a c t s it may
be p o s s i b l e for a perform er to s a f e g u a r d h is sh o w but t h i s
may p rev e n t him from s ta g in g a very e la b o r a te o n e .
If an
e la b o r a te show i s to be s a f e ly s t a g e d i t may be more useful
to remove o n e s e l f from the f a c t s r a th e r th a n s t i c k to them. It
i s f e a s i b l e for a n o ffic ia l of a relig io n to c o n d u c t a solemn,
a w e so m e p r e s e n ta t io n , b e c a u s e th e re is no r e c o g n iz e d way
by which t h e s e c l a im s ca n be d is c r e d ite d .
S im ilarly, th e
p r o f e s s io n a l t a k e s th e s ta n d th a t the s e r v i c e he p erfo rm s i s
not to be jud ged by th e r e s u l t s it a c h i e v e s but by th e d e g re e
to w hich a v a i l a b l e o c c u p a t io n a l s k i l l s h a v e bee n p ro fic ie n tly
a p p l i e d ; an d , of c o u r s e , the p r o f e s s io n a l c l a i m s th a t only the
c o l le a g u e group ca n m ake a judgment o f th is kind. It is there*
fore p o s s i b l e for the p r o f e s s io n a l to commit h im s e lf fully to
h is p r e s e n ta t io n , with a l l h is weight and d ig n ity , know ing
that on ly a very f o o lish m i s t a k e will be c a p a b l e of d e s tro y in g
th e im p r e s s io n c r e a te d . T h u s we c a n u n d e r s ta n d the effo rt of
tr a d e sm e n to o b ta in a p r o f e s s io n a l m a n d ate a s a n effort to
gain con tro l over th e r e a lity th e y p r e s e n t to th e ir c u s t o m e r s ;
and in turn we c a n s e e th a t s u c h c o n tro l m a k e s it u n n e c e s s a r y
to be prud en tly hum ble in the a i r s one a s s u m e s in performing
o n e ’s tr a d e .
T h e r e would a p p e a r to be a r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e am ount
o f m o d e sty em p lo y ed an d th e tem poral l e n g th o f a perform ance.
If the a u d i e n c e i s to s e e only a brief p erfo rm an ce , th e n the
lik e lih o o d of an e m b a r r a s s in g o cc u rre n c e will be r e la tiv e ly
sm a ll, an d it will be r e la tiv e ly s a f e for th e perform er, e s p e c i a l l y
in anon ym ous c i r c u m s ta n c e s , to m a in ta in a front th a t i s rath e r
false. 1
In A m erican s o c i e t y th e re i s w hat i s c a l l e d a
‘ te le p h o n e v o i c e , ' a c u l tiv a te d form of s p e e c h not em plo yed
in f a c e - to - f a c e ta lk b e c a u s e of th e d a n g e r of d o in g so.
In
B rita in , in th e k in d s of c o n t a c t between s t r a n g e r s th a t are
1 In brief an on y m o u s s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n s , s e r v e r s becom e s k i l l e d a t d e t e c t i n g
w h at they s e e a s a f f e c t a t i o n , an d s i n c e t h e i r own p o s i t i o n i s made c l e a r
by t h e i r s e r v i c e role they c a n n o t return a f f e c t a t i o n with a f f e c t a t io n .
At
t h e s a m e tim e, c u s t o m e r s who are w h at they c l a i m to b e often s e n s e t h a t
t h e s e r v e r may not a p p r e c i a t e t h i s , and s o the c u s t o m e r may f e e l a s h a m e d
b e c a u s e he f e e l s a s he wou ld feel w ere h e a s f a l s e a s he a p p e a r s to be.
141
g u a r a n te e d to b e v e ry b rief—th e k i n d s in v o lv in g 'p l e a s e , *
‘ th a n k y o u , ’ ' e x c u s e m e , ’ .a n d ' m a y I s p e a k t o ’—o n e h e a r s
m any more P u b l i c S chool a c c e n t s th a n th e re are P u b l i c School
people.
So a l s o , in A n g lo - A m e r ic a n s o c ie t y , th e m ajority of
d o m e s tic e s t a b l i s h m e n t s do n o t p o s s e s s s u f f i c i e n t s t a g i n g
e q u ip m e n t to m a in ta in a sh o w of p o lit e h o s p i t a l i t y for g u e s t s
who s ta y more th a n a few h o u r s ; only in t h e upper-m iddle
a n d u pper c l a s s e s do w e find t h e i n s t itu ti o n of t h e w ee k -e n d
g u e s t , for it i s o n ly h ere th a t p erfo rm ers feel th e y h a v e enough
s ig n eq uipm ent to bring off a le n g th y show . 1
T h e perform er who i s to b e d r a m a tu r g ic a lly p rudent will
h a v e to a d a p t h i s p erfo rm an ce to th e inform ation c o n d i tio n s
u nder w hich it m ust be s t a g e d .
O b v io u s ly , he w ill h a v e to
t a k e in to c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e in form atio n th e a u d i e n c e a l r e a d y
p o s s e s s e s a b o u t him. T h e more inform ation th e a u d i e n c e h a s
a b o u t th e perform er, th e l e s s l ik e ly it i s t h a t a n y th in g th e y
l e a m during t h e i n te r a c t io n will r a d ic a ll y in f lu e n c e them. On
t h e o th e r hand, w here no prior in fo rm ation i s p o s s e s s e d , it
m ay be e x p e c t e d th a t th e in form ation g l e a n e d d u rin g t h e in te r a c tio n w ill be of r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t im p o r ta n c e . H e n c e , on th e
w h o le, w e may e x p e c t in d iv i d u a ls to r e l a x th e s t r i c t m ain­
t e n a n c e of front w hen th e y a r e with th o s e th e y hav e known
for a lo n g tim e, an d we may e x p e c t perform ers to tig h te n th e ir
front when am ong p e r s o n s who a r e new to them .
With t h o s e
whom one d o e s not know, c a r e f u l p e r f o rm a n c e s a re req u ired .
A n o th er c o n d i tio n a s s o c i a t e d with co m m u n ic atio n may b e
cited.
T h e c i r c u m s p e c t perform er w ill h a v e to c o n s i d e r t h t
a u d i e n c e ’s a c c e s s to info rm ation s o u r c e s e x te r n a l to th e in te r ­
ac tio n .
F o r e x a m p le , m em bers of the T h u g trib e of In d ia a re
s a i d to h a v e given t h e f o llo w in g p e rf o rm a n c e s d u rin g th e ea rly
n i n e te e n th c e n t u r y :
A s a g e n e r a l rule chcy p t e t e n d e d t o be m e r c h a n t s o r s o l d i e r s ,
t r a v e l l i n g w ith o u t w e a p o n s in o rder co d i s a r m s u s p i c i o n , w hich g a v e
them an e x c e l l e n t e x c u s e for s e e k i n g p e r m i s s i o n co acc o m p a n y t r a v e l l e r s ,
for chere w a s n o t h i n g to e x c i t e alarm in t h e t r a p p e a r a n c e . Mosc T h u g s
w e r e m ild lo o k in g a n d p e c u l i a r l y c o u r t e o u s , for t h i s ca m o u f la g e formed
p a r t o f cheir s t o c k - i n - t t a d e , an d w ell-arm ed t r a v e l l e r s f e l t no fear in
a l l o w i n g t h e s e k n i g h t s of che r o a d co join them .
T h i s f irs t s t e p
s u c c e s s f u l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d , che T h u g s g r a d u a l l y won t h e c o n f i d e n c e of
cheir i n t e n d e d v tccim s by a d em ean o u r of humilicy a nd g r a t i tu d e , an d
feig n ed in c e r c s t in t h e i r a f f a i r s until f a m i li a r wich d e t a i l s of th eir
h o m e s , w h eth er they w e r e l i k e l y to be m i s s e d i f m u rd ered, a n d if t h e y
k n e w a n y o n e in t h e v i c i n i t y . S o m e tim e s t h e y t r a v e l l e d long d i s t a n c e s
t o g e t h e r before a s u i t a b l e op portunic y foe tr e a c h e r y o c c u r r e d ; a c a s e is
o n r e c o r d w here a g a n g jo u r n e y e d w ith a fam ily o f e l e v e n p e r s o n s for
1 On th e i s l a n d s t u d i e d by t h e wricer, so m e cr ofc ers felc t h e y c o u l d suscain
a m i d d l e - c l a s s sh o w for the d u r a t i o n o f a t e a , in so m e c a s e s a m e a l , and
in* one or two c a s e s e v e n a w e e k - e n d ; b u t many i s l a n d e r s fe lt it only
s a f e to perform for m i d d l e - c l a s s a u d i e n c e s on che front p orch or, betcer
s t i l l , in che co m m unity h a l l , w h e r e (he e f f o r t s an d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of the
sh ow c o u l d be s h a r e d by many t e a m - m a t e s .
142
tw en ty d a y s , c o v e r i n g 200 m i l e s , b e f o re t h e y s u c c e e d e d in m u rd erin s
t h e w h o le par ry w ith o u t d e t e c t i o n . 1
0
T h u g s c o u ld g iv e t h e s e p e rfo rm a n c e s in spice o f th e f a c t th a t
th e ir a u d i e n c e s w ere c o n s ta n t ly on th e w atch for su c h perform ers (and quickly put to d e a th th o s e id e n tif ie d a s T h u g s)
partly b e c a u s e of the in form ation al c o n d itio n s of t r a v e l ; o n c e
a party s e t out for a d i s t a n t d e s tin a tio n , th e re w a s no w ay for
them to c h e ck the i d e n t i t i e s claim ed by th o s e whom th e y en­
co u n te re d , an d if a n y th in g befell th e party on th e way i t would
be m o n th s before they would be c o n s id e r e d o v e rd u e , by which
time th e T h u g s who h ad performed for and then upon them
would be o u t of rea ch. But in th e ir n a tiv e v i l l a g e s , th e m em bers
of t h e tribe, being known, fixed, and a c c o u n t a b le for th e ir
s i n s , b e h a v e d in an exem plary fash io n . Sim ilarly, c i r c u m s p e c t
A m e ric a n s who w ould o rd inarily n e v e r c h a n c e a m is r e p r e s e n t ­
ation of th e ir s o c i a l s t a t u s may ta k e su c h a c h a n c e w hile
sta y in g for a sh o rt tim e a t a summ er re s o r t.
If s o u r c e s of inform ation e x t e r n a l to th e in te r a c t io n
c o n s t i t u t e one c o n tin g e n c y th e c i r c u m s p e c t performer m ust
ta k e into c o n s id e r a t io n , s o u r c e s o f inform ation in ternal to t h e
in te r a c t io n c o n s t i t u t e an o th er.
T h u s th e c i r c u m s p e c t
perform er will a d j u s t h i s p r e s e n ta t io n ac c o rd in g to t h e
c h a r a c t e r of th e p ro p s an d t a s k s out of w hich he m ust build
h i s perform an ce.
F o r ex am ple, c lo th in g m e r c h a n ts in th e
U nited S t a t e s a r e r e q u ir e d to be r e la tiv e ly c i r c u m s p e c t in
making e x a g g e r a te d c l a im s , b e c a u s e c u s to m e r s ca n t e s t by
s ig h t and touch whar i s show n for them, but furniture s a l e s ­
men nee d not be s o c a r e f u l, b e c a u s e few members of the*
a u d i e n c e can jud ge w hat l i e s behind th e front of varnish an d
v e n e e r th a t i s p r e s e n t e d to them . 2
S im ilarly, if a h o u s e w ife
i s c o n c e r n e d with sh o w in g th at s h e m a in ta in s c l e a n l i n e s s
s t a n d a r d s , s h e i s lik e ly to fo c u s h e r a tte n t io n upon th e g l a s s
s u r f a c e s in her liv in g room, for g l a s s sh o w s dirt all too c l e a r l y ;
sh e w ill g iv e l e s s a t te n t io n ro the d arke r and l e s s r e v e a lin g
rug, w h ich may well have b een c h o s e n in the b e lie f th a t ' d a r k
c o l o u r s do n o t show the d i r t . ’
So, too, an a r t i s t n e e d ta k e
li t t l e c a r e with th e d e c o r of h i s s t u d i o —in fact, th e a r t i s t ’s
stu d io h a s becom e s te r e o ty p e d a s a p la c e w here th o s e who
work b a c k s t a g e do not c a r e who s e e s them or th e c o n d itio n s
in w h ich they are s e e n —p a rtly b e c a u s e the full v a l u e of the
a r t i s t ’s p ro d u ct c a n , or ought to be, im m ediately a v a ila b le
to the s e n s e s ; p o rtra it p a i n te r s , on the o th e r hand, must pro m ise
to make th e s i t t i n g s s a t i s f a c t o r y and te n d to u s e r e la tiv e ly
l S l eem an , op. c i l ., p. 25.
2 Con an t, op. c i t . , m a k e s t h i s p oint.
143
p r e p o s s e s s i n g , ric h -lo o k in g s t u d i o s a s a k in d of g u a r a n te e
for t h e p r o m is e s th e y make. Sim ilarly , we find t h a t c o n f id e n c e
m en m u st employ e l a b o r a t e an d m e tic u lo u s p e r s o n a l f ro n ts
an d often e n g i n e e r m e t i c u l o u s s o c i a l s e t t i n g s , n o t so much
b e c a u s e th e y l ie for a liv i n g but b e c a u s e , in order to g e t aw ay
with a l i e of th a t d im e n sio n , on e m ust deal with p e r s o n s who
h a v e b e e n a n d a r e going to b e sc ra ngers, an d o n e h a s to
te r m in a te the d e a l i n g s a s q u ic k ly a s p o s s i b l e ,
L e g i tim a te
businessm en
who would p rom o te .n v e n tu re u n d e r t h e s e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s would h a v e to b e j u s t a s m e t i c u l o u s in
e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s , for it i s u n d e r j u s t su c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s
t h a t p o te n tia l i n v e s t o r s s c r u t i n i z e th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h o s e who
would s e ll to them . In short, s i n c e a con m e rc h an t must s w in d le
h i s c l i e n t s u n d er t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w here c l i e n t s a p p r e c i a t e
th a t a c o n f id e n c e g a m e c o u ld be em p loyed , th e con man must
c a r e f u lly f o r e s ta ll th e im m e d ia te im p r e s s io n th a t h e m ight b e
w h a t in f a c t h e i s , j u s t a s th e l e g itim a te m erchant, u n d e r th e
s a m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , would h a v e to f o re sta ll c a r e f u lly th e
im m e d ia te im p r e s s io n th a t he might be w hat h e i s not.
It i s a p p a r e n t th a t c a r e will be g r e a t in s i t u a t i o n s w here
im p o rta n t c o n s e q u e n c e s for th e perform er will o c c u r a s a r e s u lt
o f h i s c o n d u c t. T h e jo b - in te rv ie w i s a c l e a r exa m p le . O ften
th e in te r v ie w e r will h a v e to m ake d e c i s i o n s of fa r-re a c h in g
im po rranc e for th e in te r v ie w e e on the s o le b a s i s o f inform ation
g a i n e d from th e i n t e r v i e w e e ’s in te rv ie w -p e rfo rm a n c e .
The
i n te r v ie w e e i s l ik e ly to feel, and with so m e j u s t i c e , th a t h i s
ev ery a c tio n w ill be ta k e n a s high ly s y m b o lic a l, an d he will
th e re fo re g iv e much p r e p a ra tio n and thought to h i s p erform an ce.
We e x p e c t a t s u c h tim e s t h a t th e in te r v ie w e e will pay much
a t te n t io n to h i s a p p e a r a n c e and manner, not m erely to c r e a t e
a f a v o u r a b le im p r e s s io n , but a l s o to be on the s a fe s i d e and
f o r e s ta ll an y u n fa v o u ra b le im p r e s s io n th a t might be u n w ittin g ly
conveyed.
A nother exa m p le may be s u g g e s t e d : t h o s e who
work in the field of rad io b r o a d c a s ti n g and, e s p e c i a l l y , t e l e ­
v is i o n k e e n ly a p p r e c i a t e th a t the momentary im p r e s s io n they
g iv e w ill hav e a l a s t i n g e ffe c t on the view th e a u d i e n c e t a k e s
o f them, an d it i s in t h i s p a rt of th e com m u n ic atio n in d u stry
t h a t g r e a t c a re i s ta k e n to g iv e th e rig h t im p r e s s io n and g rea t
a n x i e ty i s f e l t th a t the im p r e s s io n g iv e n might not be right.
T h e s tr e n g th of t h i s c o n c e r n i s s e e n in th e in d ig n i tie s th a t
h ig h - p la c e d p e rfo rm e rs are w illin g to su f fe r in o rd e r to com e
off well : C o n g r e s s m e n a llo w t h e m s e l v e s to be made up and
to be to ld w hat to w e a r ; p r o f e s s io n a l b o x e rs a b a s e t h e m s e l v e s
by g iv in g a d is p la y , in th e m a nner o f w r e s tle r s , i n s t e a d of a
bout. 1
1 S e e J o h n L a r d n e r 's w eek ly column in N e w s w e e k , F e b r u a ry 22, 1954, p. 59.
*44
C i rc u m s p e c tio n on t h e p a rt of perfo rm ers w ill a l s o be
e x p r e s s e d in th e way th e y h a n d le r e la x a ti o n o f a p p e a r a n c e s .
When a team i s p h y s i c a l l y d i s t a n t from i t s i n s p e c t o r ia l a u d i e n c e
a n d a s u r p r i s e v i s i t i s u n lik e ly , then g r e a t r e la x a ti o n b e c o m e s
f e a s i b l e . T h u s we rea d th a t sm a ll A m erican N avy i n s t a l l a t i o n s
on P a c i f i c i s l a n d s d u rin g t h e l a s t w ar c o u ld b e run q u ite
inform ally, w h e r e a s a r e a d ju s tm e n t in th e d ire c tio n o f spit
an d p o lis h w a s r e q u ir e d when th e o u tf it moved to p l a t e s th a t
m e m b ers of th e a u d i e n c e were more l ik e ly to frequent. 1 When
i n s p e c t o r s h a v e e a s y a c c e s s to th e p l a c e w here a te am c a r r i e s
on i t s work, then th e am o u n t o f r e la x a tio n p o s s i b l e for the
team will depend on t h e e f f ic i e n c y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y of i t s w arning
sy ste m . It i s to be n o te d th a t thorough-go ing r e la x a tio n r e q u ir e s
not only a w arning s y s t e m but a l s o an a p p r e c ia b le tim e l a p s e
b e tw e e n w arning a n d v is i t, for t h e te am will be a b l e to r e la x
only to t h e d e g r e e th a t c a n be c o r r e c te d d u rin g s u c h a tim e
lapse.
T h u s , when a s c h o o l t e a c h e r l e a v e s her c l a s s r o o m for
a moment, h e r c h a r g e s c a n r e la x into s lo v e n ly p o s t u r e s and
w h is p e re d c o n v e r s a ti o n s , for t h e s e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s c a n b e
c o r r e c te d in th e few s e c o n d s ' w arning t h e p u p i l s will h a v e
th a t th e te a c h e r i s abo u t to r e -e n te r, but it i s u n lik e ly th a t it
will be f e a s i b l e for the p u p ils to s n e a k a smoke, for th e sm ell
of sm oke c a n n o t be got rid of q u ic k ly . I n te r e s tin g ly enou gh,
p u p ils , lik e o th e r perform ers, will ‘ t e s t th e l i m i t s , ’ g le efu lly
m o vin g far e n o u g h aw ay from th e ir s e a t s s o th a t when the
w arning c o m e s th e y will h a v e to d a s h madly back to th e ir
proper p l a c e s so a s not to be c a u g h t o f f- b a se .
I would l i k e to m ention a final way in which, d ram a turg ica l
c i rc u m s p e c tio n i s e x e r c i s e d .
When te a m s c o m e into e a c h
o th e r 's im m edia te p r e s e n c e , a h o s t of minor e v e n t s may o c c u r
th a t a r e a c c i d e n ta lly s u i t a b l e for c o n v e y in g a g e n e ra l im p r e s s io n
th a t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t with th e f o s te r e d o n e.
T his ex p re ssiv e
tr e a c h e r o u s n e s s i s a b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f fa c e - to -f a c e in te r ­
ac tio n . O ne way of d e a lin g with t h i s p roblem i s , ^as p re v io u s ly
s u g g e s te d , to s e l e c t te a m - m a te s who are d is c i p l i n e d and will
not perform t h e i r p a r t s in a c lu m s y , g a u c h e , or s e l f - c o n s c i o u s
f a s h io n .
A noth er m ethod i s to p r e p a r e in a d v a n c e for all
p o ssib le ex p re ssiv e con tin g en cies.
O n e a p p l ic a tio n of th is
s t r a t e g y i s to s e t t l e on a c o m p le te a g e n d a before the ev e n t,
d e s i g n a t i n g who i s to do what and who i s to do what afte r
th a t.
In t h i s way c o n f u s i o n s an d l u l l s ca n be avoided and
h e n c e the i m p r e s s i o n s th a t s u c h h i t c h e s in th e p r o c e e d in g s
m ight c o n v e y to th e a u d ie n c e ca n be a v o id e d too.
A nother
a p p l ic a tio n of t h i s programming te c h n iq u e i s to a c c e p t th e
fact th a t p ic a y u n e e v e n t s s u c h a s who is to e n t e r a room f irs t
1 P age, op. cit., p. 92.
145
o r w ho i s to s i t n e x t to t h e h o s t e s s , e t c . , will be t a k e n a s
e x p r e s s i o n s o f r e g a rd a n d to a p p o rtio n t h e s e f a v o u r s c o n s c i o u s l y
on t h e b a s i s of p r i n c i p l e s o f ju d g m e n t to w hich no one p r e s e n t
will t a k e o f fe n c e , s u c h a s a g e , g r o s s s e n io r i ty in rank, s e x ,
te m porary ce re m o n ia l s t a t u s , e t c . T h u s in a n im p o rta n t s e n s e
p ro to c o l i s n o t s o m uch a d e v i c e for e x p r e s s i n g v a l u a t i o n s
du rin g i n t e r a c t i o n a s a d e v i c e for 'g ro u n d in g * p o te n tia lly
d i s r u p t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s in a way th a t will be a c c e p t a b l e ( a n d
u n e v e n tf u l) to a l l p r e s e n t . A third a p p l ic a tio n i s to r e h e a r s e
th e w hole r o u tin e s o th a t th e p erfo rm e rs c a n b e c o m e p r a c t i s e d
in t h e i r p a r t s and so th a t c o n t i n g e n c i e s th a t w ere no t p r e d ic te d
w ill o c c u r u n d er c i r c u m s t a n c e s in w h ich th e y c a n be s a fe ly
a t t e n d e d to . A fourth i s to o u tli n e b e fo reh a n d fo r th e a u d i e n c e
th e l i n e o f r e s p o n s e th e y a r e to ta k e to th e p erfo rm an ce . When
t h i s k in d o f b riefin g o c c u r s , o f c o u r s e , it b e c o m e s d if fic u lt to
d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n p e rfo rm e rs an d a u d i e n c e .
T h i s ty p e of
c o l l u s i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y found w here t h e perform er i s o f highly
s a c r e d s t a t u s and c a n n o t t r u s t h im s e lf to t h e s p o n ta n e o u s
t a c t o f th e a u d i e n c e .
F o r ex a m p le , in B r ita in , women who
a re to be p r e s e n t e d a t c o u r t (whom w e may th in k o f a s an
a u d i e n c e for t h e ro y al perform ers) a re c a r e f u lly s c h o o le d befo re­
h a n d a s to what to w ear, w h a t k in d o f l i m o u s in e to a rriv e in,
how to c u r ts e y , and w hat to sa y .
Protective Practices
I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h r e e a t t r i b u t e s th a t team m em b ers m ust
h a v e if th e ir te a m i s to perform in s a f e t y ; lo y a lty , d i s c i p l i n e ,
a n d c i r c u m s p e c ti o n .
E a c h of t h e s e c a p a c i t i e s i s e x p r e s s e d
in many s t a n d a r d d e f e n s iv e t e c h n i q u e s through w hich a s e t of
p e rf o rm e r s c a n s a v e th e ir own sho w . Som e of t h e s e te c h n i q u e s
o f im p r e s s io n m a n a g e m e n t w ere r e v ie w e d .
O th e r s , s u c h a s
t h e p r a c t i c e of c o n t r o l lin g a c c e s s to back r e g io n s and front
r e g io n s , w ere s u f f i c ie n tly d i s c u s s e d in e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s .
In
t h i s s e c t i o n I w ant to s t r e s s th e f a c t t h a t m o s t o f t h e s e
d e f e n s i v e t e c h n i q u e s o f i m p r e s s io n m a n ag e m en t h a v e a c o u n t e r ­
p a rt in t h e ta c tfu l t e n d e n c y o f th e a u d i e n c e and o u t s i d e r s to
a c t in a p r o te c tiv e way in o rd e r to help th e p erform ers s a v e
t h e ir own show .
S i n c e th e d e p e n d e n c e o f the p erform ers on
t h e t a c t o f t h e a u d i e n c e an d o u t s i d e r s t e n d s to be under­
e s t i m a t e d , I sh a ll bring t o g e th e r h e r e som e o f the s e v e r a l
p r o t e c t i v e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t are commonly em p lo y ed a lth o u g h ,
a n a l y t i c a l l y sp e a k in g , e a c h p r o te c tiv e p r a c t i c e might b e t te r
b e c o n s i d e r e d in c o n j u n c ti o n with th e c o r r e s p o n d in g d e f e n s iv e
p ractice.
146
F i r s t , i t s h o u ld be u n d e r s to o d t h a t a c c e s s to th e back
an d front r e g io n s o f a p erform an ce i s c o n tro lle d n o t only by
t h e p erform ers but by o t h e r s .
I n d iv id u a ls volu n ta rily s ta y
aw ay from re g io n s into which they h a v e not been in v ite d .
( T h i s k in d o f t a c t in re g a rd to p l a c e i s a n a l a g o u s to
' d i s c r e t i o n , ’ w hich h a s a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d a s t a c t in
regard to f a c ts .)
And when o u t s i d e r s find th e y are a b o u t to
e n t e r s u c h a r eg io n , th e y o fte n give t h o s e a lre a d y p r e s e n t
som e w arning, in th e form o f a m e s s a g e , or a knock, or a co u g h ,
so t h a t t h e in tru sio n c a n be put off if n e c e s s a r y o r the s e t t i n g
h u rrie dly pu t in order and proper e x p r e s s i o n s fixed on t h e
f a c e s o f t h o s e p r e s e n t. 1 T h i s kin d o f t a c t c a n bec om e n ic e ly
e l a b o r a te d . T h u s, in p r e s e n tin g o n e s e l f to a s tr a n g e r by m e a n s
o f a l e t t e r o f in tro d u c tio n , it i s thought proper to c o n v e y th e
le t t e r to th e a d d r e s s e e before a c tu a lly com ing into h i s im m e d ia te
p r e s e n c e ; th e a d d r e s s e e then h a s tim e to d e c id e w hat kind of
g r e e tin g th e ind iv id u al i s to r e c e i v e , and tim e to a s s e m b l e
t h e e x p r e s s i v e m anner a p p r o p r ia te to s u c h a g re e tin g . 2
We often find t h a t w hen in te r a c t io n m ust p ro c e e d in the
p r e s e n c e of o u ts i d e r s , o u t s i d e r s t a c tf u lly a c t in an u n in te r e s te d ,
un in v o lv e d , u n p e r c e iv in g f a s h io n , so t h a t if p h y s ic a l c l o s u r e
i s not o b ta in e d by w a ll s or d i s t a n c e , e f f e c tiv e c lo s u r e ca n at
l e a s t be o b ta in e d by c o n v e n tio n . T h u s when two s e t s o f p e r s o n s
find t h e m s e l v e s in n eig h b o u rin g b o o th s in a r e s ta u r a n t, i t i s
e x p e c te d th a t n e i th e r group will avail i t s e l f o f the o p p o r tu n iti e s
that a c tu a lly e x i s t for o v e r h e a r in g t h e other.
E t i q u e t t e a s r e g a r d s ta c tf u l in a tte n tio n , and t h e e f f e c tiv e
p riv a c y it p r o v id e s , v a r i e s , o f c o u r s e , from o n e s o c ie t y and
s u b c u ltu r e to an o th er. In m i d d l e - c l a s s A nglo-Am erican s o c ie t y ,
when in a p u b lic p l a c e , one i s su p p o s e d to k e e p o n e ’s n o s e
o u t of o th e r p e o p l e ’s a c tiv i ty and go about o n e ’s own b u s i n e s s .
It i s o nly w hen a woman d ro p s a p a c k a g e , or w hen a fellow m o to rist g e t s s t a l l e d in th e m iddle o f th e road, or when a
baby le ft a l o n e in a c a r r i a g e b e g i n s to sc re a m , th a t m i d d l e - c l a s s
p e o p l e feel it i s all righ t to break down m om entarily the w a lls
w hich e f f e c tiv e ly i n s u l a t e them.
In the rural is l a n d c u ltu r e
stu d ie d by th e writer, d if fe r e n t r u l e s o b ta in e d .
If any man
h a p p e n e d to find h im s e lf in th e p r e s e n c e of o th e rs who were
e n g a g e d in a t a s k , it w a s e x p e c t e d th a t he would lend a hand,
1 Maids a r e o f te n t r a i n e d to e n t e r a room w ith o u t k n o ck in g, or to k n o c k and
go right in, p r e su m a b ly on the th eo ry t h a t they arc n o n - p e r s o n s before
whom any p r e t e n c e or in t e r a c t i o n r e a d i n e s s on the p ar t o f t h o s e in the
room n e e d n o t be m a i n t a i n e d . F rie n d ly h o u s e w i v e s w i l l e n t e r e a c h o t h e r ’s
k i t c h e n s with s i m i l a r l i c e n c e , a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h a v i n g n o th in g to
h id e from e a c h oth er.
* E sq u ire
E t i q u e t t e , op.
cit.,
p.
73-
147
e s p e c i a l l y if t h e t a s k w a s r e la tiv e ly b r ie f a n d r e la tiv e ly
s tr e n u o u s .
Such c a s u a l m utual aid was ta k e n a s a m a tte r o f
c o u r s e and w a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f n o th in g c l o s e r than fellowisla n d e r statu s.
O n c e the a u d i e n c e h a s b e e n a d m itte d to a perform ance,
t h e n e c e s s i t y of b e in g ta c tfu l d o e s not c e a s e .
We find th a t
th e re i s a n e l a b o r a t e e t i q u e t t e by w hich in d iv i d u a ls guide
them s e l v e s in th e ir c a p a c i t y a s m em bers o f the a u d i e n c e .
T h i s i n v o l v e s : th e giving of a p roper am ount of a tte n tio n and
i n t e r e s t ; a w i l l i n g n e s s to hold in c h e c k o n e 's own perfo rm an ce
so a s not to in tr o d u c e too many c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , in te r ru p tio n s ,
o r d e m a n d s for a t te n t io n ; th e in h ib itio n o f all a c t s or s t a t e m e n t s
th a t m ight c r e a t e a faux p a s ; th e d e s i r e , a b o v e *li e l s e , to
avoid a s c e n e .
A u d ie n c e t a c t i s so g e n e r a l a th in g th a t we
may e x p e c t to find it e x e r c i s e d e v e n by in d iv i d u a ls , famous
for th e ir m is b e h a v io u r, who are p a t i e n t s in m ental h o sp ic a ls.
T h u s on e r e s e a r c h group r e p o r t s :
Ac a n o t h e r ti m e , th e s t a f f , w itho u t c o n s u l t i n g t h e p a t i e n t s , d e c i d e d
to g i v e them a V a l e n t i n e p arty . Many o f t h e p a t i e n t s d id n o t w i s h to
g o, but d id s o an y w ay a s th ey felc t h a t they sh o u l d n o t hurt the f e e l i n g s
o f che s t u d e n t n u r s e s who h a d o r g a n i z e d th e p arty . T h e g a m e s in tro d u c e d
by t h e n u r s e s w e r e on a very c h i l d i s h l e v e l ; many o f che pac iencs felt
s i l l y p l a y i n g them a n d w ere g l a d when the pa rty w as over a n d they
c o u l d go b ack to a c t i v i t i e s of t h e i r own c h o o s i n g . 1
We a l s o find that when perform ers make a s l i p of som e
kind, c l e a r l y e x h i b itin g a d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n the fo s te r e d
im p r e s s io n an d a d i s c l o s e d r e a lity , th e a u d i e n c e may ta c tfu lly
' n o t s e e ’ th e s lip or r e a d ily a c c e p t th e e x c u s e t h a t is o ffered
for it.
F u r th e r , we find th a t a t m o m e n ts o f c r i s i s for the
perform ers, the w hole a u d i e n c e may com e in to t a c i t c o llu s io n
w ith th e p erfo rm ers in order to help them out. T h u s we le arn
t h a t in mental h o s p i t a l s w hen a p a t i e n t d i e s in s u c h a way a s
to r e f le c t upon th e im p re ssio n of u se fu l tre a tm e n t th a t th e
s ta f f is a t te m p tin g to m a in ta in , the oth e r p a t i e n t s , o rd in aiily
d i s p o s e d to give th e s t a f f tro u b le , will t a c tf u lly e a s e up their
w arfa re a n d w ith much d e l i c a c y help s u s t a i n th e q u ite fa l^ e
im p r e s s io n th a t they h av e not ab s o rb e d th e m eaning of what
h a s h a p p e n e d . 2 S im ilarly, at ti m e s of in s p e c t io n , w h eth e r in
s c h o o l, in b a r r a c k s , in the h o s p it a l, or a t home, th e a u d i e n c e
i s l ik e ly to b e h a v e i t s e l f in a model way so th a t th e perform ers
who a r e b eing i n s p e c t e d may put on an exe m pla ry show .
At
'W i l l i a m C a u d i l l , F re d e r i c k C. Redlicli, H elen R. Gilm ore a n d Kugene B.
Bro d y , ‘S o c i a l S t ru c ru re and I n t e ra c ti o n P r o c e s s e s on a P s y c h i a t r i c
Ward,’ A m e r i c a n Jo u r n a l o f O r th o p s y c h i a t r y , XXII, 321-322.
2 S e e T a x e l , op. c i t . , p. 118. Vl'hen two t e a m s know an e m b a r r a s s i n g fact,
a n d e a c h t eam k n o w s the oth er t eam know s it, a n d y e t n c M i e r te a m open ly
a d m i t s i t s k n o w le d g e , we g e t an i n s t a n c e of w h at Robert b u b i n h a s c a l l e d
'o rg an izatio n al fictio n s.'
S ee Dubin, op. c i t . , p p . 341-3^5-
148
s u c h tim e s , te am l i n e s a re a p t to s h i f t s l i g h t l y and m om entarily
s o th a t t h e i n s p e c t i n g s u p e r in t e n d e n t, g e n e r a l, d ir e c to r , or
g u e s t will be f a c e d by p erform ers a n d a u d i e n c e who a r e in
c o l lu s io n .
A lin a l i n s t a n c e of t a c t in h a n d lin g th e perform er may be
c i te d .
When th e perform er i s known to be a b e g in n er, and
more s u b j e c t th a n o th e r w is e to e m b a r r a s s i n g m i s t a k e s , th e
a u d i e n c e , f re q u e n tly s h o w s e x tra c o n s i d e r a t i o n , re fra in in g
from c a u s i n g th e d i f f i c u l t i e s it m ight o t h e r w i s e c r e a t e .
I w ould l i k e to ad d a c o n c lu d in g f a c t a b o u t t a c t . Whenever
t h e a u d i e n c e e x e r c i s e s t a c t, th e p o s s i b i l i t y w ill a r i s e th a t
th e p e rfo rm e rs w ill le arn th a t th e y are b ein g ta c t f u l l y p r o te c te d .
When t h i s o c c u r s , t h e fu rth e r p o s s i b i l i t y a r i s e s th a t th e a u d i e n c e
w ill learn th a t th e perfo rm ers know they a re b ein g ta c tf u lly
p ro tec ted .
And th en, in turn, it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e for the
perform ers to le a rn th a t the a u d i e n c e k now s th a t the perform ers
know t h e y are being p r o te c te d .
Now w hen s u c h s t a t e s of
in fo rm a tio n e x i s t , a moment in th e p erfo rm an ce may com e
w h en th e s e p a r a t e n e s s of th e t e a m s w ill b reak down a n d be
m o m e n ta rily r e p l a c e d by a com munion of g l a n c e s through w hich
e a c h team o p e n ly a d m its to the o th e r i t s s t a t e of inform ation.
A t s u c h m o m e n ts th e w hole d r am a tu rg ica l s tr u c t u r e of s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n i s s u d d e n ly an d p o ig n a n tly la id bare, an d th e lin e
s e p a r a t i n g th e t e a m s m om entarily d i s a p p e a r s .
Whether t h i s
c l o s e v ie w of th in g s b rin g s sh a m e or la u g h te r , th e teams» are
l ik e ly to d raw r a p id l y b ack in to th e ir a p p o in te d c h a r a c t e r s .
Tact Regarding Tact
It h a s been a r g u e d th a t t h e a u d i e n c e c o n t r i b u t e s in a
s i g n i f i c a n t way to the m a in te n a n c e of a sh o w by e x e r c i s i n g
t a c t o r p r o t e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s on b e h a lf of th e perform ers. It i s
a p p a r e n t th a t i f th e a u d i e n c e i s to em ploy t a c t on th e perform er’s
b eh a lf, the p erfo rm er m u st a c t in s u c h a w ay a s to make the
re n d e rin g o f t h i s a s s i s t a n c e p o s s i b l e .
T h i s w ill re q u ire
d i s c i p l i n e and c i r c u m s p e c t i o n , but of a s p e c i a l order.
For
e x a m p le , it w a s s u g g e s t e d th a t ta c tf u l o u t s i d e r s in a p h y s ic a l
p o s it io n to o v e r h e a r a n i n te r a c t io n m ay o ffe r a s h o w o f
inatten tion .
In o rd e r to a s s i s t in th is ta c tf u l w ith d ra w a l, th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s who feel i t i s p h y s i c a l l y p o s s i b l e for them to be
o v e rh e a rd may omit from th e ir c o n v e r s a ti o n and a c t i v i t y anythin g
t h a t would ta x t h i s ta c tf u l r e s o lv e of the o u t s i d e r s , and at
t h e s a m e tim e i n c lu d e e n o u g h s e m i- c o n f id e n t ia l f a c t s to sho w
t h a t th e y do not d i s t r u s t th e sh o w of w ith d raw a l p r e s e n te d by
th e outsid ers.
S im ila rly, it a s e c r e t a r y i s to te ll a v is i to r
149
ta c tf u lly th a t th e man he w i s h e s to s e e i s out, it will be w ise
for the v i s i t o r to s te p bac k from th e in te r-o ffic e te l e p h o n e so
t h a t he c a n n o t h e a r w hat the s e c r e t a r y is being told by the
man who i s p re su m a b ly not th e re to te ll her.
I would l i k e to c o n c lu d e by m e n tio n in g tw o g e n e r a l
s t r a t e g i e s re g a rd in g t a c t with r e s p e c t to t a c t.
F i r s t , th e
perform er m ust be s e n s i t i v e to h i n t s and rea dy to t a k e them,
for it i s through h i n t s that the a u d i e n c e c a n warn t h e perform er
t h a t h is show is u n a c c e p ta b le and th a t he had b e t te r modify
it q u ic kly if the s i t u a ti o n is to be s a v e d .
S eco n d ly , if the
perform er i s to m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e f a c t s in a n y w ay, he m ust do
s o in a c c o r d a n c e with th e e t iq u e t te for m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; he
m ust not l e a v e h im s e lf in a p o sitio n from w hich e v e n the l a m e s t
e x c u s e and th e most c o - o p e ra tiv e a u d i e n c e c a n n o t e x t r i c a t e
him. In t e l l i n g an untruth, the perform er i s e n jo in e d to reta in
a sha dow of j e s t in h i s v o ic e so th a t, should he be caughc
out, he c a n d is a v o w an y claim to s e r i o u s n e s s and s a y th a t he
w as only joking. In m is r e p r e s e n t in g h is p h y s ic a l a p p e a r a n c e ,
th e performer is e n jo in e d to u s e a method w hich a l lo w s of an
in n o c e n t e x c u s e .
T h u s b ald in g men who a f fe c t a h a t in d o o rs
an d out a re more or l e s s e x c u s e d , s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e that
th e y have a co ld , chat th e y , merely forgot to t a k e their h a t off,
o r th a t ra in c a n fall in u n e x p e c te d p l a c e s ; a to u p e e , however,
o f fe rs the w earer no e x c u s e an d th e a u d i e n c e no e x c u s e for
excuse.
In fa c t th e re is a s e n s e in which the c a te g o ry of
im po stor, p re v io u s ly referre d co, c a n be d e fin e d a s a p erso n
who m a k e s it im p o s s ib le for h i s a u d i e n c e to be ta c tf u l abo u t
o b s e rv e d m is r e p r e s e n t a ti o n .
aranniD
In s p i t e of th e f a c t th a t perform ers and a u d i e n c e em ploy
a ll of t h e s e te c h n i q u e s of im p r e s s io n m anagem ent, and many
o t h e r s a s w ell, we know, of c o u r s e , th a t i n c i d e n t s do o c c u r
a n d that a u d i e n c e s are in a d v e r ta n t ly given g lim p s e s behind
t h e s c e n e s of a perfo rm ance.
When s u c h a n in c id e n t o c c u rs,
t h e m em bers of an a u d ie n c e so m e tim e s le a rn a n im portant
l e s s o n , more im portant to them th a n the a g g r e s s i v e p le a s u r e
th e y c a n o b ta in by d i s c o v e r in g so m e o n e ’s dark. • P Q f'i^ red.
i n s i d e , or sc ra te g ic s e c r e t s .
T h e members of the a u d i e n c e
may d is c o v e r a fun d am e n tal d em o crac y th a t is u s u a lly well
h idden. Whether th e c h a r a c t e r th a t i s being p r e s e n te d i s so b e r
o r c a r e f r e e , of high s ta tio n or low, th e in d iv id u a l who perform s
th e c h a r a c t e r will be s e e n for w hat he la rg e ly i s , a s o lita r y
p la y e r involved in a h arried c o n c e rn for h is p rod uction. Behind
150
many m a s k s and many c h a r a c t e r s , e a c h perform er te n d s to
w ea r a s i n g l e look, a n ak e d u n s o c ia liE e d look, a look o f co n ­
c e n tr a tio n , a look of one who i s p riv ately e n g a g e d in a d ifficult,
t r e a c h e r o u s ta s k . De B eau v o ir, in h e r book on women, p r o v id e s
an i l l u s t r a t i o n :
And in sp ic e o f a l l h e r p r u d e n c e , a c c i d e n t s will h a p p e n ; wine i s
on h er d r e s s , a c i g a r e t t e b u r n s i t ; t h i s mar ks the d i s a p p e a r a n c e
of t h e l u x u r io u s a n d f e s t i v e c r e a t u r e who bore h e r s e l f w ith s m ilin g
o ride in t h e ballroom, fo t s h e no w a s s u m e s the s e r i o u s and s e v e r e
look o f th e h o u s e k e e p e r ; it b e c o m e s a l l a t o n ce e v i d e n t t h a t h e r t o i l e t t e
w a s n o t a s e t p i e c e l i k e f ire w o r k s, a t r a n s i e n t burst of s p l e n d o r, i n t e n d e d
for the l a v i s h illu m in a tio n of a m om ent. It i s r a t h e r a r i c h p o s s e s s i o n ,
c a p i t a l g o o d s , an i n v e s t m e n t ; i t h a s m e a n t s a c r i f i c e ; i t s l o s s i s a real
disaster
S po ts, r e n t s , b o t c h e d d r e s s m a k i n g , bad h a i r d o s ar e c a t a ­
s t r o p h e s s t i l l more s e r i o u s t h a n a bur nt r o a s t o r a broken v a s e ; fo r n o t
o nlv d o e s th e wom an o f f a sh io n p r o j e c t h e r s e l f into t h i n g s , s h e h a s
c h o s e n to make h e r s e l f a t h in g , a n d s h e f e e l s d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n e d i n
rhe wor ld
H er r e l a t i o n s with d r e s s m a k e r a n d m illin e r, her f id getin g,
h er s t r i c t d e m a n d s - a l l t h e s e m a n i f e s t h er s e r i o u s a t t . t u d e and h e r
s e n s e of i n s e c u r i t y . 1
_______________ __________________
sD ilied
i de B e auv o ir, op. c i l . , p. 536.
151
CHAPTER Vil
CO N CLU SIO N
The Framework
A s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t i s any p l a c e s u rro u n d e d by fixed
b a r r i e r s to p e r c e p tio n in w hich a p a r ti c u la r kind of a c tiv i ty
r e g u la r l y t a k e s p l a c e .
I h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t an y s o c i a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t may be s tu d i e d p ro fita b ly from th e point of
v ie w of im p r e s s io n m a n a g e m e n t. Within the w a l l s of a s o c i a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t we find a te am of p erform ers who c o - o p e r a te to
p r e s e n t to an a u d i e n c e a g iven defin itio n of the s i t u a t i o n .
T h i s will i n c lu d e th e c o n c e p t i o n of own te am an d of a u d i e n c e
a n d a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n in g the e t h o s th a t is to b e m a in ta in e d
by r u l e s of p o l i t e n e s s a n d decorum . We often find a d iv is io n
into b a c k reg ion, w here th e p erfo rm an ce o f a r o u tin e i s p rep a re d ,
an d front r eg io n , w here th e p erfo rm an ce is p r e s e n te d .
We
find th a t a c c e s s to t h e s e r e g io n s i s c o n tro lle d in order to
p r e v e n t th e a u d i e n c e from s e e in g b a c k s t a g e and to p rev e n t
o u t s i d e r s from com ing into a p erfo rm an ce th a t i s not a d d r e s s e d
to them. Among m e m b ers of th e team w e find th a t fam iliarity
p r e v a ils , that s o li d a r i t y i s l i k e l y to d e v e lo p , an d th a t s e c r e t s
t h a t could g iv e th e s h o w aw a y a r e s h a re d and kep t. A ta c it
a g r e e m e n t i s m a in ta in e d b e t w e e n perfo rm ers an d a u d i e n c e to
a c t a s if a g iv e n d e g r e e of o p p o s i t i o n and of a c c o rd e x i s te d
b e t w e e n them . T y p ic a lly , but not a l w a y s , a g r e e m e n t i s s t r e s s e d
a n d o p p o s itio n i s u n d e r p la y e d .
We find th a t th e r e s u lt in g
w o rk in g c o n s e n s u s te n d s to be c o n t r a d ic t e d by the a t t i t u d e
to w ard th e a u d i e n c e w hich t h e perfo rm ers e x p r e s s in th e
a b s e n c e o f th e a u d i e n c e aijd by c a r e f u lly c o n t ro l le d co m m u n ic a­
tio n out of c h a r a c t e r co n v e y e d by the perform ers while th e
audience is present.
We find th a t d i s c r e p a n t r o le s d e v e lo p :
so m e of th e in d i v i d u a l s who a r e a p p a r e n tly te a m -m a te s , or
a u d i e n c e , o r o u t s i d e r s a c q u ir e inform ation abo u t th e p erfo rm an ce
a n d r e l a t i o n s to th e team w h ich are not a p p a r e n t and which
c o m p l i c a t e th e problem o f p u ttin g on a show.
We find th a t
so m e tim e s d is r u p t i o n s o c c u r through u n m e ant g e s t u r e s , faux
p a s , and s c e n e s , t h u s d i s c r e d i t i n g o r c o n t r a d ic t in g t h e
d e f in itio n o f the s i t u a t i o n th a t i s b e in g m a in ta in e d .
We find
th a t th e m ythology o f the te a m w ill dw ell upon t h e s e d is r u p t i v e
ev e n ts.
We find th a t pe rfo rm e rs, a u d i e n c e , and o u t s i d e r s all
152
u ti l i z e te c h n i q u e s for s a v in g th e show, w hether by avoid ing
lik e ly d i s r u p tio n s or by c o r r e c tin g for u n a v o id e d o n e s , or by
m aking it p o s s i b l e for o th e r s to do so. T c e n s u re th a t t h e s e
te c h n i q u e s will be em ployed, we find that th e te a m will te n d
to s e l e c t m em bers who are lo y a l, d is c i p l i n e d , an d c irc u m s p e c t,
a n d to s e l e c t an a u d i e n c e th a t i s ta c tf u l. T h e s e f e a tu r e s and
e le m e n ts , th en, c o m p rise th e framework 1 c la im to be c h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c of much s o c i a l in te r a c t io n a s it o c c u r s in natu ra l s e t t i n g s
in our s o c ie t y .
T h is framework i s formal and a b s t r a c t in th e s e n s e th a t it
c a n be a p p lie d to any s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t ; it i s not, how ever,
m erely a s t a t i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
T h e framework b e a r s upon
dynam ic i s s u e s c r e a t e d by th e m otivation to s u s t a i n a d e fin itio n
of th e s i t u a ti o n w hich h a s bee n p ro je c te d before o th e rs .
The Analytical Context
T h i s report h a s b e e n c h ie f ly c o n c e r n e d with s o c i a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a s r e la tiv e ly c l o s e d s y s t e m s .
I t h a s been
a s s u m e d th a t th e r e la tio n of o n e e s ta b l is h m e n t to o t h e r s i s
i t s e l f a n in te l l i g i b l e a r e a of s tu d y a n d ought to be tr e a te d
a n a l y t i c a l l y a s part of a d iffe ren t o rder of f a c t —th e o rd e r of
i n s t itu ti o n a l in te g r a tio n . It might be well here to try to p la c e
th e p e r s p e c t i v e ta k e n in th is report in th e c o n t e x t of o th e r
p e r s p e c t i v e s w hich seem to be th e o n e s c u r r e n tly em ployed,
im p lic itly or e x p l ic i tly , in the stu d y of s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s
a s c l o s e d s y s t e m s . F o u r s u c h p e r s p e c t i v e s may be te n ta t iv e l y
s u g g e s te d .
An e s ta b l is h m e n t may be vie w e d ' t e c h n i c a l l y , ’ in te rm s
o f i t s e f f ic ie n c y and in e ff ic ie n c y a s an in te n tio n a lly o rg a n iz e d
sy s te m o f a c tiv i ty for the a c h ie v e m e n t o f p re-d efin ed o b j e c t i v e s .
An e s t a b l is h m e n t may be v iew ed ‘ p o l i t i c a l l y , ’ in te rm s o f the
a c t i o n s w hich e a c h p a r ti c ip a n t (or c l a s s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s ) ca n
dem and of other p a r t i c i p a n t s , the k in d s of d e p r iv a tio n s and
i n d u lg e n c e s which c a n be meted out in order to e n fo rce t h e s e
de m a n d s, and the k in d s of s o c i a l c o n t r o l s which guide t h i s
e x e r c i s e of command and u s e of s a n c ti o n s .
An e s t a b l i s h m e n t may be v ie w e d ' s t r u c t u r a l l y , ’ in te rm s
o f th e h o rizontal and v e r ti c a l s t a t u s d i v i s i o n s and the k in d s
o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w hich r e l a t e t h e s e s e v e r a l grou p in g s to
o n e an o th er.
F i n a l l y , an e s t a b l i s h m e n t may b e v ie w e d
' c u l t u r a l l y , ’ in te rm s of the moral v a l u e s w hich in f lu e n c e
a c t i v i t y in the e s t a b l i s h m e n t —v a l u e s p e r ta in in g to f a s h io n s ,
c u s to m s , and m a tte rs of t a s t e , to p o l i t e n e s s and decorum , to
u ltim a te e n d s and n o rm ative r e s t r i c t i o n s on m e a n s, e tc . It i s
153
t' Se n o te d th a t all th e f a c t s t h a t ca n be d i s c o v e r e d a b o u t an
e ^ a b l i s h m e n t a re r e l e v a n t to e a c h of th e four p e r s p e c t i v e s
but th a t e a c h p e r s p e c t i v e g i v e s i t s own priority a n d o rd e r to
th e se facts.
It s e e m s to me tb a t t h e d r a m a tu r g ic a l ap p ro a c h may
c o n s t i t u t e a fifth p e r s p e c t i v e , to be a d d e d to the t e c h n ic a l ,
p o l it ic a l, s tr u c t u r a l, and c u l tu r a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . 1 T h e dram a­
tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e , lik e e a c h o f th e o th e r four, c a n be
em p lo y ed a s the e n d -p o in t of a n a l y s i s , a s a final way of order­
in g f a c t s .
T h i s would l e a d us to d e s c r i b e th e t e c h n i q u e s of
i m p r e s s io n m a n ag e m en t e m p lo y ed in a g iv e n e s t a b l i s h m e n t ,
t h e p r in c ip a l p r o b le m s o f i m p r e s s io n m a n ag e m en t in the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , and the id e n t i t y and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f the
s e v e r a l perform ance t e a m s w hich o p e r a te in th e e s ta b l is h m e n t.
But, a s w ith the f a c t s u t i l i z e d in e a c h of th e o th e r p e r s p e c t i v e s ,
the f a c t s s p e c i f i c a l l y p e r t a i n i n g to im p r e s s io n m anagem ent
a l s o pla y a part in the m a tte r s t h a t a re a c o n c e r n in a l l the
o th e r p e r s p e c t i v e s . It may be u se fu l to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s b riefly.
T h e t e c h n i c a l and d r a m a tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t e r s e c t
m ost c l e a r ly , p e r h a p s , in re g a rd to s t a n d a r d s of work. Important
for both p e r s p e c t i v e s i s th e f a c t t h a t one s e t of in d iv i d u a ls
will be c o n c e rn e d w ith t e s t i n g th e u n a p p a r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and q u a l i t i e s of the w o rk - a c c o m p lis h m e n ts of a n o t h e r s e t of
in d iv i d u a ls , and th is o th e r s e t will be c o n c e r n e d with givin g
th e im p r e s s io n th a t th e ir work e m b o d ie s t h e s e h id den a t tr ib u te s .
T h e p o l i t i c a l and d r a m a tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t e r s e c t c l e a r ly
in reg a rd to th e c a p a c i t i e s of o n e in d iv id u a l to d ir e c t the
a c t i v i t y of an o th e r. F o r o n e th in g , if an in d iv id u a l is to d ir e c t
a n o th e r , or o th e r s , he w ill often find it u se fu l to k eep s t r a t e g i c
s e c r e t s from them.
F u rth e r, if one in d iv id ual a t te m p ts to
d ire c t th e a c t i v i t y o f o th e r s by m e a n s of exa m ple , en lig h te n m e n t,
p e r s u a s i o n , e x c h a n g e , m a n ip u la tio n , au th o rity , th r e a t, p u n is h ­
ment, or c o e r c io n , it will be n e c e s s a r y , r e g a r d l e s s of h is
po w er p o s it io n , to c o n v e y e f f e c t i v e l y w hat he w an ts d one and
w hat he i s p rep ared to do to get it d one arid w hat he will do
if it i s not done. P o w e r of a n y kind must be c lo th ed in e f f e c tiv e
m e a n s of d is p l a y in g it, and it will hav e d iffe re n t e f f e c t s d e p e n d ­
in g upon how it is d r a m a tiz e d .
(Of c o u r s e , the c a p a c i t y to
c o n v e y e f f e c tiv e ly a d e f in itio n of the s i t u a t i o n may be of
l i t t l e u se if one i s not in a p o s it io n to give exam ple, e x c h a n g e ,
p u n ish m e n t, e t c . )
T h u s th e most o b je c ti v e form of n ak e d
pow er, i . e . , p h y s ic a l c o e r c io n , i s o f te n n e i th e r o b je c tiv e nor
C o m p a r e the p o s i t i o n t a k e n by O s w a l d H all in regard to p o s s i b l e
p e r s p e c t i v e s for t h e s t u d y o f c l o s e d s y s t e m s in h i s ' M etho ds a nd
T e c h n i q u e s o f R e s e a r c h in Human R e l a t i o n s ' (A pril, 1952), r ep o rted in
E. C- H u g h e s e t a l., C a s e s on F i e l d Work, forthcoming.
154
naked but ra th e r f u n c tio n s a s a d i s p l a y for p e r s u a d in g the
a u d i e n c e ; it i s often a m eans o f co m m unic ation, not merely a
m e a n s of ac tio n . T h e s tr u c tu ra l and d r a m a tu r g ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s
seem to i n t e r s e c t m o s t c le a rly in regard to s o c i a l d is t a n c e .
T h e im a g e th a t one s t a t u s grouping is a b l e to m aintain in the
e y e s of an a u d ie n c e of other s t a t u s g ro u p in g s will depend
upon th e p erfo rm e rs’ c a p a c i t y to r e s t r i c t co m m u n ic ativ e c o n tac t
with the a u d ie n c e . T h e cu ltu ral and d ra m a tu rg ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e s
i n t e r s e c t most c l e a r ly in regard to th e m a in te n a n c e of moral
s ta n d a r d s .
T h e c u ltu ra l v a l u e s of a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t will
determ in e in d e ta il how th e p a r t i c i p a n t s are to feel about
many m a tte rs and a t the s a m e tim e e s t a b l i s h a framework of
a p p e a r a n c e s th a t m ust be m a in ta in ed , w h eth e r or not there i s
fe e lin g behind th e a p p e a r a n c e s .
Personolity-lnteroction-Sociefy
In r e c e n t y e a r s there have been e l a b o r a t e a t te m p ts to
bring into one framework the c o n c e p t s an d fin d in g s derived
from t h r e e d iffe re n t a r e a s of in q u ir y : the in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity ,
s o c ia l in te r a c tio n , and s o c ie ty . I would like to s u g g e s t here
a sim ple a d dition to th e s e in te r - d is c ip li n a r y a tte m p ts .
When an in d iv id u a l a p p e a r s before o th e rs , he w ittingly
and unw ittin g ly p r o je c ts a d e fin itio n of the s it u a ti o n , of w hich
a c o n c e p tio n of h im s e lf is an im portant p art. When an e v e n t
o c c u r s which i s e x p r e s s i v e l y in c o m p a tib le w ith th is fo ste re d
im p r e s s io n , s ig n i f i c a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e s i m u lta n e o u s ly felt
in th r e e l e v e l s o f s o c i a l rea lity , e a c h o f w hich in v o lv e s a
d ifferent point o f referen c e and a d iffe re n t order of fact.
F ir s t, the s o c i a l in te r a c tio n , tr e a te d here a s a d ia lo g u e
betw e en two te am s, may com e to an e m b a r ra s s e d an d con fu se d
h a l t ; the s it u a ti o n may c e a s e to be d e fin e d , p r e v io u s p o s it io n s
may bec om e no lo n g e r te n a b le , and p a r t i c i p a n t s may find
t h e m s e l v e s w ithout a c h a r te d c o u r s e of a c tio n . T he p a r ti c ip a n ts
t y p ic a l ly s e n s e a f a l s e no te in th e s i t u a ti o n and com e to feel
aw kw ard, f lu ste re d , and, lite r a ll y , out of c o u n t e n a n c e .
In
o th e r w ords, the m inute s o c ia l s y s t e m c r e a te d and s u s t a in e d
by orderly s o c i a l in te r a c t io n b e c o m e s d is o r g a n i z e d .
These
a re th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t th e d isru p tio n h a s from the point
o f view of s o c i a l in te r a c tio n .
S econdly , in ad d itio n to t h e s e d is o r g a n i z in g c o n s e q u e n c e s
for a c tio n a t the moment, perfo rm an ce d is r u p tio n s may h a v e
c o n s e q u e n c e s of a more far-rea ch in g kind. A u d ie n c e s tend to
a c c e p t the s e l f projecced by the in d ividual performer during
any cu rren t perform ance a s a r e s p o n s i b le r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
155
h is c o l le a g u e - g r o u p in g , of h i s te am , a n d of h i s s o c i a l
establish m ent.
A u d ie n c e s a l s o a c c e p t th e in d iv i d u a l’s
p a r ti c u la r p erform ance a s e v i d e n c e of h is c a p a c i t y to perform
th e ro u tin e and eve n a s e v i d e n c e of h i s c a p a c ity to perform any
routine. In a s e n s e t h e s e la r g e r s o c i a l u n i t s —te a m s , e s t a b l i s h ­
m ents, e t c . —becom e c o m m itted e v e ry tim e th e in d iv id u a l
perform s h i s r o u tin e ; with e a c h p erform ance th e le g itim a c y of
th e s e u n i t s will te n d to be t e s t e d an ew an d th e ir p erm a nent
r e p u ta tio n put at s t a k e . T h i s kind of com m itm ent i s e s p e c i a l l y
s tr o n g d u rin g som e p erfo rm a n c e s.
T h u s, w hen a s u r g e o n an d
h i s n u r s e both turn from th e o p e r a tin g ta b l e and th e a n e s t h e t i z e d
p a t i e n t a c c i d e n t a l l y r o lls off the ta b l e to h i s d e a th , not only
i s th e o p e r a tio n d is r u p te d in an e m b a r r a s s i n g way, but the
r e p u ta tio n of th e d o cto r, a s a d o cto r an d a s a man, and a l s o
t h e r e p u ta tio n o f the h o s p it a l may be w e a k e n e d .
T h e s e are
th e c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t d i s r u p tio n s may have from th e point of
v iew of s o c i a l s tr u c t u re .
F in a ll y , we o f te n find th a t the in d iv id u a l may d ee p ly involve
h i s ego in h is i d e n tif ic a tio n w ith a p a r tic u la r role, e s t a b l i s h ­
ment, an d group and in h is s e lf - c o n c e p t io n a s so m e o n e who
d o e s not d is r u p t s o c i a l in te r a c t io n or le t down the s o c ia l
u n i t s w hich dep e n d upon th at in te r a c tio n .
When a d isru p tio n
o c c u r s , then, we may find th a t the s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s around
w h ich he h a s b u ilt h is p e r s o n a lity may bec o m e d i s c r e d ite d .
T h e s e are c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t d is r u p t i o n s may h av e from the
po in t o f view o f in d iv id u al p e r s o n a lity .
P e r fo r m a n c e
d is r u p tio n s , th e n , h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s at
t h r e e l e v e l s of a b s t r a c t i o n : p e r s o n a lity , in te r a c t io n , and s o c i a l
s tr u c t u r e .
While th e lik e lih o o d of d is r u p tio n will vary w idely
from i n te r a c t io n to in te r a c t io n , a n d w h ile the s o c i a l im p o rta n ce
of l ik e ly d is r u p t i o n s w ill vary from in te r a c t io n to in te r a c tio n ,
s ti ll it s e e m s th a t th e re i s no in te r a c t io n in w hich th e p a r t i c i ­
p a n t s do not ta k e an a p p r e c i a b l e c h a n c e o f b e in g s li g h tly
e m b a r r a s s e d or a s li g h t c h a n c e o f being d e e p ly h u m ilia te d .
L if e may not be much of a g am b le, but in te r a c t io n is . F u rth e r,
in s o far a s in d iv i d u a ls make e ff o rts to a v o id d is r u p t i o n s or
to c o r r e c t for o n e s not a v o id e d , t h e s e e f f o rts , too, will have
s i m u lta n e o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s a t the th ree l e v e l s .
H ere, then,
we h a v e o n e s im p le way o f a r t i c u l a t i n g t h r e e l e v e l s of
a b s tr a c t io n and th r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s from w hich s o c i a l life h a s
been s tu d ie d .
Comporisons and Study
In th is report, u s e h a s been made of i l l u s t r a t i o n s from
s o c i e t i e s o th e r th a n our A nglo-A m erican o n e . In doing th is I
1 56
did n o t m ean to imply that the framework p r e s e n t e d here i s
c u l tu r e - fr e e or a p p l ic a b le in th e s a m e a r e a s o f s o c i a l life in
non-W estern s o c i e t i e s a s in our own. We le a d an indoor s o c ia l
life .
We s p e c i a l i z e in fixed s e t t i n g s , in k e e p in g s t r a n g e r s
o u t, and in givin g th e perform er some p r iv a c y in w h ich to
p r e p a re h im s e lf for the show . O nce we begin a perform ance,
we are in c lin e d to f in is h it, an d we a re s e n s i t i v e to jarring
n o t e s w hich may o c c u r during it.
If we a r e c a u g h t out in a
m is r e p r e s e n t a ti o n we feel d e e p ly h u m iliated . G iven our general
dram a tu rg ica l r u le s a n d i n c l i n a t i o n s for c o n d u c tin g ac tio n ,
we must not overlo o k a r e a s of life in o th e r s o c i e t i e s in which
o t h e r r u l e s a r e a p p a r e n tly follow ed.
R e p o rt s by Western
tr a v e l l e r s are fille d with i n s t a n c e s in w hich th e ir d ram a turgica l
s e n s e w a s offended or su r p ris e d , an d if w e are to g e n e r a liz e
to o th e r c u l t u r e s we m u st c o n s id e r t h e s e i n s t a n c e s a s well
a s more f a v o u r a b le o n e s .
We m ust be r ea d y to s e e in C h in a
t h a t w h ile a c t i o n s a n d d e c o r may be w onderfully harm on io us
and c o h e r e n t in a p r iv a te tea-room , ex tre m e ly e l a b o r a te m e a ls
m ay be s e r v e d in ex tre m e ly plain r e s t a u r a n t s , and s h o p s that
look lik e h o v e ls s ta f f e d with surly, f am iliar c l e r k s may c o n ta in
within th e ir r e c e s s e s , w rapped in old brown pap e r, w onderfully
d e l i c a t e b o l t s of s i l k . 1 And am ong a p e o p l e s a i d to be careful
to s a v e e a c h o t h e r ’s f a c e , we m ust be p repared to read t h a t :
1‘o rtu n n ie ly the C h i n e s e do not b e l i e v e in the p r i v a c y of a home a s
w e do. T h ey do not mind h a v i n g th e w h o le d e t a i l s of t h e i r d a i l y e x p e r ­
i e n c e se e n by e v ery o n e t h a t c a r e s to look . How th ey liv e, w hat th ey
c a t , an d e ven the fam ily j a r s t h a t we try 10 h u sh up from the p u b lic are
t h i n g s th.it s e e m to be common p ro p erty , an d no t to b e lo n g e x c l u s i v e l y
to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r family who are m o st c o n c e r n e d . 2
And we m ust be p repared to s e e th a t in s o c i e t i e s with s e ttle d
in e q u a l i t a r i a n s t a t u s s y s t e m s and s tr o n g r e li g io u s o rie n ta tio n s ,
in d i v i d u a l s are so m e tim e s l e s s e a r n e s t ab o u t th e whole civic
drama th a n we are, and will c r o s s s o c i a l b a r r ie r s with brief
g e s t u r e s th a t give more r e c o g n itio n to th e man b ehind the
mask than we might find p e rm is s ib le .
F u rth e rm o re , we m ust be very c a u t i o u s in any effort to
c h a r a c t e r i z e our own s o c i e t y a s a whole with r e s p e c t to drama­
tu r g ic a l p r a c t i c e s . F or example, in c u r r e n t m anagem en t-labour
r e l a t i o n s , we know th a t a team may e n t e r jo in t c o n s u lta tio n
m e e ti n g s with th e o p p o s itio n with th e kn o w led g e th a t it may
b e n e c e s s a r y to g iv e th e a p p e a r a n c e o f s ta lk in g out of the
m e e tin g in a huff.
D iplom atic t e a m s a r e s o m e tim es required
to s t a g e a s im ila r show . In o th e r w ords, while t e a m s m our
s o c ie t y are u s u a lly o b lig e d to s u p p r e s s th e ir r a g e b ehind a
w orking c o n s e n s u s , th e re are tim e s when te a m s are o b lig e d
1 Macflowan, np.
3 //n</ , pp.
c i t t> pp.
178-179»
180-181.
157
to s u p p r e s s ev e n the a p p e a r a n c e of s o b e r o p p o s itio n behind
a d e m o n stra tio n of o u tr a g e d f e e l i n g s .
S im ilarly, there are
o c c a s i o n s when i n d iv i d u a ls , w hether th e y w ish to or not, will
feel o b lig e d to d e s tro y an in te r a c t io n in o rd e r to s a v e th e ir
honour an d th e ir fac e.
It would be more prudent, then, to
begin with s m a lle r u n its , with s o c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s or c l a s s e s
of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , or with p a r ti c u la r s t a t u s e s , . and docum en t
c o m p a r is o n s a n d c h a n g e s in a m o d e s t way by m e an s of th e
c a s e - h i s t o r y method.
F o r e x a m p le , we hav e th e follow ing
k in d o f inform ation ab o u t the s h o w s that b u s in e s s m e n are
l e g a l l y a llo w e d to put o n :
T h e l a s t h alf-cc n tu ry h a s s e e n a m a r k e d c h a n g e in the a t t i t u d e o f
t h e c o u r t s tow ard t h e q u e s t io n o f j u s t i f i a b l e r e l i a n c e - E a rl i e r d e c i s i o n s ,
u nd er the i n f l u e n c e o f the p r e v a l e n t d o c t r i n e of ' c a v c a t em p tor,' laid
g r e a t s t r e s s up on t h e p l a i n t i f f ’s * d u t y ’ to p r o t e c t h i m s e l f and d i s t r u s t
h i s a n t a g o n i s t , and h eld t h a t he w as no t e n t i t l e d to rely e v e n upon
p o s i t i v e a s s e r t i o n s of f a d made by one with whom h e w a s d e a l i n g at
a r m ’s l e n g t h . It w a s a s s u m e d t h a t a n y o n e may be e x p e c t e d to o v er re ach
a n o t h e r in a b arg ain if he c a n , a n d t h a t only a fool will e x p e c t common
h o n e s t y . T h e r e f o r e the p l a i n t i f f m ust m ake a r e a s o n a b l y i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
a n d form h i s own ju dcm en t.
T h e r e c o g n itio n of a n e w st a n d a r d of
b u s i n e s s e t h i c s , d e m a n d i n g t h a t s t a t e m e n t s o f fact be a t l e a s t h o n e s t ly
a n d c a r e f u l ly m ad e, an d in many c a s e s t h a t they be w arranted to be
tru e, h a s l e d to an a l m o s t c o m p l e t e sh i f t in t h i s p o i n t of view.
I t i s now h e l d t h a t a s s e r t i o n s of f a c t a s t o the q u a n tity or qu ality
o f land o r g o o d s s o l d , the f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n s , and
si m i l a r m a t t e r s i n d u c i n g com m ercial t r a n s a c t i o n s , may j u s t i f i a b l y be
r e l i e d o n w i t h o u t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , no t only w h ere s u c h i n v e s ti g a t i o n
would be b u rd en so m e and d i f fi c u l t , a s where land w hich i s so l d l i e s
a t a d i s t a n c e , but l i k e w i s e where t h e f a l s i t y of th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
might be d i s c o v e r e d with l i t t l e e ffo rt by m e a n s e a s i l y at hand. 1
And w hile f r a n k n e s s may be i n c r e a s i n g in b u s i n e s s r e la tio n s ,
w e h a v e som e e v i d e n c e th a t m a rria g e c o u n s e l l o r s a r e i n ­
c r e a s i n g l y a g r e e d th a t a n in d iv id u a l ought not to feel o b lig e d
to tell h is or her s p o u s e ab o u t p r e v io u s ' a f f a i r s , 1 a s th is
m ight o nly le a d to n e e d l e s s s tr a i n .
O ther e x a m p le s may be
ciced.
We know, for e x a m p le , th a t up to ab o u t 1830 p u b s in
B r ita in p r o v id ed a b a c k s t a g e s e t t i n g for workmen, l i t t l e
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from th e ir own k itc h e n s , an d th a t a f te r th a t
d a t e th e gin p a l a c e su d d e n ly b u r s t upon th e s c e n e to provi le
much th e sa m e c l i e n t e l e with a f a n c i e r front region than chey
c o u l d dream of. 2 We have r e c o r d s of the s o c ia l h isto ry of
p a r ti c u la r A m erican tow ns, t e l l i n g u s of th e r e c e n t d e c lin e in
th e e l a b o r a t e n e s s of d o m e s tic and a v o c a t io n a l fro n ts o f the
lo c a l upper c l a s s e s .
In c o n t r a s t, so m e m a teria l is a v a i l a b l e
w hich d e s c r i b e s the r e c e n t i n c r e a s e in e l a b o r a t e n e s s of the
s e t t i n g that union o r g a n i z a t i o n s e m p l o y , 3 and the in c r e a s i n g
1P ro sse r,
op.
c i t . t pp . 7 49 -7 5 0 .
2 M. Gorham a n d H. D u n n e tt,
P r e s s , 1950), p p . 23-24.
3 See,
for e x a m p le ,
Inside
H u n ter, op. c i l , ,
th e P ub ( L o n d o n :
p.
158
19.
T h e A rc h i t e c t u ra l
te n d e n c y to ' s t o c k ’ th e s e t t i n g with a c a d e m ic a ll y - tr a in e d
e x p e r t s who provide an a u ra o f th ought an d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . 1
We can tr a c e c h a n g e s in the p la n t la y o u t of s p e c i f i c in d u s tria l
and com m ercial o r g a n i z a t i o n s and sh o w an in c r e a s e in front,
both a s r e g a rd s th e e x te rio r of th e h e a d -o ffic e b u ild in g and
a s r e g a r d s th e c o n f e re n c e room s, main h a l l s , and w aiting
room s of t h e s e b u ild in g s. We can tr a c e in a p a r ti c u la r c r o f tin g
com munity how th e barn for a n i m a l s , o n c e b a c k s t a g e to th e
k itc h e n and a c c e s s i b l e by a sm all door n e x t th e s to v e , h a s
l a te l y b een rem oved a d i s t a n c e from th e h o u s e , an d how th e
h o u s e i t s e l f , on ce s e t down in a n u n p r o te c te d way in th e midst
o f garden, cro ft equ ipm en t, g a rb a g e , and g ra z in g s t o c k , i s
becom ing, in a s e n s e , p u b lic - r e la t io n s o rie n te d , with a front
yard fenc ed off and kept s o m e w h at c l e a n , p r e s e n tin g a d r e s s e d up s id e to the com m unity w hile d e b r i s i s s tre w n a t random in
t h e u n f e n c e d back r e g io n s .
And a s t h e c o n n e c t e d b y re
d i s a p p e a r s , an d t h e s c u lle r y i t s e l f s t a r t s to becom e l e s s
fre q u e n t, we ca n o b s e r v e th e u p -g ra ding of d o m e s tic e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n ts, w herein the k itc h e n , w hich o n c e p o s s e s s e d i t s own
b a c k r e g io n s , i s now com ing to be th e l e a s t p r e s e n t a b l e region
o f th e h o u se w hile at th e s a m e tim e b ec o m in g more and more
presentable.
We c a n a l s o tr a c e th a t p e c u lia r s o c i a l movement
w hich led som e f a c to r i e s , s h ip s , r e s t a u r a n t s , an d h o u s e h o ld s
to c l e a n up th e ir b a c k s t a g e s to su c h an e x t e n t th a t, l i k e monks,
C o m m u n ists , or G erman alderm en, th e ir g u a r d s a r e a l w a y s up
a n d th e re i s no p la c e where th e ir front i s down, w hile at the
s a m e tim e m em bers o f th e a u d i e n c e bec om e s u f f i c ie n tly
e n tra n c e d with th e s o c i e t y ’s id to explore th e p l a c e s th a t
had b e e n c l e a n e d up for them. P a i d a t t e n d a n c e a t symphony
o r c h e s t r a r e h e a r s a l s i s o nly o n e of th e l a t e s t e x a m p le s . We
c a n o b s e r v e what Mr H u g h e s c a l l s c o l l e c t i v e mobility, through
which th e o c c u p a n t s of a s t a t u s a tte m p t to a l t e r the bundle of
t a s k s perform ed by them so th a t no a c t will be req u ired which
i s e x p r e s s i v e l y i n c o n s i s t e n t with th e im age o f s e l f th a t t h e s e
in c u m b e n ts are attem p tin g to e s t a b l i s h for t h e m s e lv e s .
And
we ca n o b s e r v e a p a r a lle l p r o c e s s , w hich might be c a lle d
' r o l e e n t e r p r i s e , ’ within a p a r ti c u la r s o c i a l e s ta b lis h m e n t,
w hereby a p a r ti c u la r member a t t e m p t s not so much to move
into a h ig h e r p o sitio n a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d a s to c r e a t e a new
p o s it io n for h im self, a p o s itio n invo lv in g d u t i e s .which s u ita b ly
e x p r e s s a t t r i b u t e s that a re c o n g e n ia l to him. We c a n exam ine
the p r o c e s s of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , w h ereby many perform ers com e
1S ee \Wlcnsky, op. c i t . 7 c h a p . ivt for a d i s c u s s i o n o f the 'w i n d o w - d r e s s i n g
fu nction o f s t a f f e x p e r t s .
Fo r r e fe re n c e to t h e b u s i n e s s c o u n te r p a r t ol
t h i s movem ent s e e K ie s m a n , op. c i t . , pp. 138-139.
159
to m a k e b rief com m unal u s e of very e l a b o r a t e s o c i a l s e t t i n g s ,
b e in g c o n t e n t to s l e e p a l o n e in a c u b i c l e of no p r e te n s io n .
We c a n follow t h e d if fu s io n of c r u c ia l f r o n ts —s u c h a s th e
la b o ra to r y c o m p lex of g l a s s , s t a i n l e s s s t e e l , rubber g lo v e s ,
w h ite t il e , an d la b c o a t —which a llow a n i n c r e a s i n g number of
p e r s o n s c o n n e c t e d with u n se e m ly t a s k s a way o f s e l f ­
p u r ific a tio n . And, f in a lly , s t a r t i n g w ith th e te n d e n c y in highly
a u t h o r i t a r i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n s for o n e team to be required to
sp e n d i t s tim e in f u s in g a r ig o ro u s ly o rd ered c l e a n l i n e s s in
t h e s e t t i n g th e o th e r team w ill perform in, we can t r a c e , in
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s s u c h a s h o s p i t a l s , Air F o r c e b a s e s , and large
h o u s e h o ld s , a c u r r e n t d e c l i n e in th e h y p e r tr o p h ic s t r i c t n e s s
of s u c h s e t t i n g s .
The Role of Expression is conveying
Impressions of Self
P e r h a p s a moral n o te c a n be perm itted a t th e end.
In
t h i s rep o rt the e x p r e s s i v e com p o n en t of s o c i a l life h a s been
t r e a t e d a s a s o u r c e of i m p r e s s i o n s given to or ta k e n by o th e rs.
I m p re s s io n , in turn, h a s bee n tr e a te d a s a s o u r c e of inform ation
ab o u t u n a p p a r e n t f a c t s and a s a m e a n s by w hich the r e c i p i e n t s
c a n gu id e th e ir r e s p o n s e to the inform ant w ithout h aving to
w ait for th e full c o n s e q u e n c e s of the in fo rm an t’s a c t i o n s to
be felt-.
E x p r e s s i o n , th e n , h a s been tr e a t e d in te rm s o f the
c o m m u n ic a tiv e r o le it p la y s d u rin g s o c i a l in te r a c t io n and not,
fo r ex am ple, in te rm s of co n su m m a to ry or t e n s i o n - r e l e a s e
fu n c tio n i t might h a v e for the e x p r e s s e r . 1
U n d erly in g all s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n th e re s e e m s to b e a
fun d am e n tal d i a l e c t i c . When one in d iv id u a l e n t e r s the p r e s e n c e
o f o th e rs , he w ill w ant to d i s c o v e r th e f a c t s o f th e s it u a ti o n .
Were he to p o s s e s s t h i s inform ation, he c o u ld know, and make
a l l o w a n c e s for, w h a t w ill co m e to h a p p e n an-.l he c o u l i g iv e
t h e o t h e r s p r e s e n t a s much o f th e ir d u e a s i s c o n s i s t e n t with
h i s e n l ig h te n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t .
T o u n co v e r fully the fa c tu a l
n a tu re of the s it u a t i o n , it would be n e c e s s a r y for the in d ividual
to know a ll th e r e l e v a n t s o c i a l d a t a ab o u t th e o th e rs . It would
a l s o be n e c e s s a r y for the in d iv id u a l to know th e a c tu a l outcom e
or end -p ro d u ct of th e a c t i v i t y of th e o th e r s d u rin g the in te r ­
a c tio n , a s well a s th e ir in n e rm o st f e e lin g s tow ard him. F u ll
in fo rm atio n o f t h i s o rd e r is rarely a v a i l a b l e ; in i t s a b s e n c e ,
th e in d iv id u a l t e n d s to employ s u b s t i t u t e s —c u e s , t e s t s , h in ts ,
J A r e c e n t t r e a tm e n t of t h i s kind may be found in T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , R o b e rt K.
B a l e s , a n d E d w ard A. S h i l s , Working P a p e r s in th e T h e o r y o f A c t io n
( G l e n c o e , 111.: T h e F r e e P r e s s , 1953). c h a p . i i , ' T h e T h e o ry o f S ymbo lism
in R e l a t i o n t o A c t i o n . ’
160
ex p re ssiv e
g estu res,
s t a t u s s y m b o ls,
e t c . —a s p r e d i c t i v e
devices.
In s h o rt, s i n c e th e r e a l i t y th a t th e in d iv id u a l i s
c o n c e r n e d with i s u n p e r c e iv a b le a t t h e moment, a p p e a r a n c e s
m ust be r e li e d upon in i t s s t e a d .
And, p a r a d o x ic a lly , th e
m ore th e in d iv id u a l i s c o n c e r n e d with th e r e a lity th a t i s not
a v a i l a b l e to p e r c e p tio n , th e more must h e co n c e n tra c e h is
a t te n t io n on a p p e a r a n c e s .
T h e in d iv id u a l t e n d s to t r e a t the o th e rs p r e s e n t on th e
b a s i s of th e im p r e s s io n they g iv e now a b o u t th e p a s t and the
fu tu re . It i s h ere th a t co m m u n ic a tiv e a c t s a r e t r a n s l a t e d into
moral o n e s . T h e i m p r e s s i o n s th a t th e o th e r s g ive te n d to be
tr e a te d a s c l a i m s and p r o m is e s th e y h a v e im p licitly made,
and c l a i m s and p r o m is e s te n d to h a v e a moral c h a r a c te r . In
h i s mind th e ind iv id u al s a y s : "I am u s in g t h e s e i m p r e s s io n s
o f you a s a way of c h e c k i n g up on you an d your a c tiv ity , an d
you ought not to l e a d me a s t r a y . ” T h e p e c u lia r th in g ab o u t
t h i s i s th a t th e in d iv id u a l te n d s to t a k e t h i s s ta n d eve n though
h e e x p e c t s th e o t h e r s to be u n c o n s c i o u s o f many of th e ir
e x p r e s s i v e b e h a v io u r s and e v e n though h e may e x p e c t to ex p lo it
th e o t h e r s on th e b a s i s of th e inform ation he g l e a n s a b o u t
them. S in c e th e s o u r c e s of im p re ssio n u s e d by the o b s e rv in g
in d iv id u a l in v o lv e a m u ltitu d e of s t a n d a r d s p e r ta in in g to p o lit e ­
n e s s an d decorum , p e r ta in in g both to s o c ia l in te r c o u r s e an d
ta s k -p e rfo rm a n c e , we c a n a p p r e c i a t e a f r e s h how d a i ly lif e i s
e n m e s h e d in moral l i n e s of d isc rim in a tio n .
L e t u s s h i f t now to t h e point o f v ie w o f the o th e rs. If
t h e y are to b e g e n tle m a n ly , and p la y t h e in d iv i d u a l’s gam e,
th e y w ill g iv e l i t t l e c o n s c i o u s heed to th e fa c t th a t im p r e s s i o n s
a r e b ein g formed a b o u t them but ra th e r a c t w ith o u t g u ile or
c o n t riv a n c e , e n a b lin g th e in d iv id u a l to r e c e i v e v a l id i m p r e s s ­
io n s a b o u t them and th e ir e ffo rts. And i f th e y h a p p e n to g iv e
thought to t h e f a c t th a t th ey a r e b e in g o b s e rv e d , they w ill no t
a llow t h i s to in f lu e n c e them unduly, c o n t e n t in the b e l ie f
th a t th e in d iv id u a l w ill o b ta in a c o r r e c t im p r e s s io n an d g ive
them th e ir du e b e c a u s e o f it. Should th e y be c o n c e rn e d w ith
in flu e n c in g th e tr e a tm e n t th a t the in d iv id u a l g iv e s them, and
th is is p roperly to be e x p e c t e d , th e n a g e n tlem an ly m e a n j
will be a v a i l a b l e to them. T h e y n e e d only g u id e th e ir a c tio n
in the p r e s e n t so t h a t i t s future c o n s e q u e n c e s w ill be th e
kind th a t would le a d a j u s t in d iv id u a l to t r e a t them now in a
way th e y want to be t r e a t e d ; on ce th is i s done, th e y h a v e
only to rely on the p e r c e p t i v e n e s s a n d j u s t n e s s of the in d ividu al
who o b s e r v e s them.
S o m etim es t h o s e who a re o b s e rv e d do, of c o u r s e , employ
t h e s e proper m e a n s of in f lu e n c in g the w ay in w hich th e o b s e rv e r
161
t r e a t s them .
B u t th e re i s a n o t h e r way, a s h o r te r and more
e f f ic i e n t way, in w h ich th e o b s e r v e d c a n in f lu e n c e th e o b se rv e r.
I n s te a d of a l lo w in g an im p r e s s io n of th e ir a c tiv i ty to a r i s e a s
a n i n c id e n t a l by-product of th e ir a c tiv i ty , th e y ca n re o r ie n t
th e ir frame o f r e f e r e n c e an d d e v o t e th e ir e f f o r t s to th e c r e a tio n
o f d e s i r e d im p r e s s i o n s .
I n s t e a d of a ttem p tin g to a c h i e v e
c e r ta in e n d s by a c c e p t a b l e m e a n s , th e y ca n a tte m p t to a c h i e v e
t h e im p r e s s io n th a t th e y a r e a c h i e v i n g c e r ta in e n d s by
a c c e p t a b l e m e a n s.
It i s a l w a y s p o s s i b l e to m a n ip u la te th e
im p r e s s io n th e o b s e r v e r u s e s a s a s u b s t i t u t e for r e a l i t y b e c a u s e
a s ig n for th e p r e s e n c e of a th in g , not being th a t thing , ca n
be e m p lo y ed in th e a b s e n c e of it.
T h e o b s e r v e r ’s n e e d to
r e ly on r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of th in g s i t s e l f c r e a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
of m is r e p r e s e n t a ti o n .
T h e r e are many s e t s o f p e r s o n s who feel they c o u ld not
s t a y in b u s i n e s s , w h a te v e r th e ir b u s i n e s s , if they lim ited
t h e m s e l v e s to t h e g e n tle m a n ly m e a n s o f i n f lu e n c in g t h e
in d iv id u a l who o b s e r v e s them.
At som e point or oth e r in the
round of th e ir a c t i v i t y they feel it i s n e c e s s a r y to band to g e th e r
an d d ir e c tly m a n ip u la te the im p r e s s io n th a t th e y give.
T he
o b s e r v e d b ec o m e a perform ing team and th e o b s e r v e r s becom e
th e a u d i e n c e .
A c ti o n s w hich a p p e a r to be d o n e o n o b j e c t s
b ec o m e g e s t u r e s a d d r e s s e d to th e a u d i e n c e .
T h e round of
a c t i v i t y b e c o m e s d r a m a tiz e d .
We com e now to th e b a s ic d i a l e c t i c . In th e ir c a p a c i t y a s
perform ers, i n d i v i d u a l s w ill be c o n c e r n e d with m ain ta in in g
th e im p r e s s io n t h a t th e y a re liv in g up to th e many s t a n d a r d s
by w hich th e y and th e ir p r o d u c t s are ju d g e d . B e c a u s e t h e s e
s t a n d a r d s are s o num erous an d s o p e r v a s iv e , the in d iv i d u a ls
who a re perfo rm ers dw ell more th a n w e might think in a moral
world.
But, qua p erfo rm e rs, in d iv i d u a ls a re c o n c e r n e d noc
w ith th e moral i s s u e of r e a l i z i n g t h e s e s t a n d a r d s , but with
th e am oral i s s u e o f e n g i n e e r in g a c o n v in c in g im p r e s s io n th a t
t h e s e s t a n d a r d s a r e b e in g r e a l i z e d .
Our a c tiv ity , then, i s
la r g e ly c o n c e r n e d w ith moral m a tte r s , but a s perform ers we
do n o t h a v e a moral c o n c e r n in t h e s e moral m a tte rs .
As
p e rfo rm e rs we a r e m e r c h a n ts o f m orality .
O u r d ay i s given
ov er to in tim a te c o n t a c t w ith th e good s w e d is p i a y an d our
m in d s are fille d w ith in tim a te u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of th e m ; but it
may well be th a t th e more a t te n t io n w e give to t h e s e g o o d s,
t h e more d i s t a n t we feel from them a n d from th o s e who are
b e l ie v i n g eno ugh to buy them.
T o u s e a d iffe ren t imagery,
th e very o b lig a tio n a n d p r o fit a b li lity o f a p p e a r in g a l w a y s in
a s te a d y moral lig h t, of b ein g a s o c i a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r , f o r c e s
u s to be th e s o r t o f p e r s o n who is p r a c t i c e d in th e w ay s of
the s t a g e .
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