Ethics and Environment
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
Former Chairman Railway Board &
ex-officio Principal Secretary, Government of India,
Former Director, Indian Oil Corporation
and
Former Director, Steel Authority of India Limited.
Prologue
The Author has a very wide experience in
the railways as also in other vital sectors
of the economy like steel, energy and
infrastructure. In this Article the issue of
environment has been examined in depth
from the ethical point of view.
a ‘technical solution’ point of view. He
examines in depth the sustainability of
physical prosperity without moral values
and brings out how spiritual values are the
prime requirements for sustaining moral
values.
Environment and climate change are one
of the biggest challenges facing humanity.
Ethics can be defined as a set of
standards that society places on itself
which helps guide actions, options and
behavior. The Author suggests that
environmental problems raise fundamental
questions of ethics and philosophy.
Problems need not be examined only from
The Author suggests that problem solving
in an increasingly interdependent world
needs a collective approach of self
regulation through ethical actions not only
between the citizens but also between the
various nations.
Indeed a very thought-provoking Article.
- Editor
Introduction
We face environmental challenges unprecedented in the history of this planet
today. Largely through human connectivity, life on earth faces the greatest mass
extinctions since the end of the dinosaur age 65 million years ago. The natural
resources that sustain life on this planet – air, water, and soil – are being polluted or
depleted at alarming rates. Human population growth is increasing exponentially and
the prospects of continued degradation and depletion of natural resources multiply
with this population growth. Toxic wastes that will plague future generations continue
to accumulate world wide. The world’s wilderness areas, its forests, wetlands,
mountains, and grasslands, are being developed, paved, drained, burned, and
overgrazed out of existence. With destruction of the ozone layer and the potential for
a greenhouse effect, human activity threatens the atmosphere and climate of the
planet itself.
RITES Journal
6.1
January 2010
6.2
Ethics and Environment
The tendency in our culture is to treat such issues as simply scientific,
technological, or political problems. But they are much more than this. These
environmental and ecological controversies raise fundamental questions about what
we as human beings value, about the kind of beings we are, the kinds of lives we
should live, our place in nature, and the kind of world in which we might flourish. In
short, environmental problems raise fundamental questions of ethics and philosophy.
In recent years, many philosophers working in this field have come to believe
that ethical extensionism is an inadequate philosophical response to environmental
issues and controversies. To many of these thinkers, traditional ethical theories and
principles are part of a worldview that has been responsible for much of environmental
and ecological destruction. What is needed, in their eyes, is a more radical
philosophical approach that includes rethinking metaphysical, epistemological,
political, as well as ethical concepts. At this point, the field once identified as
environmental ethics is better conceived as an environmental philosophy.
We take risks when we treat environmental problems merely as technical
problems awaiting solution from some specialized discipline. This is partly because
the dimensions of environmental issues are seldom limited to the specific boundaries
of any particular discipline. Pesticide pollution, for example, involves agriculture, various
branches of biology and chemistry, medicine, economics, politics, and law. Further,
it is equally impossible to find an environmental issue that does not raise basic
questions of values. Approaching any serious, environmental issue with the hope of
finding a technical quick fix guarantees only a narrow and parochial understanding of
what is at stake. Many a times, such technological or scientific “solutions” may
result in new problems.
Science demands that its practitioners minimize assumptions, seek to
eliminate bias, verify results, and limit conclusions to what the evidence supports. In
this sense, scientific method appears “ethical” as it aims to ensure an impartial,
accurate, and rational result. However, such a method many a times has hidden
assumptions which can vitiate the results. Modern science is dominated by models
imported from physics where the objects are reduced to their simplest elements.
Such an approach may not be appropriate for social sciences like economics,
sociology, and political science if the model used reduces “society” to a mere collection
of individuals mechanically driven by the forces of self interest. This reductionist
tendency can ignore the complex relations that exists say within an “ecosystem”.
Thus, despite commitment of science to the values of impartiality and objectivity, the
practice of science may not always be an unbiased procedure.
But why should we expect ethics to be so mechanical in generating answers?
With the exception of maths, logic, and perhaps the mathematical sciences and
engineering, few intellectual disciplines produce certain results. Let us consider a
science like medicine which can sometimes provide a single right answer in diagnostic
or prognostic questions while several alternative answers may be equally valid. Good
doctors have many diverse tools in their bag : surgery, a wide variety of medications,
exercise, rest, nutrition, counseling, etc. So when we think about the ethical issues
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.3
in general and environmental controversies more specifically we should consider that
“ethics” is more like “medicine”.
Environment / Ecology / Ecosystems (Ref. : Agarwal – 2007)
The natural environment commonly referred to simply as environment is
a term that encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on earth.
The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment which comprises the
areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans like social environment,
financial environment, political environment and the like.
Ecology is the branch of science that deals with the relationship living things
have to each other and their environment. The world includes a tremendous variety of
living things, from complex plants and animals to simpler organisms, such as fungi,
amoeba and bacteria. Each depends in some significant way upon other living and
non-living things and its surroundings. Our survival and well-being depends on ecological
relationships and even the changes in distant parts of the world and its atmosphere
affects us and our environment.
Although ecology is considered a branch of biology, ecologists use knowledge
from many disciplines including chemistry, physics, mathematics, computer science,
climatology, geology, oceanography, etc. to learn about air, land and water environments
and their interactions.
An ecosystem is the most complex level of organization in nature and is
made up of a community and its physical environment, including climate, soil, water,
air, nutrients and energy. A simplified ecosystem based on the flow of energy and
nutrients could be as below:
“The sun provides the energy that primary producers (mainly green plants,
such as grass and trees, which make food by the process of photosynthesis) utilize
with the assistance of abiotic substances (like phosphorous and water) to grow.
Primary consumers include mice, rabbits, grasshoppers and other plant eating animals.
The foxes, weasels and other secondary consumers – or predators – eat animals.
Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, break down dead plants and animals into
simple nutrients which go back into the soil and are used again by plants.”
Ecologists are concerned about the rate at which people are depleting nonrenewable resources like coal, gas and oil and about pollution caused by their extensive
use. They believe that if human population and current pace of development continue
to grow, such problems as depletion of fuel, air and water pollution, deforestation,
congestion, poverty, and the disruption of climate will also worsen.
Global Warming / Climate Change / Ecological Destruction
Environmental pollution is a major problem faced by humanity today. The
carbon dioxide (main component of green house gases) is increasing in the atmosphere
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Ethics and Environment
primarily due to fast increasing use of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) for vehicles and
industries, and disappearing greens (deforestation) which acted as carbon sinks.
Excess of green house gases is causing ‘global warming’ and the consequent rise in
temperature is causing melting of icecaps at Poles, rising of sea levels, water and
power shortages due to shrinking of glaciers affecting water streams, and food crises
due to changing climate patterns. Ecosystems are getting overstretched and their
ability to provide free ecological service from erosion control to climate stabilization to
flood control has been seriously undermined. Pollution of air, water, soil and even
‘space’ is increasing. Shortage of water is becoming a major problem. Low level
areas are getting submerged due to rising sea levels.
Everyone wants to reduce pollution but the problem is as complicated as it is
serious. It is complicated because much of the pollution is caused by events that
benefit people as for example:
i)
Exhaust from motor vehicles causes large percentage of air pollution but
these vehicles provide transportation to millions of people.
ii) Factories discharge much of the material that pollute air and water but
factories also provide jobs for people and produce goods that people
want.
iii) Too much fertilizer or pesticide can ruin soil and environment but these
are important aids to the growing of crops.
iv) Indiscriminate deforestation affects the land and has an adverse impact
on the ecosystems but the land is needed for housing, agriculture, and
commercial activities.
The cessation or reduction of these activities will throttle ‘growth’ and so
nations are reluctant to effect necessary emission cuts. The requirements of Developed
and Developing nations are different and vested interests also influence the solutions
to the problems. On the other hand, no single nation can solve the problem alone as
it needs the combined and willing effort on the part of the whole world community.
Dr. Karan Singh (Ref. : Samar Singh – 2007) mentions that during the last
century three major threats to the future of human race have emerged, namely, Nuclear
Disaster, Population Explosion and Ecological Destruction, and according to him
Ecological Destruction is the most lethal of the three in the long run. The current
Chairman of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Dr. R. K. Pachauri,
also observes as under :
“Clearly we are endangering all species on earth, we are endangering
the future of human race”.
Box No. 1 briefly outlines the efforts made by the world community to
appreciate and address the problem. It will be seen from it that an agreed action plan
is yet to emerge.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.5
Box No. 1
1988
The world takes note of global warming. UN sets up Inter Governmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Two years later, IPCC gives its First
Report saying world is warming unnaturally.
1992
Rio Conference produces UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCC) which asks rich nations to cut emissions as they are
responsible for it. Also tells them to financially and technologically help
other countries improve. US opposes and blocks “polluter pays
principle”.
1997
Kyoto Protocol adopted. Wants emissions to be brought down 5.2%
below 1990 levels by 2012. Wants biggest emitters to commit to
specific cuts. US Senate opposes proposal. US abstains at Kyoto.
Protocol ratified in 2002.
2001
IPCC’s 3rd Report says unprecedented global warming is “very likely”.
Scientists agree.
2007
A frantic IPCC gives its 4th Report, says effects of warming are already
evident. Reiterates that cost of cutting emissions is less than cost of
inaction. Still rich countries try to push burden of emission reduction on
“emerging economies”. At Bali, India leads fight back. In the same year
Al Gore and IPCC get Nobel Peace Prize. Still there is no real action
plan on which the world is agreed.
2008
Recession hits world, giving rich countries case for not compensating
the developing countries. India releases National Action Plan on Climate
Change with eight missions.
2009
Climate Summit held at Copenhagen during December.
Ecological Capacity : Ecological Footprint (Ref. : State of the World – 2006)
Beyond possible limits to energy and food output, the global community will
need to grapple with a more fundamental constraint : the ability of Earth’s ecological
systems to support a continually growing global economy while absorbing the vast
quantities of pollution it produces.
Environmental analyst Mathis Wackernagel has developed a concept known
as ecological footprint to measure the ecological capacity, both at the global and
national levels. Footprint analysis measures what an economy needs from nature :
the inputs that fuel it and the wastes that emerge from it. It does so using a single
matrix – the number of global hectares of land and water needed by the economy.
Global hectares are the area of biologically productive space (land and water with
significant photosynthetic activity and biomass accumulation) with world-average of
productivity. Where a nation’s footprint is larger than its bio-capacity, it indicates that
6.6
Ethics and Environment
its economy is consuming more forests, croplands and other resources than the
country can supply and thus it is overtaxing the domestic environment’s capacity to
absorb wastes.
According to Mathis Wackernagel, the global footprint now exceeds global
bio-capacity by 40 per cent (World footprint is thus 140 per cent). By importing
resources and exporting wastes, particularly carbon dioxide, the United States, Europe,
Japan, India and China all live well beyond their ecological means with footprints
ranging from 200 per cent to nearly 600 per cent.
Footprints tend to grow larger as countries industrialise, but the bulk of footprint
growth typically comes from a single source : the increase in area needed to absorb
carbon dioxide. With per capita carbon emissions still modest compared with Japan
and Western Industrial Nations, the carbon component of China and India’s footprints
is likely to grow dramatically in view of their faster growth and development.
Ecological Security
Ecological security is the foundation of sustainable development. The clash
between economics and ecology arises from the fact that whereas nature is cyclical,
the industrial and commercial systems fuelling our present-day economy are entirely
linear. Sustainability will require patterns of production and consumption that are
cyclical, imitating the process of nature (Samar Singh – 2007).
One cannot be truly human and civilized unless he looks upon not only all
fellow men but all creation with the eyes of a friend. One can take from the earth and
the atmosphere only so much as one puts back into them. This feeling of the oneness
of all life is best expressed in the Atharva Veda compiled about four thousand
years ago, as given below :
We are birds of the same nest,
We may wear different skins,
We may speak different languages,
We may believe in different religions,
We may belong to different cultures,
Yet we share the same home – Our Earth.
For man can live individually,
But can survive only collectively.
Born on the same planet,
Covered by the same skies,
Gazing at the same stars,
Breathing the same air,
We must learn to happily progress together,
Or miserably perish together.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.7
Ethics and Culture (Ref. : Hattangady – 2002)
For any individual or institutional process to gain social legitimacy, it has to
be an ethical process. Most of us understand Ethics to be related in some way to
values such as honesty, harmony, integrity etc. The dictionary recognizes Ethics as
a science dealing with the rules of ideal human behaviour. But, for Ethics to really
emerge as an exact science, a majority of us would have to accept accountability for
defining and demonstrating a code of ethical behaviour that would engender a culture
in which the individual, the family, the community and the society can endure - without
the threat of disintegration.
‘Culture’ may be defined as an organized process of human behaviour which
holds the individual, family, community or society together. The more ethical a culture,
the greater is its integrity and harmony, the greater is its security, and the greater is
its resistance to change. The greater its resistance to change, the more enduring,
necessarily, will that culture be. The inertia of large populations is nothing but a
natural and ethical social safeguard against the risk of change induced by dubious
leadership.
Environmental Ethics (Ref. : Jardins – 1997)
Environmental ethics is a systematic account of the moral relations between
human beings and their natural environment. It assumes that moral norms can and
do govern human behaviour towards natural world. A theory of environmental ethics,
then, must go on to explain what these norms are, and to whom or to what humans
have responsibilities, and to show how these responsibilities are justified. Different
theories of environmental ethics offer different answers to these questions.
Some philosophers argue that our responsibilities to the natural
environment are only indirect, that the responsibility to preserve resources,
for example, is best understood in terms of the responsibilities that we
owe to other humans. Anthropocentric (“human centered”) ethics
holds that only human beings have moral value. Thus, although we may
be said to have responsibilities regarding the natural world, we do not
have direct responsibilities to the natural world.
An extension of anthropocentric ethics occurs by considering future
generations of human beings as objects of our moral responsibilities.
Such an approach basically remains anthropocentric but it extends our
responsibilities to include some of the humans who do not yet exist.
Other philosophers argue that we also have direct responsibilities to
natural objects other than human beings. This Non-anthropocentric
ethics grants moral standing to such natural objects as animals and
plants, and consequently requires further extensions and revisions of
standard ethical principles.
6.8
Ethics and Environment
Further development of environmental ethics occurs by shifting from a
focus on individual living things to focus on collections or “wholes” such
as species, populations, or ecosystems. Holistic ethics holds that we
have moral responsibilities to collection of individual living things rather
than (or in addition to) those individual living things who constitute the
whole.
The ethics of Deep Ecology propagated by Arne Naess focuses on two
ultimate norms. These norms are ultimate in the sense that they are not
derived from any further or more basic principles or values. They are the
point at which ethical justification ends. These two ultimate norms of
deep ecology are self-realization and bio-centric equality. Self-realization
is a process through which people come to understand themselves as
existing in a thorough interconnectedness with the rest of nature. Biocentric equality is the recognition that all organisms and beings are equally
members of an interrelated whole and therefore have equal intrinsic worth.
Sustainable Economics (Ref. : Jardins – 1997)
In recent decades an alternative to classical market based economics has
emerged and we can call it “sustainable economics”. It offers a different way to think
economics in the light of our current environmental challenges and apparent failure of
classical market economics to meet these challenges. Sustainable economics
appeals to the same philosophical values for its justification – utility, freedom, equality
– as does classical market economics. It claims, however, to better promote these
values, given the current and future environmental reality. The following summarize
the current and future challenges in this regard :
a) A large percentage of the world population today lives in abject poverty.
One quarter of the world’s population lives in industrialized countries
and consumes 80% of the world’s goods. The world would, therefore,
require significant economic growth during the next few decades just to
meet the basic needs of the other 75% of the planet’s population.
b) The world’s population during the next 50 years is likely to be doubled
and so the economic activity to meet the basic needs of the population
will need to increase significantly.
c) Since the resources of all the economic activity are the natural resources
of the earth itself and since the world’s environment is already under
stress from the current economic activity, the future looks bleak.
Thus, given these realities, we must create an economic system that can
provide for the worlds’ population without destroying the environment in the process.
A typical statement of the goal of sustainable economics, in the words the World
Commission on Environment and Development (an agency of U.N.) is to meet the
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.9
“needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to
meet their own needs”.
The classical economics is governed by the law of supply and demand and
this model of economic activity is linear : resources enter one end, allocation decisions
are made to produce various goods, and these are then distributed at the other end,
in a competitive market place. Sustainable economics is particularly concerned with
the rate at which resources flow through the economy. It recognizes that all the
factors that go into production – natural resources, capital, and labour – ultimately
originate in the productive capacity of the earth. The sustainable economic system
will be that which uses resources only at a rate that can be sustained over the long
term, and recycles or uses both the by-product of the production process and products
themselves.
Compassionate Capitalism (Ref. : Narayana Murthy – 2009)
Capitalism is a system based on the principle of individual rights and
responsibilities. The bulk of economic activity is organised through private enterprise
operating in a free market. Individuals and companies are allowed to compete for their
own economic gain. Market forces determine the prices of goods and services. Such
a system is based on the premise of separating the State from the industry. The role
of State is to regulate and protect. Adam Smith had observed that in such a system
private interest and passions of men are led in the direction which is most agreeable
to the interest of the whole society.
Socialism on the other hand, is a method of organizing a society in which the
means of production and distribution of goods are controlled in the interest of the
State. It is based on cooperation rather than competition and utilises centralized
planning and distribution. It propounds the idea of equality of income and property.
The extraordinary levels of material property achieved by the capitalist system
over the course of last two hundred years is a matter of historical record. On the other
hand concentration of economic power in unaccountable centralised institutions under
the socialist doctrine and the assumption that a limited amount of wealth exists in the
world and must be divided equally among all citizens has failed to improve the prosperity
levels.
Is capitalism all that rosy? Yes, if the State plays its role as a fair, diligent,
transparent and accountable regulator of free markets observes Narayana Murthy
(2009). This has obviously not happened. It is very easy to see that we have not made
significant progress in enhancing social capital in the world – trust, concern for the
less fortunate, honesty and fairness. The disparity between the rich and poor countries
has doubled in the past forty years. The average income in the richest twenty countries
is more than thirty-five times higher than that in the poorest country. There are 1.2
billion people in the world who live in extreme poverty. About one billion people lack
access to safe drinking water.
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Ethics and Environment
Narayana Murthy (2009) further observes that we have the responsibility to
repair the situation. We have to transform the pursuit of “more” to the fulfillment of
“better for all of us”. The need of the hour is to practice compassionate capitalism.
We have to create a world where more and more wealth is created while human
dignity is enhanced.
Compassionate capitalism is bringing the power of capitalism to the benefit
of large masses. It is about combining the power of mind and heart, the good of
capitalism and of socialism. The Swedish model that combines private ownership of
the means of production with an elaborate welfare system is a good example.
Compassionate capitalism is about fairness, integrity and putting the interest
of society ahead of ones interest. It is about overcoming greed and short term
orientation. It is about creating a community that believes in the concept of ‘Vasudaiva
Kutumbam’ (the world is one family).
Major Challenges of the 21st Century
According to Sachs (2008), the defining challenge of the twenty-first century
will be to face the reality that humanity shares a common fate on a crowded planet.
He observes that the challenges of sustainable development – protecting the
environment, stabilizing the world population, narrowing the gaps between the rich
and the poor, and ending extreme poverty – will need global cooperation.
Four goals have been suggested by Sachs to overcome these challenges of
sustainable development :
•
Sustainable systems of energy, land, and resource use that avert the
most dangerous trends of climate change, species extinction, and
destruction of ecosystems.
•
Stabilization of the world population at eight billion or below by 2050
through a voluntary reduction of fertility rates.
•
The end of extreme poverty by 2025 and improved economic security
within the rich countries as well.
•
A new approach to global problem solving based on cooperation among
nations and the dynamism and creativity of the non-governmental sector.
World is at the Edge
‘At the edge’ is an expression from Chaos Theory, a relatively new science
which describes the unpredictable behaviour of things like the weather, the human
heartbeat, beehives, and the stock markets. In Chaos Theory, the edge is the meeting
point between order and chaos, between the known and the unknown.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.11
Our interdependent globalised world needs the willing cooperation of nation
states for several issues, which are beyond any one nation’s ability to solve, like the
climate change, terrorism, seemingly intractable poverty, etc. If these issues are not
tackled effectively and with speed, the future of humanity will be at stake. On the
other hand the prevailing world atmosphere is that of conflict and cynicism rather than
that of cooperation and faith. The world appears to be at the edge.
Market/Social/Spiritual Values
Value Chain Analysis for Market Values, Social Values, and Spiritual Values
and the driving forces behind them are given in Table No. 1 (Subhash Sharma – 2007).
It can be seen from the same that global problems of our Inter-dependent World
cannot be solved through an approach where ‘self-interest’, i.e., market driven approach,
is predominant. Higher values are the need of the hour.
Table No. 1
Nature of Values
Illustrative Phrases &
Expressions of the
Value Chain
Driving Force
Market Values
Competition, Efficiency,
Profitability, Survival of the
fittest, Downsizing, Economic
Value Addition (EVA), etc.
Self-interest
Social Values
Co-operation, Justice, Equity,
Human rights, Gender equality,
Social harmony, Pluralism,
Workplace diversity, Empowerment
of the Weakest, Bio-diversity and
other Environmental concerns, etc.
Enlightened
self-interest
Spiritual Values
Symbiosis, Helping others, Joy,
Bliss & Peace, Beauty, Goodness
& Truth, Symphony & Harmony,
Survival of all & development of all, etc.
Enlightened
collective
interest
Ancient Indian Philosophy – Sustainability of Dharma
(Moral Values/Ethical Values)
It is difficult to define Dharma as at different times different Seers have given
different definitions. Further, detailed Dharmas (Duties) have also been prescribed for
the various category of people like a King, Householder, Housewife, Priest, Guest,
etc. The following three definitions, however, should be able to provide a reasonably
good appreciation about Dharma : (Ref. : Agarwal – 2009)
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Ethics and Environment
1. Truth, Purity, Compassion, and Charity are the four pillars of Dharma.
2. Patience, forgiveness, restraint, not coveting others’ possessions, purity,
control over sense organs, talent, knowledge, truthfulness, and absence
of pride are the ten characteristics of Dharma.
3. Dharma of a human being is humanity and the ‘humanity’ comprises of
all the good qualities like kindness, forgiveness, truthfulness, honesty,
purity, etc.
Indian philosophy recommends four pursuits (Purusharths) for healthy living
and evolution of every individual. These are :
i)
Dharma (Duty/Moral Values/Ethical Values/Humanistic Values)
ii)
Artha (Wealth)
iii) Kama (Sensory pleasures)
iv) Moksha (Attainment of everlasting freedom/Spiritual goal)
It does not advocate man to simply target Moksha, the ultimate goal of life. It
considers man’s need to earn wealth (Artha) and the desire to satisfy his senses
(Kama) as legitimate and essential to life. However, it recommends that Artha and
Kama must not be pursued indiscriminately and must be tempered by Dharma. Further,
even the Dharma for its sustenance has to be guided by a Higher Principle,
i.e., Moksha.
Our organizations are consciously recognizing that Ethics (Dharma aspect)
is needed for sustainable performance/development and all out efforts are also being
made to imbibe it in the organizational culture. However, glaring ethical system failures
in some reputed international organizations like Enron, Arthur Anderson, Satyam,
etc., point towards the need for Ethics to be rooted in some Higher Principles
for its sustainability (Very much like the Dharma rooted in Moksha). One
remembers an old saying in this regard :
“Physical prosperity cannot be sustained without Moral Values; and
Moral Values cannot be sustained without Spiritual Values”.
Development Paradigms and Ancient Indian Thought
Subhash Sharma (2007) succinctly brings out the need for Dharma (Duty/
Moral Values/Humanistic Values) for Sustainable Development and the need for even
higher values for Holistic Development as detailed in Table No. 2.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.13
Table No. 2
Development
Paradigm
Values
Rootedness
Values
Expression
Expression
from
Ancient Thought
Economic
Development
Market Values
Artha & Karma
Sustainable
Development
Market Values &
Social concerns
Human Resource
Development,
Economic Value
Addition
Human & Social
Development,
Ethical Value Addition
& Ethical Duties
Holistic
Development
Balancing between
Market Values,
Social Values &
Spiritual Values
Dharma, Artha &
Karma
Human, Social &
Dharma, Artha,
Spiritual Development, Kama & Moksha
Spiritual Value
Addition
Gandhian Concepts (Ref. : Anand – 2002)
Volumes have been written on the values, ethics and morals on which
Mahatma Gandhi’s life was based. He claimed to be ‘a practical idealist’ and was
called a political saint. He was a visionary but not an academician. His theory merged
imperceptibly into his practice. No wonder, in every moment of his public life he
continued to grow towards ‘self-realisation’.
Mahatma Gandhi felt that there must be one standard in all spheres of a
human being’s life and that standard has to be based on the concept of unity of
human beings, of all life, and of all existence. Only then will he try to be ever more
truthful, compassionate, tolerant, understanding, fearless and considerate and would
move towards an even more non-violent, egalitarian, sustainable and happy social
order.
Gandhian Ethics (Ref. : Anand – 2002)
Under the Gandhian philosophy and practice, ethical (moral, spiritual, religious)
preamble must underlie all human thought, word and deed, choices and relationships,
goals and endeavour. The Seven Social Sins according to Gandhi are :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Politics without principles.
Wealth without work.
Pleasure without conscience.
Knowledge without character.
Commerce without morality.
Science without humanity.
Worship without sacrifice.
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Ethics and Environment
Gandhi on Ethics and Ecology (Ref. : Anand – 2002)
Mahatma Gandhi regarded human beings as trustees of all creation, animate
and inanimate. He emphasized that, “It is an arrogant assumption to say that human
beings are lords and masters of the lower creatures. On the contrary, being endowed
with greater things in life, they are the trustees of the lower animal kingdom.” His
ideas of non-possession, minimization of wants and economic equality, his concern
for hygiene and sanitation and against any wastage – even of a drop of water or a
scrap of paper or a minute of time, and his whole lifestyle and life’s values, made him
an ideal environmentalist well before the environmental concerns became a common
issue.
The following are some of his views relevant to the issue :
•
•
•
•
“- - man has no power to create life, therefore, he has no right to destroy
life.”
“Therefore, the ideal of creating an unlimited number of wants and satisfying
them seems to be a delusion and a snare. - - - Man’s happiness lies in
contentment.”
“The earth provides enough to satisfy everyman’s needs, but not
everyman’s greed.”
“A time is coming when those who are in the mad rush today of multiplying
their wants, vainly thinking that they add to the real substance, real
knowledge of the world, will retrace their steps and say: ‘What have we
done?’ ”
The new environmentalism called ‘Deep Ecology’, propagated by Arne Naess,
closely mirrors the Gandhian philosophy. According to Naess, “Gandhi’s utopia is
one of the few that shows ecological balance, and today his rejection of the Western
world’s material abundance and waste is accepted by progressives of ecological
movement.”
Spiritual basis of Values (Ref. : Kaw – 2002)
Those who advocate the spiritual method are sometimes criticised on the
ground that there is no unanimity among the great religions and, therefore, one cannot
arrive at a consensus with regard to the fundamental values that must be accepted
and followed by all human beings.
This criticism does not take into account the fact that each faith is composed
of several layers. At the core of a religion is the science of spirituality, which states
the nature of the individual being and that of the cosmos and tries to define the
relationship between the two. This science is common to all religions.
The second layer is that of the technology of spirituality, which lays down the
particular rituals, ceremonies, meditational methods, words of prayer, incantations,
etc. These differ from faith to faith, but do not affect the science in any way.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.15
The third layer is that of the commerce of spirituality, where an organised
group takes charge of a particular creed and makes a commercial enterprise out of it.
The fourth layer is the politics of spirituality, where ambitious people use faith
as a weapon. Their desire for power is masked by the pretence of supporting a particular
faith.
In the evaluation of spirituality there has been an element of unanimity, across
faiths and across countries. Generally, the disciples emphasise the technology, the
priests exploit the commercial aspect and the rulers go for the political angle.
Science of Spirituality (Ref. : Kaw 2002)
If we have to arrive at the underlying unanimity among all the faiths in the
world, we should concentrate on the science of spirituality. Its fundamental postulates
are the following:
⇒ This cosmos is not an accidental conglomeration of matter and biological
⇒
⇒
⇒
⇒
⇒
⇒
forms, which has no origin, no aim, no purpose, no direction.
The cosmos is a live entity, which exists, which has consciousness,
which has a design, a certain method in its apparent madness.
Behind this cosmos, there is a superconscious being whose presence
has been felt by mystics. He has no name, but responds to any name
that we humans choose to call him by.
The individual human being is not merely the outer frame of the body or
the inner subtle realm of the mind and the intellect. Behind and beyond
these perishable outer manifestations, there is an innermost entity that
is also of the nature of consciousness and pure existence. It has no
name, yet has been referred to as the soul or the atma.
Between the individual and the cosmic consciousness, there is a clearcut relationship. When we look at it from the spiritual angle, the individual
and the cosmic consciousness merge and are seen to be the same.
As we are all descended from God, there is only a single caste or race.
There is only one possible relationship among people, that of the bondage
of affinity.
Nature is the outer manifestation of the divine.
Five Fundamental Human Values (Ref. : Kaw – 2002)
Whatever way we approach life, the conclusions are the same. After deep
research, it has been found that the thousands of desirable traits and qualities that
we humans must possess can be summarised into five fundamental human values.
These are truth, non-violence, righteous conduct, love, and peace.
6.16
Ethics and Environment
Truth
Truth is basic to existence. All other values emerge out of truth. If we have to
look for just one basic human value to practise, it should be truth. All great men
become great because they speak and believe in the truth.
Scientific research has also shown that the words of a truthful person have
great impact on his audience. Today, management gurus talk of the seven spiritual
laws of success, or of principle-centered leadership. It has been proved that false
assertions about the qualities of products do not befool the people for all time. Soon
enough, the duplicity is discovered and the lie is nailed. The management experts
advise CEOs to be honest and truthful in their advertising. The more truthful they are,
the greater their credibility, the more productive their employees, and the more
successful their enterprise.
Non-violence
Non-violence is another fundamental postulate that is critical to human survival.
At the level of nation-states, it is now increasingly clear that, in future, humans will
have to learn to resolve disputes through discussion, mediation, arbitration and
international diplomacy, and not through strife, battle or war. Even at the individual
level, violence is fast becoming a taboo. Human beings have to learn how to live
together in harmonious, cooperative relationships in multi-racial, multi-religious and
multi-cultural societies. We have to learn to celebrate diversity. We have to get rid of
entrenched notions.
Today we talk of globalisation, but such is our infatuation with money that we
can think only in terms of the world being a single market. No doubt, it should be a
single market. But it should also be a single family, the family of mankind.
Righteous Conduct
Righteous conduct is a critical human value. It is not only our thinking that
has to change. Our conduct has to be righteous. We have to behave in a way that
leads to truth, to fairness, to justice, to liberty, equality and fraternity, to democracy,
to human rights, to human happiness. If we understand that what we reap is exactly
what we ourselves have sown, it is highly unlikely that we will indulge in morally
reprehensible conduct. Righteous conduct also involves living within the means and
not indulging in extreme behaviour of any kind.
Love
Then we have the bondage of love. This is the energy that holds the cosmos
together. This is what binds the family, the society, and the nation.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.17
Peace
If we opt for truth and righteous conduct, we avoid misunderstandings and
misapprehensions, troubles and travails. When we have peace, both internal and
external, we are face to face with the reality that is our own true self.
Role of Technology
Many thinkers believe that environmental problems center on technological
problems and solutions. This view claims that we are victims of our success. We
suffer from environmental problems because we have become rich and mobile so
quickly that we have overwhelmed the technological systems that enabled these
successes to occur. When few people had automobiles it did not matter very much
that they were highly polluting. When everyone has an automobile they become an
environmental problem. This kind of story can be told for many environmental problems.
The solution appears to be to do a new round of technological development.
Previous generation of technologies were developed to solve problems and reduce
labour in a world in which environmental costs were not significant. Now that they are
important, a new generation of technology is needed that performs these labour saving
functions but with much greater sensitivity to the environment.
Technological approaches are popular both with the politicians and with the
public because they promise solution to environmental problems without forcing to
change values, way of life, or economic systems. However, the situation is rather
vague about what these new technologies should be or what they might actually
accomplish.
Future Scenarios
In the opinion of Jamieson (2008) there are three broad scenarios which the
future may bring namely :
1. Environmental catastrophe.
2. Continuing and increasing global inequality and environmental degradation.
3. Change in the way of life of the world’s most privileged people.
He observes that these three scenarios are not clear cut, nor are they mutually
exclusive. To some extent we are living in the midst of each of them right now, and the
future may hold more of the same.
Catastrophes don’t arrive announcing themselves as such. As things now
stand, every day environmental problems cause death and destruction to vast number
of humans and other animals. Yet most of us do not think of ourselves as living
through a catastrophe. Some of this is a matter of perception and some a matter of
where we are located.
6.18
Ethics and Environment
What counts as an environmental catastrophe also depends on what one
values. Many ecologists feel that the species extinctions and biodiversity losses that
are now underway are the early stages of an environmental catastrophe, but not every
one thinks that these things matter.
Even though the number of people living in utter poverty does not seem to
budge, an increasing number of people in developing countries are living like those in
developing countries. If everyone lived the same way as an average American we
would need 5.3 planets with resources of Earth.
This leads to the second scenario, in which global inequality and environmental
degradation continue to increase. In this scenario, we prevent the environmental
catastrophe implied by everyone living in the same way as an average American by
making sure that they do not : the rich continue to be rich and poor continue to be
poor.
In addition to being morally indefensible, this is probably not a viable long
term strategy. Developing countries are quite sensitive to the possibility that their
development prospects are being intentionally thwarted in order to protect the quality
of life in already developed countries. They will not accept this without a struggle.
The truth is that the developing world is in a position to do a great deal of
damage to the rich countries and the things they value. In addition to their ability to
significantly increase and accelerate climate change, developing countries are also
the custodian of much of the world’s biodiversity and without the active cooperation of
countries in Africa, South America and Asia, much of it will be lost forever.
This brings us to the third scenario. Because developing countries have the
ability to threaten what the developed countries cherish, there is the possibility of a
deal. The developing countries could develop in a way that “leapfrogs” the highly
polluting resource-intensive development model that was followed by Europe and
North America, and move directly to the highly efficient, sustainable technologies of
the future. In return, the rich countries must set an example by reducing their own
consumption and moving towards sustainability. To a great extent they also must
develop, provide, and pay for the new technologies that the developing countries need
in order to make this transition.
Five E’s of Sustainable Development (Ref. : Agarwal – 2009)
If one is asked to choose parameters which can help an individual to perform
all his actions/activities, on a sustainable basis, in the best possible manner, the
following Five E’s could be listed :
i)
ii)
Efficiency
Effectiveness
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
iii)
iv)
v)
6.19
Ethics : Essential for sustainable performance.
Environment : Be in tune; Don’t damage; Improve, if possible.
Evolution : Create positive impact on the value structure.
Efficiency covers all activities, which make actions efficient and will, interalia,
include efficient time management, good physical and mental health, possession of
adequate knowledge and skills, will to do the job, positive attitude, doing things right
the first time, low stress levels, etc.
Effectiveness will mean that the actions result in achieving useful goals for
which it will be essential to have necessary vision, broad idea of goals to be achieved,
systems to be followed to reach the goals, necessary co-ordination/co-operation with
other individuals/organizations, conscious realization of one’s capacity/capability levels
etc.
Ethics is essential for sustainable development and performance. It also
helps in arriving at solutions, which are more equitable (concern for Equity). It reduces
stress levels, as ethical paths can be very clearly charted as against the paths which
are followed for achieving the goals through unethical means.
Environment has to be seen in a broader context and may include physical
environment, working environment, political environment, financial environment and
the like. Activities have to be performed keeping these in mind, lest they trigger
reactions which may be difficult to control. Further, actions should not damage the
Environment rather, improve it to the extent possible.
Actions must support the process of Evolution and Development in the
positive direction for all those connected with the activities. Decline in human values
can be detrimental to the society.
For better performance on a sustainable basis these parameters, i.e.,
the Five ‘Es’ are equally relevant to a Group of Individuals (Teams), Activities,
Systems, Organizations and even the Nations. Efforts should be directed to
continuously improve upon them.
Spiritual Solution to Problems (Ref. : Agarwal – 2009)
One of the mantras of Bhagwan Mahavira to solve problems was based on
the principle of bringing harmony between the extremes. He said, “One who is cognisant
of the intrinsic is cognisant of the extrinsic; one who is cognisant of the extrinsic, is
cognisant of the intrinsic.” Here the intrinsic correlates with the spirituality, while the
extrinsic with the external or physical conditions (Economic Times, New Delhi, 20th
April 2009).
There are some people who assert that spirituality holds the key to all
problems, while others insist on bringing about a change in the external conditions for
6.20
Ethics and Environment
solving all problems. In fact, a holistic approach would be that it is imperative to
change the external conditions as well as the internal ones.
The two great challenges of the present day world are unlimited wealth and
unlimited consumption. On account of limitless individual possessions, one section
of the society is becoming more and more affluent, whereas another section is
becoming deprived and is reeling under the agony of extreme poverty and hunger.
Further, the primary cause of environmental pollution is over-consumption or
unnecessary consumption.
For solving these two prime challenges (Extreme poverty & Environmental
pollution) two mantras enunciated by Bhagwan Mahavira can prove extremely effective:
(i) Putting a limit on one’s possessions.
(ii) Putting a limit to one’s consumption.
In this regard the following can be suggested :
(a) Most of the countries do fix a minimum wage/income. It may be desirable
to ensure a maximum limit for the income also, either through legislation
or through taxation. Further, all those below the minimum wage/income
levels must be supported by the Society/Government. This will ensure
reduced disparities and will avoid extreme hunger and poverty.
(b) While a culture of austerity must be developed wherein one acts to get
his needs fulfilled (and not the greed), individual governments, within an
overall accepted world norm, must fix per capita consumption limits for
certain critical items. Controlled levels of consumption coupled with
technological inputs should ensure that what we take from Nature is duly
returned to make the ecological cycle sustainable.
Conclusion
⇒
The problems of Global Warming/ Climate Change/ Ecological
destruction are not only real but are serious and alarming. The future of
humanity is at stake. The world is at the edge.
⇒
These environmental and ecological problems are not only scientific,
technological or political issues but raise fundamental questions about
what we as human beings value, about the kind of beings we are, the
kind of lives we should live, our place in nature, and the kind of world in
which we might flourish. In short, environmental problems raise
fundamental questions of ethics and philosophy.
Vijai Kumar Agarwal
6.21
⇒
Problems get further compounded as the norms of Environmental Ethics
themselves are changing say from Anthropocentric (“Human Centred”)
ethics to Non- Anthropocentric ethics to Holistic ethics. Many thinkers
believe that ethical extensionism is an adequate philosophical response
because the traditional ethical theories and principles are part of the
world view that has been responsible for much of environmental and
ecological destruction. According to them a more radical philosophical
approach is needed like the ethics of Deep Ecology.
⇒
While ethical solutions are essentially needed for sustainable
development, the ‘sustainability of ethics’ is becoming a big question
mark. Recent ethical system failures in a number of international
organizations clearly point towards it. For sustainability, the ‘ethics’
has to be rooted in some higher values/principles. In this regard an old
saying is worth repeating :
“Physical prosperity cannot be sustained without Moral
Values; and Moral Values cannot be sustained without
Spiritual Values”.
⇒
We need an economic system that can provide for world’s population
without destroying the environment. Our global ecological footprint is
already 140% and ecological security is the need of the hour. The
classical Economics has to give way to ‘Sustainable economics’.
⇒
The approach of ‘Self-interest’ (market values) has to give way to
‘Enlightened Self-interest’ (social values) while remaining rooted in
‘Enlightened Collective Interest’ (spiritual values).
⇒
While our current ‘economic development’ is basically rooted in market
values, ‘sustainable development’ will need an approach where social
concerns are also adequately taken care-off. The Compassionate
Capitalism propounded by Narayana Murthy (2009) will greatly help.
⇒
These discussions clearly highlight how relevant Mahatma Gandhi’s
views on ethics, business and ecology, propounded years ago, are
becoming so relevant today.
⇒
World religions can develop unanimity as the core of each religion is
the ‘science of spirituality’. Commercialization and politicalisation of
religions will have to checked/avoided. Development of human values
will have to encouraged and value erosion countered. This is essentially
needed for our globalised inter-dependent world.
6.22
Ethics and Environment
⇒
It will be necessary to ensure reduced disparity between the rich and
the poor, reduce consumption levels, and develop new generation of
technologies having greater sensitivity to environment, for ensuring a
sustainable world order.
⇒
The journey is difficult but it is related to our wellbeing and survival.
References
1.
Agarwal, V. K. : ‘Environment, Energy and Ecology : Mankind’s Most Serious
Concern Today’, RITES Journal, August 2007.
2.
Agarwal, V. K. : ‘Globalised Interdependent World : Issues and Options’, RITES
Journal, July 2009.
3.
Anand, Y. P. : ‘Ethics and Values : Lessons from Gandhian Philosophy for
Management and Leadership, RITES Journal, September 2002.
4.
Hattangady, Krishna : ‘Business and Socio-Economic Development : Issues of
Values and Performance’, RITES Journal, September 2002.
5.
Jamieson, Dale : ‘Ethics and the Environment’ Cambridge University Press,
2008.
6.
Jardins, Joseph R. Des : ‘Environmental Ethics’, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, 1997.
7.
Kaw, M. K. : ‘Education in Human Values’, RITES Journal, September 2002.
8.
Narayana Murthy, N. R. : ‘A Better India – A Better World’, Allen Lane, 2009.
9.
Sachs, Jeffrey D. : ‘Common Wealth – Economics for a Crowded Planet’, The
Penguin Press, New York, 2008.
10.
Samar Singh (Ed.) : ‘Ecological Security : The Foundation of Sustainable
Development’, Shipra and India International Centre, New Delhi, 2007.
11.
Subhash Sharma : ‘New Mantras in Corporate Corridors – From Ancient Roots
to Global Routes’, New Age International Publishers, 2007.
12.
State of the World : A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress toward a
Sustainable Society, Special Focus : China and India, 2006.
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