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Priyanka Prasad
Dr. Morse
Humanities 1C
Spring 2012
The Literary Basis of Feminism: An Analysis of Persuasion Through the Eyes of Vindication
An understood requirement of a sentimental novel during the late 18th century was a
misunderstanding between a man and woman and the ensuing hysteria. Thus, when Catherine
Morland of Jane Austen’s Northanger Abbey sees her beau Henry Tilney with another girl and
logically, “[guesses her] to be his sister; thus unthinkingly throwing away a fair opportunity of
considering him lost to her forever, by being married already,” the irony is heavy (Austen
“Northanger” 111). All of Jane Austen’s novels employ satire of this nature, ridiculing the
typical silly girls of novels and instead establishing strong, rational heroines. Her portrayal of
women provides an interesting outlook to the future aspects of feminism, which may be even
better considered by looking at earlier writings. During the late 18th and early 19th century, the
beginnings of the future women’s rights movement developed in Europe amidst the backdrop of
the French Revolution. Olympe De Gouge’s Declaration of the Rights of Women set the feminist
movement into motion as she criticized the current social conditions for women and set
precedent for future dialogue concerning the subject. While some writers, such as Rousseau,
continued to characterize women as biologically inferior, and therefore socially inferior, others
questions emerged concerning women’s education, social status, and nature. Responses arrived
in a revolutionary manner. In a continuation of the dialogue, Mary Wollstonecraft’s radical
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criticism of Edmund Burke through her text, A Vindication of the Rights of Men, sparked
controversy. A later extension of this first Vindication was A Vindication of the Rights of Women
in 1792. Almost thirty years later, no significant change had occurred for women, during which
Jane Austen emerged as a popular writer of sentimental novels. She wrote her final book
Persuasion in 1816 and published it posthumously along with Northanger Abbey. Persuasion
has been said to reflect a shifting social order in England and been inspired by the war of the
time period.
Though written almost thirty years following Wollstonecraft’s Vindication, Persuasion
reflects similar growing discontent with the current social order and status of women. Whether
Austen definitely read or was influenced by Wollstonecraft will always remain a point of
contention; however, regardless, her stance as an exceptional writer is undeniable, with similar
revolutionary themes to Wollstonecraft prevalent throughout her novels, particularly in
Persuasion. This hints towards Austen’s subtle advocation of feminism, a point highly contested
among scholars such as Julia Brown and Claudia Johnson, who see Austen as embodying
feminist ideals in her writing, versus Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, who view Austen’s
writing as supporting subordination of women. The dialogue surrounding Austen’s work is open
to additional interpretation through an analysis of Vindication in relation to Persuasion.
Wollstonecraft’s text is fitting for such an analysis due to its revolutionary manner; it is one of
the first texts to explicitly call for a change in the societal role of women, and will give clear
insight into Persuasion’s veiled social criticisms.
After having read Vindication as a lens to analyze Persuasion, it is apparent similar
themes from Vindication are brought out in Persuasion, primarily through Austen’s heroine,
Anne Elliot. Austen subtly advocates feminism through irony, satire, and underlying meaning in
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Persuasion, criticizing the social conditioning of women in a patriarchal society and encouraging
a revolution of the female. While Austen’s representation of the female is quite modern, she is
more idealistic and less radical than Wollstonecraft in her views of marriage and love, which
hints at a shift towards Romanticism in her writing; however this ultimately does not detract
from her position as an revolutionary feminist writer.
Throughout Vindication, Wollstonecraft promotes the idea of a rational woman, of the
female as equal in moral status and value to men, and Austen exemplifies this idea in her
depiction of Persuasion’s heroine, Anne Elliot. During the initial circumstances of the novel, Sir
Walter Elliot is in debt, forced to retrench his property, Kellynch Hall, and it is Anne who is
essential in providing the new plans and calculations to save the house and reduce her father’s
debt (Austen 54). Sir Walter pays no attention to her ideas, but this initial portrayal of her
character still serves to display Anne’s educated mind and intelligence. Wollstonecraft views
education of the woman as vital to her rise in society, and states that women in their current
educated state are often, “pitied by the writers who endeavor by satire or instruction to improve
them” (Wollstonecraft 9). Such is not the case with Austen. From the start of Persuasion, Anne
needs no improvement in education and has judgement and aptitude far superior to that even of
her father, who cannot fathom living without the “decencies of a private gentleman,” revealing
his lack of foresight into his doomed future (Austen 54). This is further hinted at during Anne’s
conversation with Captain Benwick, as she is capable of equal discourse with him concerning
poetry and literature, implying her thorough education (Austen 130). Austen contrasts this
educated heroine with her sister; while Elizabeth cannot “[plague herself] with all the new poems
and states of the nation that come out,” and only pretends to read a “tiresome book” because she
cannot be bothered, Anne is well read and versed in multiple subjects. As an educated being, she
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criticizes male domination of education, saying, “men have had every advantage...education has
been theirs so much in higher a degree” (Austen 243). Austen promotes a higher education for
females, denouncing the male “advantage” and supporting more for women, which highly
reflects Wollstonecraft. Anne is clearly an independent, autonomous heroine and is consequently
at odds with the society that she lives in (Shaw 290).
Since such is the case, Austen explores societal exclusion and the constraints of the
society Anne lives in. Scholars such as Jocelyn Harris, Professor of English at the University of
Otago, view the change of environment, from Kellynch, to Uppercross, to Lyme and finally to
Bath, as reflecting Anne’s evolving role in society (Harris 156). She is not capable of reaching
her full potential in Kellynch Hall; hence, when she exits Kellynch, she finds herself “glad to be
thought of some use...a duty” in Uppercross in a way she had previously not (Austen 72). This is
further explored in Lyme, as Anne is the sole one to rationally take care of Louisa after her fall
(Austen 138). John Hardy sees such instances as exemplifying the idea that in order for Anne to
be happy, she must leave her conventional society, in which there is no opportunity for
improvement, and instead venture elsewhere (Hardy 35) . While Uppercross and Lyme prove to
be communities in which Anne both finds growth and enhances society itself, the “white glare of
Bath,” a society to which her father and sister move and therefore resembles Kellynch, is
distasteful to Anne, as hinted with the word “glare”, and she resents having to live there (Austen
71). All this clearly parallels Wollstonecraft’s criticism of social institutions and the
conventional forms of society; Austen moves her protagonist from conventional society before
she makes progress in changing both herself and her society. Similarly, Claudia Johnson believes
Austen “[links] women's confinement within their changeless neighborhoods,” which hints at the
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fact that Austen believes such change is not capable in the current social situation and movement
must occur (Johnson “Jane” 159).
An extension of Austen’s criticisms of societal constraints is seen through her emphasis
on the Navy. Naval characters such as Captain Wentworth, Admiral and Mrs. Croft, and Captain
Benwick embody human ideals not found in “landed life.” Normal society away from sea is seen
as, “promoting mediocrity or ignorance...[and] psychologically damaging, especially for women”
(Johnson “Jane” 158). The “unwholesome confinement” it carries for Anne and other characters
can be viewed through Austen’s sharp contrasts of character. (Johnson “Jane” 158). Admiral
Croft and Mrs. Croft were out at sea for almost fifteen years, and Mrs. Croft comments that, “the
happiest part of [her] life [had] been spent on board a ship” (Austen 103). If exclusion from
society was the happiest period of her life, it is clear Austen is criticizing landed society and it’s
constraints for women. Austen’s own voice seems to primarily emanate from Mrs. Croft, as she
notes that she, “[hates] to hear talk...as if women were all fine ladies, instead of rational
creatures” (Austen 103). Austen gives voice to a character that mirrors Wollstonecraft’s beliefs
in seeing women given their due as men’s, “equal rank as rational beings” (Wollstonecraft 4). A
woman as a rational creature rather than a sensitive lady is heavily emphasized in Vindication,
and Austen shares similar views. In contrast to Mrs. Croft, characters such as Elizabeth Elliot
and Mary Musgrove exist, who function to epitomize the undesirable, irrational woman and
better emphasize Mrs. Croft and Anne’s ideal rationality.
In addition to promoting rationality, Wollstonecraft explicitly ridicules the sensibilities of
women, despising their “weak elegance” of mind and calling such delicacies detrimental to
women, an idea Austen mores subtly pursues through satire (Wollstonecraft 8). In the
sentimental novels of the early 1800s, the death of a female was wished, because it did not defy
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social codes for “good girls” (Johnson “Sweet” 5). Qualities of weakness and delicacy were
deemed endearing for women, and the consequent subordinate social role this implied for women
was desirable (Johnson “Sweet” 5). While Claudia Johnson, Professor of English at Princeton
University, explores this idea in Austen’s Sense and Sensibility, I view it evident in Persuasion
as well. Austen defies literary convention and uses the fall of Louisa at Lyme to ridicule the
notion of a woman’s death and a man’s consequent power. Louisa, despite her fall and the
hysterics of her family, recovers quite quickly and even falls in love with Captain Benwick
during her recovery. With this “almost” female death, Austen parodies the typical nature of the
sentimental novel’s genre archetype and challenges its subordinate implications for women. She
also uses characters such as Anne’s sisters, Elizabeth and Mary to better highlight Anne’s ideal
nature, free of sensibilities. Mary, a hypochondriac, constantly hypothetically suffers one illness
or another and is generally portrayed as a silly woman. Elizabeth is extremely vain, similar to her
father, and is preoccupied with her looks and social rank. During Louisa’s fall, most characters
burst into hysterics, with Mary screaming, “She is dead!” repeatedly, in contrast to Anne’s calm
and rational manner which takes control of the situation (Austen 138).
Anne’s continual self-awareness also contributes to a dramatic irony that underscores the
ludicrous sensibilities of other female characters. Persuasion focuses on the heroine’s gazes and
looks that provide underlying meaning, and through this feminine viewpoint, gives commentary
through unconventional means (Warhol 8). Anne often knows what the audience does, but other
characters do not. She ironically observes that she has a “knowledge, which she often wished
less, of her father’s character,” thus proving she is not easily deceived, unlike other women such
as Mrs. Clay (Austen 72). Through Anne, Austen alludes to Sir Walter’s true nature without
explicitly stating it, giving power to the female. Anne takes control of an otherwise patriarchal
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dialogue. As she is playing the piano for the Musgroves, Anne has little experience and her
performance is not extremely proficient, as “she [is] well aware” (Austen 83). Despite this
awareness, she performs for her own benefit, exhibiting independence and self-confidence. In
another instance involving a male character, Anne correctly interprets a look given from Captain
Wentworth to Mary, noting his “contemptuous glance...which [she] perfectly knew the meaning
of” (Austen 116). Austen could have demonstrated Wentworth’s thoughts through other means,
yet she chooses to have Anne understand something Mary could not, giving her heroine a
consistent, quiet, yet intelligent awareness. Anne’s gaze is empowering for the female, and this
removes her from the “rank of the objectified heroines of sensibility” (Warhol 9).
Similar to the customary patriarchal control of dialogue, the patriarchal nature of both
society and the nuclear family was prevalent in the 18th and 19th century; however, both
Wollstonecraft and Austen contest this. Austen creates a changing role for her Anne within her
family as she disregards male authority, embodying the evolving nature of the female. Anne’s
relationship with her father is continuously strained; as a vain main, he is displeased that she is
not yet married and has lost the “bloom” of her youth, and therefore favors her much prettier
sister Elizabeth. However, Anne disregards his ideas and forms friendships with individuals such
as Mrs. Smith, who are not part of the higher social class. Despite her father wanting her to go to
dinner with the socially acceptable Lady Darlymple, Anne defies his authority and visits Mrs.
Smith instead (Austen 178). There is much irony present in Mrs. Smith’s character; she is similar
to Mrs. Clay because both are widowers, but because they are from different social classes, Mrs.
Clay is acceptable to Sir Walter and Mrs. Smith is not. Austen and Anne disregard this emphasis
on social rank and distance themselves from the socially acceptable situation, instead choosing
the morally correct one. This disregard for her father depicts Austen’s criticism of the patriarchal
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family and society. Anne defies male authority and gives power to herself, a female, instead.
This concept is also captured through the character of Lady Russell. Though she is not a direct
part of Anne’s family, her influence on Anne is much stronger than that of Sir Walter, portraying
more female than male empowerment.
While Wollstonecraft and Austen parallel each other regarding the individual woman,
their views on love and marriage appear more disparate. While Wollstonecraft criticizes a
passionate marriage and finds fault with its future stance, Austen views marriage more ideally
and shows signs of a Romantic nature in regards to it. Captain Wentworth and Anne’s
relationship exemplifies Austen’s views. The passion of their romance passed seven years ago so
we do not see their courtship; rather, we watch the rekindling of their friendship, followed by a
declaration of love. The equality of the nature of their relationship is evident towards the end of
the novel, as Wentworth comments that, “he never even believed to see himself her equal,” thus
putting Anne even higher than himself (Austen 249). The foundation for their relationship, even
before romance, was friendship, which Anne is happy to reclaim when he asks for her opinion
about informing the Musgroves of Louisa’s fall. She sees it as a, “proof of friendship, and of
deference for her judgement,” both qualities that imply equality of opinion between both
individuals (Austen 144). Wentworth admires her as a thinker, rather than just as a beautiful
female. Wollstonecraft would support such a relationship, as she believes passion should fade
into quiet affection and the “fever of love [should] subside”, creating friendship in the household
(Wollstonecraft 19). However, Austen seems to idealize the relationship more, because though
seven years have passed since Anne and Wentworth met, when confessing his renewal of love,
he writes with an intensity of being in, “half agony, half hope,” and such romantic notions can
only be the product of passion (Austen 245).
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Such portrayals hint at Austen’s shift toward Romanticism in her writing. Captain
Wentworth epitomizes a Romantic hero; he has been rejected by society - Anne broke off their
engagement due to societal persuasion - and lives outside of society and societal conventions, as
seen through his time at sea. He is both a “dynamic lover,” exhibiting intensity and passion, as
well as a solid, trustworthy man (Wootton 34). In an Austen novel, the former quality would
typically be censured and the latter, praised, yet Austen combines both qualities to create a
Romantic hero that possesses the positive attributes of both. As noted by Mary Poovey, Anne
and Wentworth’s Romantic love, “ignores income and rank;...it....[serves] as an agent of moral
reform,” and in such circumstances, does not conform to the standards of conventional marriage
(Poovey 236). Anne and Wentworth balance each other’s nature. Wentworth grows from distant
to sentimental, while Anne only further develops as a rational thinker. Wollstonecraft skeptically
questions conventional assumptions about marriage mainly because she views them,
“restrictive..of the women’s identity” (Brown 336). Her main concern lies in the role that
marriage gives to women, yet it seems Austen counters this through her portrayal of the Crofts.
Aspects of Romanticism embed themselves into Austen’s depiction of their marriage. Though
we never see Anne and Wentworth in their marital life, Admiral Croft and Mrs. Croft exemplify
an ideal marriage. Instances such as when driving the carriage, Mrs. Croft corrects Admiral Croft
and, “[gives] the reins a better direction herself,” imply the equal nature of their marriage and the
happiness that can be found (Austen 121). Mrs. Croft lives freely and contently, an independent
woman, yet within a marriage. Unhappy marriages such as Mary and Charles Musgrove serve to
emphasize their unequal nature and the potential for something better, such as the Crofts. Austen
states to improve Charles’s character “a more equal match might have greatly improved him...a
woman of real understanding...more usefulness [and] rationality” (Austen 80). Austen advocates
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for an equal match with a more rational woman, a quality that Mary does not possess, but Mrs.
Croft does, consequently giving her a successful marriage.
In contrast to views of scholars such as Johnson and Poovey who see aspects of feminism
in Austen’s writing, scholars such as Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar disagree and view Austen
as anti-feminist. They believe “Austen’s cover story of the necessity for silence and submission
reinforces women's subordinate position in patriarchal culture” (Gilbert and Gubar 154). They
view Austen as conveying a concept of female submission as essential to female survival, which
they consider depicted in the taming of Austen’s “rebellious” girls by a “sensible” man (Gilbert
and Gubar). In particular, they consider Louisa’s fall in Persuasion as Austen exemplifying the
notion that, “ Anne [believes] female assertion...must be fatal,” because qualities of firmness and
assertiveness in Louisa ultimately lead to her downfall, as she is too stubborn to stop from
jumping (Gilbert and Gubar 177). Austen’s emphasis on domesticity and marriage is also
considered as anti-feminist. Because her goal is for her heroine to be married, it demonstrates
that a woman needs a man and cannot be independent (Brown 305).
Though scholars have acknowledged criticisms of Austen’s feminism, her portrayal of
marriage has not been fully addressed. While it is true that Austen does seem to regard marriage
as the epitome of a relationship, it is not necessarily anti-feminist. Just because Anne is married,
it does not mean she loses the qualities that characterize her as a revolutionary female. She is still
a strong, rational woman, just within a marriage, and in fact improves both her nature and her
husband’s through the marriage. Gilbert and Gubar’s portrayal of Austen’s female characters is
also flawed, as they are not submissive and certainly do not take a subordinate position in the
novel. Louisa’s fall is not used to illustrate the failings of her firmness, but rather to point out
how such stubbornness in youth is a consequence of naivety. However, the scene’s main purpose
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does not even involve Louisa; it primarily functions to ironize Wentworth’s involvement. While
he criticizes Anne for her weakness of character, it is ironically he who ends up being weak and
agrees to let Louisa jump despite his better judgement. Anne comments that, “firmness...should
have its proportions and limits,” indicating Austen’s support for a balance of character (Austen
143). Anne has never said she believes female firmness and assertion to be fatal; in fact it is the
opposite. She sees her previous persuasion to Lady Russell’s ideas as regretful, and embodies
strength of character. Gilbert and Gubar view Austen’s writing too literally and fail to realize a
scene’s underlying function and undertones. They commit hasty generalization, as they see all of
Austen’s heroines as rebellious girls who must be tamed by men. Anne is clearly no such
character.
Though a controversial interpretation, Austen comes across as definitively feminist in her
writing, with ideals of feminism manifesting into her characterization of a revolutionary female.
Austen is almost as radical in Wollstonecraft as she endeavors to advance the social conditions
of a woman, and her characters depict a departure from the norm. The embodiment of Austen’s
criticism can be found in a debate between Anne and Captain Harville towards the end of
Persuasion. Harville believes because “[men’s] bodies are the strongest, so are [their] feelings,”
and sees men as more constant in comparison to women (Austen 242). Wollstonecraft would
vehemently disagree, as does Austen. Wollstonecraft encourages the woman to “acquire strength,
of mind and body,” because she believes a delicate mind and body are synonymous to weakness,
which parallels the reasons Harville gives for men’s constancy (Wollstonecraft 8) . Because men
are stronger, they are more constant, thus, if a woman acquired this strength, men would lose
their advantage. Austen promotes this strong woman through the qualities Wentworth desires in
a woman. Instead of a weak, delicate female, he asserts that primary wish for a woman is a
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“strong mind,” and that, “[she] should be firm” (Austen 96, 117). To demonstrate, he represents
this woman as analogous to a nut, characterizing it as, “blessed with strength...[and have]
outlived all the storms of autumn” (Austen 117). Wentworth indirectly gives voice to what
Austen believes are qualities a woman should possess, a revolutionary notion for the author of a
romance novel. As the hero, his wish is considered ideal and unbeknownst to him, Anne
represents this ideal woman he describes. Though he does not see it, she has “outlived” all the
harsh circumstances in her life, from when she broke her engagement to her lack of value in her
family, yet remains steady and unyielding to persuasion now that she is older and more mature.
In contrast to Wentworth, Sir Walter exists, whose predilection for beautiful women and
aversion to ugly women causes Austen to portray him as unsatisfactory. The hero wants a
woman who is strong, and the antagonist, one who is superficially beautiful; Austen’s social
commentary is apparent.
An analysis of Persuasion through the lens of Vindication contributes a new reading to
the existing dialogue because though scholars have viewed Austin’s work as feminist, the extent
of this feminism can be better observed through a feminist-based text such as Vindication. Such a
reading helps look at how far Austen truly went in regards to revolutionizing the woman. Since
Persuasion reflects Vindication in so many aspects - perhaps excluding marriage - it is clear that
Austen was equally interested in the reformation of women’s status as Wollstonecraft, though
she indicated so through more subtle and satirical means. Both women were writers attempting
to engage in a public dialogue of womens’ societal value from their private spheres, similar to
others later on in the women’s rights movement, such as Abigail Adams. Jane Austen and Mary
Wollstonecraft’s criticisms of society held ideals for women far ahead of their time period and
both were exceptional writers who also proved themselves exceptional women.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank so many people who helped me create this paper. First, to Dr. Morse
for always being available and always helping foster new ideas. Second, to my parents, who have
heard me talk about this for so many weeks now and have been so patient and supportive. I also
would like to thank Francis Esmas for editing my paper and giving me some really valuable
feedback.