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ACADEMIC CONTRIBUTIONS
Character centered leadership:
Muhammad (p) as an ethical
role model for CEOs
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Rafik I. Beekun
Managerial Sciences Department,
University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the leadership style of Muhammad (p) within
a character-centric framework as a useful alternative to the transactional, self-centered model and the
value-neutral transformational approach that currently permeate business management. The author
differentiates such perspectives from the character-centered, moral approach to leadership suggested
by the Qur’an and modeled by Muhammad (p), and proposes that this approach may be of practical
use to CEOs.
Design/methodology/approach – A conceptual, comparative discussion of Muhammad’s
leadership style based on the primary Islamic sources is shown to have practical implications for
the leadership process in management.
Findings – The current malaise in business leadership can be resolved by a new focus on character
and on virtues.
Practical implications – The character-centered, moral approach of Muhammad provides
exemplars of virtues and behaviors that, if emulated by CEOs, may help pre-empt potentially
self-serving, individualistic and narcissistic tendencies.
Originality/value – The leadership model of Muhammad has been applied to a number of arenas
before, but this is the first attempt at explicating the Qur’anic emphasis on the role-modeling aspects of
his character (khuluqin azeem). When fully expounded, it is likely to offer a more virtue-centric
alternative to transactional and/or transformational approaches to leadership and their associated
relativistic values.
Keywords Islam, Ethics, Behaviour, Transformational leadership, Character, Virtues, Muhammad,
Servant leadership, Practical wisdom
Paper type Conceptual paper
1. Introduction
The litany of unethical business actions resulting from poor leadership at global
companies such as Enron, Arthur Andersen and numerous others in Europe and
elsewhere, the enactment of laws such as Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002) in the USA and
the UK Bribery Act (2010), the potential international bribery blacklisting of British
firms (Leigh, 2011) and the renewed global emphasis on anti-bribery and corruption
compliance activities (KPMG, 2011) suggest that dominant leadership models, such as
the transactional and the transformational approaches to leadership, need to be
rethought in spite of the relative “effectiveness” of these approaches (Groves and
LaRocca, 2011). Although transformational leadership counterbalances the potentially
self-serving nature of transactional leadership, research indicates that it too may be
hampered by flaws (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999; Howell and Avolio, 1992). For example,
transformational leadership does not ensure behavioral ethicality or an emphasis on
moral values (Groves and LaRocca, 2011; Dubrin, 2012). A potential response to these
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Journal of Management Development
Vol. 31 No. 10, 2012
pp. 1003-1020
r Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0262-1711
DOI 10.1108/02621711211281799
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concerns has been the focus on responsible leadership, but that perspective – focussing
on a single virtue – has also provided an incomplete resolution to the weaknesses in
previous leadership research (Pruzan and Miller, 2006).
Exacerbating the above issues is the fact that leaders find it difficult to ensure that
their people abide by values and ethics (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 2011). Business leaders
still hold to the idea that greed pays as long as they can get by governmental
watchdogs. This belief may result partly from the dichotomy between ethical and
unethical values, and the frequent conflation of values and virtues – two terms that are
not interchangeable (Melé, 2011). To address these deficiencies, my paper examines the
virtues underlying Muhammad’s (p)[1] leadership style within a character-centric
framework, and aims to provide practical insights for CEOs and other leaders.
2. Why character-centered leadership?
Over the past decades, different approaches to leadership have been proposed to
improve leaders’ effectiveness (Dubrin, 2012), but have each their own ethical slip-ups.
As indicated by Bass and Steidlmeier (1999), transactional leadership emphasizes the
idea of social exchange processes based upon contingent reinforcement. Followers
perform a task for the leader in return for the rewards that he/she can deliver.
Unfortunately, this perspective may engender an exclusive pursuit of one’s own
interests and be therefore problematic (Rosenthal and Buchholz, 1995).
By contrast, transformational leadership (Burns, 1978; Bass, 1985) focusses on the
major, positive changes that leaders bring about. The transformational leader
influences his/her followers to look beyond their self-interests and to focus instead
on the collective good. Although Burns (1978) had suggested that a
transformational leader should be morally uplifting, Bass (1985) initially proposed
that transformational leaders could be either “virtuous” or “villainous” depending on
their values. He later reversed himself by distinguishing between “authentic
transformational leaders” and “pseudo-transformational leaders” (Bass and
Steidlmeier, 1999). One cannot be sure then whether a transformational leader abides
by values that are either moral or immoral.
Reflecting on the gaps in transactional and transformational leadership, Maak and
Pless (2006) and Groves and LaRocca (2011) have recently emphasized the concept of
responsible leadership, suggesting that one element missing from previous models of
leadership is the responsibility element. Waldman and Galvin (2008) assert that
responsibility is “geared towards the specific concerns of others, an obligation to act on
those standards, and some measure of accountability for the consequences of one’s
actions.” What if the “others” are members of a gang, terrorists or other types of
criminals? What if the standards by which one is to act are criminal standards? Since
responsibility is a necessary but not sufficient condition for ethical leadership, there are
likely to be other virtues that relate to moral judgments and acts. Indeed, Bass and
Steidlmeier (1999, p. 3) contend that the key issue in making moral judgments (and
acting morally) depends on the “legitimacy of the grounding worldview, and beliefs
that grounds a set of moral values and criteria.”
While Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) and Ciulla (2006) have looked at moral character
as discussed by Aristotle and Confucius, I contend like Beekun and Badawi (1999) and
Kriger and Seng (2005) that there is a character-based model embedded within the
Qur’an and the Sunnah or Hadith[2].
The primary purpose of my paper then is to uncover the character-centric model of
Muhammad and to outline a core set of leadership education principles within the
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context of practical wisdom. For the purposes of my paper, I will use Nonaka and
Takeuchi’s (2011, p. 60) definition of practical wisdom as “tacit knowledge acquired
from experience that enables people to make prudent judgments and take actions
based on the actual situation, guided by values and morals.” Thus, practical wisdom
emphasizes the importance of flexible and contingent decision making while seeking
advice from people with the relevant competencies and moral character. Other
important elements of practical wisdom involve the sincere attitude to do what is right,
the search of balance between opposing values (Melé, 2011) and the application of
ethical principles. Since the implementation of ethics is a function of a leader’s
character (Halverson, 2004), and since Aristotle suggests that “the person of good
character perceives a situation rightly – that is, take proper account of the salient
features” (Hartman, 2006, p. 74), it is not surprising that character is a critical
requirement for leadership effectiveness (Mintzberg, 2004). Accordingly, then, in
seeking to offer practical advice to CEOs and other leaders based on Muhammad’s (p)
leadership model, I will now explore key virtues at the core of his character. For the
purposes of my paper, I will use Aristotle’s definition of character as the moral
dimension of a person (Melé, 2011).
3. Character-centered leadership
To situate the leadership style of Muhammad (p), I must first focus on a key verse in the
Qur’an (68:4) where God describes him as follows:
And you (Muhammad) stand as an exalted standard of character.
This verse describes the very core of Muhammad’s (p) leadership. The Arabic term
khuluq used in this verse means “character.” Abu Laylah (1990) states that the
word khuluq (plural akhlaq) means “character, natural disposition or innate temper.”
In contrast to the word fitrah (Qur’an, 30:30) which describes the nature with which
a person is born, khuluq (26:137) connotes an additional meaning, that of an acquired
or learned “custom” or “habit.” Over time, a “habit” or “custom” may become second
nature to a person. Overall, when juxtaposing fitrah and khuluq, Abu Laylah suggests
that while a common core of morality (fitrah) is created in us when we are created, we
can acquire morality through education and socialization – by properly emulating the
model or behavioral pattern of Muhammad (p).
The Qur’an emphasizes the modeling dimension of Muhammad’s character-centric
exemplar. In two verses, the Qur’an (68:4) stresses this aspect of the character of
Muhammad when it explicitly states (33:21) that he is the “ouswatoun hasana”
(excellent model) mankind is to follow, and then reaffirms that mankind is to learn
wisdom (hikmah) from him:
[y] We have sent among you a Messenger of your own to recite Our revelations to you,
purify you and teach you the Scripture, wisdom, and [other] things you did not know
(Qur’an, 2:151).
One possible definition of hikmah which correlates with Aristotle’s is given by Burhan
(2012) as “a total insight and having sound judgment concerning a matter or situation
through understanding cause and effect phenomena.” Picking a model and emulating
his behavior are clearly an important means of learning, but Islam suggests that
mimicry alone does not guarantee wisdom; character and virtue, too, are essential.
In describing his character modeling mission, Muhammad (p) repeatedly refers to
the concept of akhlaq, and relies on both above-mentioned meanings of the term. In a
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hadith that reflects the authentic transformational nature of his mission, the Prophet
(p) stated:
I was not sent except to perfect moral characters[3].
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Thus, the mission of the Prophet (p) as an “exalted standard of character” is to help
men and women improve their own moral character with the Qur’an and his traditions
as their guide.
4. Muhammad’s (p) character
Muhammad’s (p) character was virtue centric, and is consistent with the Qur’an.
Indeed, when ‘Aisha (ra) was asked about the character of the Prophet (p), she
answered, “Verily the character of the Prophet of God was the Qur’an.[4]” The
character-centered model of Muhammad (p) is also consistent with Aristotelian
thought where ethics centers around virtues and virtues derive from character. In this
paper, I will adopt Alasdair Maclntyre’s (1984) definition of virtue as being “qualities
that both enable and predispose a person to live a good life” and lead them to do the
“right” thing given any situational context[5]. Known as As-Siddiq (the truthful) and
Al-Ameen (the trustworthy) long before he received divine inspiration, Muhammad (p)
modeled core virtues that defined his character and his behavior: truthfulness and
integrity, trustworthiness, justice, benevolence, humility, kindness and sabr (patience).
These will be described briefly here.
Truthfulness and integrity
Muhammad’s (p) truthfulness was so well known that even after he claimed
Prophethood, his enemies would still not accuse him of lying. Modeling the behavior he
preached to others, He (p) always encouraged truthfulness and integrity of character.
For example, he once declared:
Three are the signs of a hypocrite: When he speaks, he lies; when he makes a promise, he
breaks it; and when he is trusted, he betrays his trust (Abu Hurairah, in Bukhari and Muslim).
The above hadith is interesting in that it defines integrity (the lack of hypocrisy) as a
“synthesis of virtues” (Melé, 2011): truthfulness, promise-keeping and trustworthiness.
Integrity, in fact, is the number one attribute by which followers of the most effective
leaders assess the effectiveness of their leader (Kouzes and Posner, 1995). Since a leader
with integrity will be steadfastly upright, his/her followers will trust him/her.
Trustworthiness
The above hadith also highlights the second core value characterizing Muhammad:
amana or trustworthiness. It correlates with Dubrin’s (2012) discussion of the
characteristics of effective transformational leaders. In spite of offers of vast wealth
and power, Muhammad (p) never compromised his cause, nor did he ever cheat
anybody. Amazingly, the very adversaries who were plotting to kill him in Makkah
were the same people who had entrusted him with their property.
An additional dimension of amana relates to the concept of man’s role of trustee on
earth. As such, he must bear responsibility for his actions. The wealth and other
resources that man has access to are not his, but have been loaned to him by God as
tools to fulfill the responsibilities of the trusteeship. Like any other person, a CEO is
accountable for his/her actions, and must devolve the responsibilities associated with
his/her position toward other stakeholders (Beekun and Badawi, 2005).
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Justice
Justice is described by two words in the Qur’an: ‘adl and qist; ‘adl means “equity,
balance” whereas qist refers to the highest level of justice. In the Qur’an, Muslims are
encouraged by God to behave justly toward all: “Be just! For justice is nearest to piety”
(Qur’an, 5:8). Consistent with Melé’s (2011) definition of justice as “the perpetual and
constant will to render to each his or her right,” Muhammad (p) never dealt with
anybody in a partial manner. In a famous incident involving a lady thief, he rejected
any intercession attempt decrying the selective justice administered prior to him.
Benevolence (Ihsan)
It describes an action that benefits persons other than those from whom the action
proceeds without any obligation, and issues from the recognition and consideration for
human dignity (Melé, 2011). In contrasting the concepts of Ihsan (benevolence) and ‘adl
( justice), Al-Qurtubi (1966) expounds on the Qur’anic verse “Lo! God enjoins justice
and kindness” (16:90), and suggests that ‘adl ( justice) is mandatory while Ihsan
(benevolence) is what is above and beyond the mandatory. Whereas CEOs and their
followers sometimes self-destruct because of lingering enmities, Muhammad (p) acted
benevolently even with respect to those who had committed grievous and barbaric acts
against his family.
Humility
According to Collins (2005), one of the key attributes of the CEOs of the most effective
firms is level 5 leadership which centers on humility. Being humble does not mean that
one is submissive and easily swayed. While preparing for the battle of Al Ahzab, the
Prophet Muhammad (p) joined his companions in digging the ditch around Madinah
and carried bowls of earth on his head. At home, he milked his own goats, mended his
own clothing, and slept on the floor on a very thin mat.
Kindness
A leader’s role is not that of a bully wielding a big stick. Many famous CEOs have
acquired notoriety because of their harsh treatment of their subordinates, e.g. Jack
Welch[6] (New York Times, 2011), or Steve Jobs[7] (Nocera, 2011). By contrast, the
Prophet (p) advised his followers to treat a worker or servant kindly – as he did. As
narrated by Amr Ibn Harayth:
If you show kindness to your servant while employing him in some task, this will weigh
heavily in your favor on the Day of Judgment [y].
Patience
As Safi (1995) points out, sabr is the type of endurance leaders need during natural
disasters ordained by God. During a three-year long total boycott of the fledgling
Muslim community in Makkah, the Prophet strengthened his followers through his
exemplary sabr:
When we complained to God’s Messenger (p) of hunger and raised our clothes to show we
were each carrying a stone over the belly, God’s Messenger (p) raised his clothes and showed
that he had two stones on his belly[8].
Overall, Muhammad modeled key moral virtues integral to his character by practicing
them tangibly. To demonstrate that Muhammad (p) not only preached virtuous
behavior but also practiced it, I will now analyze his character-centric model of
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leadership in light of the authentic transformational leadership and servant leadership
literature. This analysis will then enable me to extract elements of practical wisdom for
CEOs and other leaders.
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5. Muhammad’s character-centric style of leadership
As an authentic transformational leader (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999), Muhammad’s
mission was to change the jahiliyyah[9] culture in pre-Islamic Arabia and, on a broader
scale, the world across time. The process by which Muhammad (p) was able to bring
about this change is described in Figure 1 (adapted from Beekun, 2008 and based on
Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999 and Dubrin, 2012).
Raising people’s awareness
Muhammad (p) increased awareness of what it is right, just and halal (lawful) during a
period of jahiliyyah or ignorance. Describing this pre-Islamic state of affairs, Ja’far ibn
Abi Talib told the ruler of Abyssinia: “O king! We used to drink blood, eat of carrion,
commit fornication, steal, kill one another and plunder. The powerful used to oppress
the weak. We used to do many other things shameful and despicable” (Bukhari,
Wasa’ya’). Against this backdrop, Muhammad (p) spent his lifetime teaching and
mentoring his followers in the core Islamic virtues and values.
Help people look beyond their self-interest
Muhammad (p) stressed the universal brotherhood of mankind, enjoined benevolence,
kindness and justice and argued against the egoism that permeated the times. He
posited that practices such as infanticide should not be acceptable simply because they
• Principle of intention
• Principle of taqwa
(awe)
• Principle of gratitude
• Principle of shura
• Principle of accountability
Transformational
leadership
1. Raise awareness
2. Help people look beyond their
self-interests
3. Intellectual stimulation
4. Idealized influence or charisma
5. Individual consideration
6. Inspirational motivation
Moral
character of
muhammad (p)
Servant
leadership
1. Service before self
2. Listening as a means of affirmation
3. Creating trust
4. Focus on what is feasible to
accomplish
5. Lend a hand
Figure 1.
Muhammad (p) as the
Ouswatoun Hasana
(excellent model) for
leaders
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had been passed down from one’s ancestors. These were not only morally
unacceptable, but were also morally unkind and unjust:
None of you truly believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself (Hadith
#13 in An Nawawi).
Challenging their clan-centric parochialism, Muhammad (p) encouraged his followers –
the Muhajirin and the Ansar – to look at the “big picture” for the sake of the Ummah.
Blood ties were to be superseded by the ties of the brotherhood of faith strengthened by
the virtues that the Prophet’s (p) himself lived by.
Intellectual stimulation
The intellectual stimulation necessary to challenge jahiliyyah was divinely ordained in
the first word of revelation: “Iqra” meaning “Read!” This command, coming to an
unlettered Prophet (p) implied that believers should use their intellectual and spiritual
faculties to reflect about God’s signs present throughout His creation. In the manner of
authentic transformational leaders (Avolio and Bass, 1988), Muhammad (p) offered his
followers a new worldview. Besides raising their spiritual awareness, he (p) urged them
to engage themselves in learning and to excel in whatever field they pursued:
He who issues forth in search of knowledge is busy in the cause of God till he returns from his
quest (as reported by Anas Ibn Malik in Al Tirmidhi, hadith #420).
They were to search for and acquire knowledge not for self-aggrandizement, but rather to
get closer to, and to serve their Creator. Taking these injunctions to heart, Muslims
developed the first universities and led in many scientific areas for centuries (Said, 1983).
Idealized influence or charisma
According to Stone et al. (2004), leaders who demonstrate integrity in ethical conduct
become role models that followers admire, respect and pattern themselves after.
Charisma, however, can have either a positive or a dark side. Ethical charismatic
leaders work to develop their followers into leaders, learn from criticism and rely on an
internal moral standard. Unethical charismatic leaders are motivated by self-interest,
censure critical or opposing views and lack an internal moral compass. As indicated
earlier (Qur’an, 68:4), Muhammad (p) was an ethical charismatic leader, and this is
validated by the virtuous life he lived.
Individual consideration and attention
Muhammad (p) paid close attention to the personal differences among his followers
(Humphreys, 2005). He understood that each follower had different needs and that those
needs changed over time. He reached out to everybody with kindness and benevolence,
including his worst detractors. One need only compare the pre-Islamic Umar (who was
about to assassinate him) to the Muslim Umar (r)[10] to understand the effect that
Muhammad (p) had as a role model and coach on some of his toughest opponents. He
treated them fairly, but differently depending on his assessment of their maturity level
and readiness – as when he refused to appoint Abu Dhar to an administrative post based
on his “inability to manage the affairs of the people” (Muslim, Imara, 16-17).
Inspirational motivation
This dimension of transformational leadership (Avolio and Bass, 1991) is characterized
by the communication of high expectations, the use of symbols to focus efforts and the
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enunciation of important goals in simple terms. Such behavior increases the selfconfidence of followers. Inspirational leaders often provide encouragement during
difficult times and set the group standard as far as work ethic is concerned – as when
the Muslims were being harassed and several were being tortured and put to death in
the cruelest manner. Muhammad (p) refused to react vindictively and kept his
companions focussed on their higher common purpose.
6. Problems with transformational leadership
Howell and Avolio (1992) and Bass and Steidlmeier (1999) have indicated that there are
potential ethical problems with transformational leadership. First, transformational
leaders may enhance their positives and downplay their weaknesses, and adopt the
values which they believe fit the implicit theories of leadership of their followers.
However, Muhammad (p) was forthright about his values and never compromised
them. Had he been morally corrupt, he would have adopted the corrupt values of the
elite in Makkah and accepted their offers of immense wealth and power. He never
yielded to their demands.
Second, contrary to transactional leadership, there are no checks and balances for
transformational leaders, and there may be an unhealthy concentration of power and
authority at the top. In rebutting this argument, one notes Muhammad (p) sought shura
(consultation with others) about key issues whenever there was no direct revelation
from God. Most importantly, there was never an occasion when he sought shura that he
did not follow the shura decision even when he may have personally disagreed with it.
Third, followers may be manipulated into following their leader’s interests rather
than attending to their own personal needs. The fact is that, as enjoined in the Qur’an
(Surah 2:256), Muhammad (p) never compelled anyone to embrace Islam against his or
her will. He never ordered his companions to give away their possessions to him.
He never appointed any of his family as his heir apparent. He never built himself or
lived in palaces like other contemporary leaders.
Clearly, although Muhammad (p) meets several of the parameters of
transformational leadership, his character-centered model was based on virtues and
moral values that extend beyond this leadership perspective, and rise above its
potential deficiencies. A more recent leadership theory that may help us understand
some additional elements of Muhammad’s leadership model is servant leadership.
7. Muhammad (p) as a servant leader
According to Greenleaf (1977), the servant leader focusses on the needs of others rather
than his or her own needs. McMinn (2001) suggests that servant leaders develop people
whereas Farling et al. (1999) indicate that such leaders also provide vision, gain
credibility and trust from their followers. I will now discuss several key attributes of
servant leaders – as they relate to Muhammad (p) (Humphreys, 2005; Dubrin, 2012).
Service before self
A servant leader is not interested in obtaining power, status or wealth. He/she wishes
to do what is morally right even when it may cost him/her personally. Muhammad (p)
stated that “a leader of the nation is their servant” (sayyid al qawn khadimuhum).
Benevolent to the core, Muhammad (p) constantly sought his companions’ welfare and
labored to guide them toward what is good. Status was unimportant to him. During the
writing of the Hudaybiya treaty, the Prophet (p) dictated these words: “This is from
Muhammad, the Messenger of God.” When the Quraish’s delegate objected, the
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Prophet (p) promptly requested his scribe to write down “Muhammad, son of
Abdullah” instead. This direct attempt to humiliate him did not dent his humility and
patience.
Neither wealth nor status attracted the Prophet (p). The change in his social status
from that of a trader to the head of the state in Madinah did not bring any alteration
in his modest living. Anas (r) said that the Prophet would accept an invitation even if
he was presented with barley bread and soup whose taste had changed. Anas also
reported the Prophet (p) as saying:
I am God’s servant, I eat like a servant and sit like a servant.
Listening as a means of affirmation
Muhammad (p) did not seek to impose himself on others unless it was a matter of
divine revelation. He would stay quiet while first listening to the queries from his
followers, and then respond appropriately.
Creating trust
As indicated by Greenleaf (1977), the servant leader is above all honest with others,
focussing on their needs and earning their trust. As indicated before, Muhammad (p)
was known as “al-ameen,” the trustworthy. He was always a man of his word, never
cheated or stole from anybody and spoke the truth at all times – something even his
enemies grudgingly acknowledged.
Focus on what is feasible to accomplish
The servant leader neither seeks to accomplish everything, nor does he take the most
difficult route to do it. Aisha (ra) narrated that whenever God’s Apostle was given the
choice of one of two matters, he would choose the easier of the two (Bukhari, 4:760).
Muhammad (p) also used gradualism: he knew that he could not take his message to
the whole of Arabia immediately; rather he first had to proceed covertly until God
allowed him to go public.
Lending a hand
The servant leader is a Good Samaritan – he or she searches for opportunities to do
good. Muhammad’s (p) kindness and benevolence were limitless. He was always
helping the poor and the needy. ‘Abdullah ibn Abi Awfa reported that the Prophet (p)
never disdained to go with a widow to accomplish her tasks. Jabir stated that the
Prophet used to slow down his pace for the sake of the weak and also prayed for them.
Clearly, then, Muhammad’s (p) character-centered leadership modeled the virtues he
preached, and is unique in that he blends elements of authentic (ethical)
transformational leadership with servant leadership. I have contrasted in Table AI
(see Appendix) these two dominant leadership perspectives with character-centered
leadership. This model of leadership is moderated by what five principles critical to
Islam – intention, taqwa, gratitude, shura and accountability. These principles are
briefly discussed here:
.
Intention (nyat): in Islam, intentions are critical in judging the behavior of any
person including leaders. Muhammad (p) is reported to have said:
O people! Behold, the action(s) are but (judged) by intention(s) and every man shall have but
that which he intended[11].
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The above hadith is important because a major criticism leveled against the transformational
leaders is that they engage in impression management, and that their actions are only for
show. The character-centric model of Muhammad (p) focusses on intentions, thus negating
pseudo-transformational leadership.
.
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.
.
.
Taqwa (awe): Taqwa is the all-encompassing, inner consciousness of one’s duty
toward Him and the awareness of one’s accountability toward Him (Beekun and
Badawi, 1999). A leader’s awe and fear of God will lead him to remember who he
is ultimately accountable to, and avoid any behavior that may be outside the
limits prescribed by God (2:2-5). Character-centered leaders know that even if
they foil the justice of man, they cannot dodge that of God. Unethical
transformational and pseudo-servant leaders behave unethically because they
believe they are beyond checks and balances (Bass and Steidlmeier, 1999).
Taqwa would pre-empt such abuses.
Gratitude is a key element of Islam since it reminds one and all of the bounties
that God has granted humankind (e.g. 3:103). A leader or follower who does not
feel gratitude toward his Creator is likely to trend toward being arrogant
(ghabid) like Satan instead of being a sincere servant of God (ghibad). As
indicated by Petit and Bollaert (2012) based on the research by Glad (2004) and
Woodruff (2005), unethical transformational leaders (e.g. Mao Zedong[12],
Hitler[13] [14], Stalin[15] [16] and Saddam Hussein[17] [18] [19]) lack humility
because they are convinced that their own views or doctrines are infallible
though these may be evil, and they fall victim to the Bethsheba syndrome,
namely that they do not have to account for their actions.
Shura (consultation): through the Qur’anic phrase amruhum shura baynahum (who
conduct their affairs through consultation) (42:38) and the Prophet’s (p) habit of
seeking and accepting advice, the limits on the exercise of power have been set both
by the Qur’an and the Sunnah (Beekun and Badawi, 2005). As Al Buraey points out,
shura plays a critical role in administration and management, specifically with
respect to decision making; it provides a restraint on administrative power and
authority. Unlike the elitist (majority/minority) approaches to decision making, the
concept of shura stresses consensus building – a key ingredient of practical
wisdom. In Islam, those who are consulted must be competent (ahl-ar-raie) and
trustworthy – one of the virtues underlying Muhammad’s (p) character.
Accountability focusses on what a person has done with respect to a particular
task. It ensures integrity, justice and trustworthiness because the leader’s actions
will be gauged by somebody else. In Islam, everyone will have to account for
their actions on the Day of Judgment – leaders notwithstanding. This principle is
emphasized by the following hadith narrated by ‘Adi bin ‘Amira al Kindi:
I heard the Messenger of God (p) say: “Whoso from you is appointed by us to a position of
authorityand he conceals from us a needle or something smaller than that, it would be
misappropriation (of public funds), and he will (have to) produce (it) on the Day of Judgment.[20]”
8. Contributions of character-centered leadership to management
development
Based on the above discussion of character-centered leadership, we can now abstract
elements of practical wisdom that can be of use to managers in general and to CEOs in
particular. Practical wisdom centers on the concept of phronesis discussed by Aristotle
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(Pakaluk, 2005). Practical wisdom can be viewed as a virtue itself; it combines will with
skill since it is the moral will (desire) to do the right thing coupled with the moral skill
to figure out what the right thing is, and to do so for the right aims (Schwartz and
Sharpe, 2010). Based on the above discussion about the character-centered model of the
Prophet (p) and Nonaka and Takeuchi’s (2011) analysis of wise leaders, we now
suggest how a phronetic leader can develop these skills:
Character
centered
leadership
Wise leaders remain focussed on their higher purpose.
This higher purpose is what Aristotle calls telos. The higher purpose of
Muhammad was to spread the Message of Islam and to guide them toward the
good. His Message was neither to compel people to accept the Message nor to use
a scorched earth approach against those who rejected his Message. After
Makkah was liberated, the Quraish who had tortured, maimed, killed, starved
and forced many Muslims into exile expected no mercy from him. Keeping in
mind his mission as a Prophet, he behaved benevolently and magnanimously
toward his former enemies, saying to them:
1013
.
I speak to you in the same words as Yusuf (Joseph) spoke unto his brothers: He said: “You will
hear no reproaches today.” (Al-Qur’an 12:92). Go your way, for you are freed ones.
Taking revenge would have been contradictory to his higher purpose and nyat.
.
Wise leaders courageously tackle the most tough and critical problems facing
them.
Often leaders are confronted with a flood of problems, but must discern which are
the tougher and more critical ones to tackle and the right way to tackle them. Some
leaders avoid dealing with tough and/or critical problems because of political
expediency or economic self-interest. Muhammad (p) was concerned with neither
motivation; he tackled the key problems such as idolatry, infanticide, slavery and
alcoholism. His approach to different problems was judicious and timely: with
respect to idolatry, he dealt with it head on, but with respect to alcoholism, he dealt
with it in a more gradual manner – inspired by God.
.
Wise leaders seek advice from competent and/or experienced people.
In figuring out the right way to do the right thing in a particular circumstance,
leaders need to recognize that they are not omniscient and that occasionally they
lack experience in particular situations. Except in matters of divine revelation,
Muhammad (p) sought advice (shura) in situations such as battle strategy where
there were more experienced veterans around him. The source of the advice
never mattered to him as long he or she was competent or had more experience.
Leading in areas where one lacks competence shows a lack of humility and
recklessness.
.
Wise leaders welcome feedback and criticism graciously, and act upon them.
Leaders, because of their psychological size, sometimes feel offended at the
feedback and criticism they receive from their followers and other stakeholders.
Alternately, they may accept others’ comments without intending to follow up.
Muhammad (p) when dealing with impatient creditors accepted their harsh
criticism of him, and magnanimously refunded them with more than they had
lent him[21]. Again, after the Muslims had refused to abide by his command at
Hudaybiya, he graciously accepted the advice of Umm Salama (ra) that he set the
example and did as she suggested.
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.
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.
.
Wise leaders create shared experiences to construct a new paradigm.
To impart the message of Islam both in words and deeds, and to nurture a
common set of virtues in his early companions, Muhammad as an authentic
transformational leader selected Al Arqam’s house to conduct intensive
coaching and mentoring in virtues, brotherhood, awareness of world affairs and
spiritual upliftment. He also used this process to train his replacement, namely,
those who would continue spreading the message after he passed. While CEO at
GE, Jack Welch used a similar mentoring process at Crotonville.
Wise leaders know when to bend the rules.
In Islam, lying is generally forbidden and a major sin. However, in a very few
select cases, the Prophet (p) said it is permissible, e.g. putting things right between
people[22]. There may be cases when a leader may have to bend the rules to
reconcile two parties or make things right for a customer, a patient or even a lender.
Wise leaders are grateful.
Often as Dennis Koslowski, the former and now convicted CEO of Tyco
International pointed out in an interview on the CBS show 60 Minutes[23], CEOs
only care about “keeping score,” i.e. competing with one another over who has
the biggest toys, etc. Muhammad (p) never kept score, but rather gave away
almost everything he owned or received, living so sparingly that sometimes
there was no food to be cooked in his house for three days in a row. And yet he
used to recite the following prayer (du’a):
[y] O God, make me grateful to You, mindful of You, in awe of You, devoted to your
obedience, humble, penitent, and ever turning to You in repentance [y][24].
9. Implications for management development
The character-centered model of leadership is virtue centric, and both character and
virtues can be taught and can be learned in several ways. First, as Roche (2009)
indicates, modeling, a long-standing teaching process since Plato, is a particularly
effective way of teaching virtue and thereby teaching character. If you want a follower
to learn virtue, have a “virtuous” leader mentor him/her and provide him/her with
a moral model. Indeed, Dukerich et al. (1990) found out that followers exhibit higher
level of moral reasoning when they emulate leaders who are morally mature. These
followers then receive proper acknowledgment and feedback for acting in the right
way at the right time.
A second approach to learning about character is through “reflective equilibrium,”
a process similar to the Aristotelian dialectic. As Hartman (2006) indicates,
a well-designed business course can provide students an arena where they can
practice in thinking through, reflecting over and discussing different possible scenarios
relating to key topics/cases studies so as to obtain a deeper insight into their own moral
understanding, and arriving at an “acceptable” set of principles that would allow them
to act “out of good character.”
One last approach to character (and virtue development) is to use a variant of
learning by doing what Japanese style management calls horenso[25]. A Japanese boss
asks a young subordinate to take the initiative on a certain project (sometimes a major
one), and then proceeds to tell him/her everything he/she did wrong – often without any
positive feedback. The subordinate is then asked to fix his/her mistakes and to proceed
to the next step. When he/she comes back to his/her boss for feedback, the red pen
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comes out again and this process repeats itself several times until trust is established
between the boss and his/her subordinate, and the latter has developed a deep sense of
humility. This type of “crucible” event is one of the most effective techniques for
character and virtue development.
We all have character, but it needs to be developed and nurtured – in the manner
Muhammad (p) did with himself and his followers. At the same time, that proponent of
practical wisdom, Aristotle, would say that we also need to become virtuous realists.
Notes
1. (p) is an abbreviation of “peace be upon him”, an honorific formula that Muslims use when
the name of a prophet is mentioned.
2. The Sunnah or Hadith represent “the words, actions, and approvals of the Prophet
Muhammad (P)” (Beekun and Badawi, 2005). While Hadiths are not ipsissima verba Dei, they
are viewed as “another form of revelation – in meaning – to the Prophet (P).”
3. Al-Albani, Muhammad N. (compiler), Silsilat Al-Ahadeeth Al-Saheehah (in Arabic),
Al-Maktab Al-Islaami, Beirut, 1985, Vol. 1, Hadeeth #45, p. 75. Translated by Jamal Badawi.
4. As reported in Sahih Muslim (746).
5. Values, by contrast, are “what an individual wants or desires or ascribes worth to” (Ryan and
Bohlin, 1999).
6. The New York Times Editorial (2011) states: “[Jack Welch] earned the nickname ‘Neutron
Jack’ for dismissing 100,000 employees in his early days as chief executive. Rather than
dwell on the human cost of such downsizing, Mr Welch recalls the challenge with relish in
his memoir, Straight From The Gut” (my italics). Jack Welch (2001) in his book, Straight from
the Gut, states (pp. 42-3): “I was blunt and candid, and some thought, rude. My language
could be coarse and impolitic. [y] During a business discussion, I could get so emotionally
involved that I’d stammer out what others might consider outrageous things. [y] I’m the
first to admit I could be impulsive in removing people during those early days.” Jack Welch
(2001, p. 131) reminisces on the day “in early August 1984 when Fortune magazine put [him]
at the top of its list of ‘The Ten Toughest Bosses in America’”.
7. In a New York Times article about Jobs, Nocera (2011) notes, “He could be absolutely brutal
in meetings: I watched him eviscerate staff members for their ‘bozo ideas.’” In Leadership in
the Media Industry edited by Lucy Kung, Brookey (2006) notes on pp. 107-8, “[Steve Jobs] and
his colleague Steve Wozniak were considered the young rebels of the personal computer
industry [y], and Jobs was seen as rude, arrogant, and capricious. In 1985, Jobs was driven
from the company he helped create.” In Alan Deutschman’s (2001) book, The Second Coming
of Steve Jobs, he notes “Steve subjected them to a cruel, quick calculated test. He would [y]
ask to see their client list. When they handed it over, he would hardly glance at the printout
before he crudely insulted them. ‘This is a lousy client list,’ he would say. [One] accounting
partner from Peat Marwick was so incensed by the arrogant, cavalier, cursory treatment that
he reacted furiously, looking as though he would throw a knockout punch at Steve.”
8. Narrated by Abu Talhah and reported by Tirmidhi in Mishkat.
9. According to The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, the term jahiliyyah refers to the “pre-Islamic
period, or ‘ignorance’ of monotheism and divine law”.
10. (r) means Radhi Allah ‘an, is an acronym used after the names of companions of the Prophet
(p), and means “May Allah be pleased with him”; (ra) is the feminine version of that acronym.
11. Umar ibn al Khattab, Sahih al Bukhari, hadith no. 1.1.
12. In Rudolph Rummel’s (1991) book entitled China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass
Murder Since 1900, he states on p. 83 “Mao’s troops executed landlords, ‘local bullies’,
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usurers, and all sorts of ‘class enemies.’ They often went to excess.” Again on p. 241, Rummel
states that, “[lest] there be any doubt on the part of the cadres as to how many of these there
were to be eliminated, Mao, in a directive, was very specific: five percent of the members of
every organization were ‘elements and should be purged.’ ” Rummer on p. 243 states: “[How]
many were killed during this collectivization period? Few estimates are focused on this
period alone; most are for the years from 1949 to around 1958, and are in the multi-millions.
[y] Based on communist sources, a Hong Kong Study Commission gives a figure of
15,700,000 executed.”
13. Michael Keeley (1995) states on p. 77 that “unless leaders are able to transform everyone and
create absolute unanimity of interests (a very special case), transformational leadership
produces simply a majority will that represents the interests of the strongest faction.
Sometimes this will is on the side of good – as in Gandhi’s case. Sometimes it is on the side of
evil – as in Hitler’s.”
14. Gary Beene (2010) states on p. 367 “During the course of the twentieth century, a number of
incredibly evil sociopaths rose to power over great nations. Men like Joseph Stalin, Mao
Zedong [y] and dozens more instigated the democidal slaughter and starvation of 200
million humans.”
15. Valerie Petit and Helen Bollaert (2012) states on p. 267 that “The rule of a tyrant is
reliant on fear. The actions of notorious twentieth century tyrants, such as Hitler, Stalin,
and Hussein, were punctuated by episodes of extreme cruelty both towards their
so-called allies or supporters and towards large sections of the civilian population
(Glad, 2004). The tyrant displays a certain number of typical attitudes which then may
lead him or her to engage in specific behaviors. Tyrants are convinced of their
uniqueness and consider themselves to be above the normal rule of the law (Woodruff, 2005)”
(my italics).
16. Sheila M. Puffer and Daniel J. McCarthy (2011) assert on pp. 27-28 that “Traditional Russian
leadership style is strong and authoritative (Kets de Vries, 2011) and deeply embedded in the
country’s leadership mythology, which embraces the forceful and authoritarian actions of
national leaders such as [y] Joseph Stalin in the 1930s to 1950s Soviet terror period [y].
Such leaders are seen as [y] being exempt from the rules [y]” (my italics).
17. Douglas Hunt (2000) states “Future wars between nations are less likely to result from a
clash of giants pursuing national objectives than from adventurism, probably of a mediumsized dictator possessed of the instincts of a gambler. The attack by the Argentine military
dictatorship on the Falkland Islands was followed eight years later by the attack of
Saddam Hussein on Kuwait. [y] Of course the blindness and bloody-mindedness of Saddam
Hussein made it difficult, though not quite impossible, for anyone outside Iraq to argue for
compromise” (my italics).
18. Askari et al. (2012) state “For the oil-rich economies the effect of corruption on human
development is sometimes disguised by oil windfalls used to subsidize generous social
welfare programs. To the extent that the PGOE are able to continue to develop in the areas of
health, education, infrastructure and employment guarantees during boom periods of
oil-driven development, few question the conspicuous wealth accumulation of those in power
and the corrupt practices that they may embrace. [y] In post-invasion Iraq, the number and
size of Saddam Hussein’s numerous palaces are well documented.”
19. Kenneth Roth (2005) states on p. 148, “Having devoted extensive time and effort to
documenting [Saddam Hussein’s] atrocities, we estimate that in the last twenty-five years of
Ba’th Party rule, the Iraqi government murdered or ‘disappeared’ some quarter of a million
people, if not more. [y] There were times in the past when the killing was so intense that
humanitarian intervention would have been justified – for example, during the 1988 Anfal
genocide in which the Iraqi government slaughtered some 100,000 kurds.”
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20. Sahih Muslim, hadith 4514.
21. Narrated by Abu Huraira in Sahih Al Bukhari, 3.780.
22. Narrated by Asma bint Yazid in Al Tirmidhi, 1303.
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23. “Dennis Kozlowski: Prisoner 05A4820,” March 25, 2007. www.cbsnews.com/2100-18560_
162-2596123.html
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24. Fiqh Us Sunnah, 4.133A.
25. http://japaninsight.wordpress.com/tag/japanese-management/
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Table AI.
A comparison of
transformational, servant
and character-centered
leadership models
Source of
influence
Situational
context
Leader training and
skills
Unilateral or
hierarchical power
Servant leadership
Character-centered leadership
Humility and altruism
Spiritual insight with a moral core.
Character-centered virtues
Relational power; not
Either hierarchical or relational
self-serving
depending on context; not selfserving
Nature of
Vision; adept at
Vision and practice of a Vision is integrative, and focussed
charismatic managing human
way of life focussed on on inviting others to be God
gift
resources
service
conscious and to be of service to
mankind
Response of Heightened motivation; Emulation of leader’s
Followers become servant leaders
followers
willingness to adopt
servant leadership
themselves, and exert extra effort
vision and goals of
model
at virtuous self-development;
common moral norms and values
leader as their own.
adopted
Common culture may
be adopted
Moral and personal development of
Consequences Leader and/or larger
Autonomy and moral
followers. Autonomy and search
development of
of leader
goals met; personal
influence
development of
followers; enhancement for knowledge encouraged.
Enhancement of common good
of common good
followers
Sources: Adapted and modified from Graham (1991) and Tourish and Pinnington (2002)
About the author
Rafik I. Beekun (PhD, the University of Texas at Austin) is Professor of Management and
Strategy in the Managerial Sciences Department and Co-Director, Center for Corporate
Governance and Business Ethics at the University of Nevada, Reno. His current research
focuses on business ethics, leadership, national cultures and the link between management and
spirituality. He has published in such journals as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Human
Relations, Journal of Management, Journal of Business Ethics and Decision Sciences. This paper
is based partly on his forthcoming book, Moral Character: Leadership Lessons from Islam.
Rafik I. Beekun can be contacted at: rafikb@unr.edu
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