Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
17
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology (2010), 83, 17–37
q 2010 The British Psychological Society
The
British
Psychological
Society
www.bpsjournals.co.uk
Increasing the probability of finding an interaction
in work stress research: A two-wave longitudinal
test of the triple-match principle
Sergio Chrisopoulos1*, Maureen F. Dollard1,
Anthony H. Winefield1 and Christian Dormann2
1
2
University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
Research into work stress has attempted to identify job resources that can moderate
the effects of job demands on strain. The recently developed triple-match principle
(TMP) proposes that job demands, resources, and strain can be conceptualized as being
composed of cognitive, emotional, and physical dimensions. When a psychological
imbalance is induced by job demands, individuals activate corresponding resources to
reduce the effects of the demands. A closer match occurs when the resources are
processed in the same psychological domain as the demands. The further away from a
match, the less likely an interactive effect will become. Put simply, the likelihood of
finding an interactive effect between job demands and job resources is greatest when
demands, resources, and strain are based on qualitatively similar dimensions (i.e.
cognitive, emotional, and physical). For example, emotional support from colleagues is
likely to buffer the effects of emotional demands on emotional exhaustion. The TMP
was tested in a sample of 179 Australian police officers in a two-wave longitudinal study.
The likelihood of finding an interactive effect was related to the degree of match
between job demands, job resources, and strain with 33.3% of triple-match interactions
significant, 22.2% when there was a double-match, and 0.0% when there was no match.
These findings lend support to the TMP as a guiding framework, for research, to
explore possible interactive effects in work stress research, and for practice, to inform
interventions matching resources to occupational demands, to offset strain.
Research in the specific area of occupational and organizational psychology,
occupational health psychology, identifies two broad components of the work
environment that are related to employee health and well-being: job demands and job
resources (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Job demands refer to the degree to which the
* Correspondence should be addressed to Sergio Chrisopoulos, Work and Stress Research Group, School of Psychology,
University of South Australia, City East Campus, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
(e-mail: sergio.chrisopoulos@postgrads.unisa.edu.au).
DOI:10.1348/096317909X474173
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
18 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
work environment contains stimuli that require sustained cognitive, emotional, and/or
physical effort (de Jonge & Dormann, 2006). Meeting these demands requires
considerable effort that is associated with high costs resulting in negative health effects
for the employee. In contrast, job resources refer to those aspects of work that may
reduce job demands, aid in achieving work goals, or stimulate personal growth,
learning, and development (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Job resources can be
conceptualized as a kind of energetic reservoir in the work environment that can be
tapped when the individual has to cope with job demands (de Jonge & Dormann, 2006;
see also Hobfoll, 1989, 2002).
In many cases, job demands cannot be reduced, therefore research has attempted to
identify job resources that may reduce the impact of job demands on subsequent strain.
More specifically, recent work stress theories have attempted to find the ideal match
between job demands and job resources. One such theory is the triple-match principle
(TMP; de Jonge & Dormann, 2003, 2006). The present study tests the theoretical
predictions of the TMP by exploring the relation between cognitive, emotional, and
physical dimensions of job demands, job resources, and employee strain in an Australian
sample of frontline police officers.
Theoretical background
The demand-control model (DC; Karasek, 1990; Karasek & Theorell, 1990) and the
extended demand–control–support model (DCS; Johnson & Hall, 1988) were perhaps
the first work stress theories to propose an interactive effect between job demands and
job resources. According to DCS theory, job control and social support (job resources)
help to moderate the effects of high job demands (operationalized as time pressure and
workload) on subsequent employee strain and well-being. Research exploring the
buffering hypothesis of the DC and DCS models has provided only modest support (for a
review, see de Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman, & Bonger, 2003; van der Doef & Maes,
1999). In their review, van der Doef and Maes found that non-supportive studies tended
to use broad conceptualizations of demands and control while supportive studies used
more specific or focused measures.
More recently, the job demands–resources (JD–R) model (e.g. Demerouti, Bakker,
Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001) proposed that job resources buffer the impact of job
demands on strain. By providing a heuristic framework the JD–R model proposes that
the presence of interactive effects of job demands and job resources depends on the
specific nature of the job. The implication of this is that any job resource that relates
specifically to the type of occupation under consideration could potentially buffer
the effects of job demands on strain. However, while the JD–R model helps to focus the
origin of job resources it does not predict the specific nature of job resources that are
more likely to act as potential buffers as well as the underlying processes.
The triple-match principle
According to the matching hypothesis (Cohen & Wills, 1985), when the type of available
job resource (e.g. emotional resource) corresponds to the existing job demand (e.g.
emotional demand) then the resource is likely to mitigate the effects of the demand
resulting in less strain (de Jonge, Dormann, & van den Tooren, 2008). This scenario
is referred to as a double-match of common kind (de Jonge & Dormann, 2003, 2006).
The concept of a double-match was extended by Frese (1999) who proposed that strain
should also be considered as a source of match in the stressor–resource–strain triad.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
19
More specifically, Frese argued that social dysfunction would be most affected by socialtype resources, such as social support, than non-social resources. Put another way,
social resources are more likely to act as a buffer for social dysfunction than for physical
or psychological strain. This match was labelled double-match of an extended kind.
The demand-induced strain compensation model (DISC model; de Jonge & Dormann,
2003, 2006; de Jonge et al., 2008) extends the notion of a double-match of extended
kind to include a match between either demands or resources on the one hand, and
strain on the other. Therefore, social stressors (e.g. interactions with customers) or to
social resources (e.g. support from colleagues) are more likely to be related to social
dysfunction than less social areas of strain.
The central proposition of the DISC model, the TMP (de Jonge & Dormann, 2003,
2006; de Jonge et al., 2008), combines both of these types of matches to predict the
optimal match between job demands, job resources, and job-related strain. The
theoretical underpinning of the DISC model is drawn from the notion of functional
homeostatic regulation. Applied to organizational settings, when a psychological
imbalance is induced by job demands, self-regulation processes are activated in order to
cope with the demands and to consequently restore some form of balance (Pomaki &
Maes, 2002; Vancouver, 2000). de Jonge et al. (2008) therefore argue that when a
psychological imbalance is induced by job demands, individuals activate functional,
corresponding job resources to reduce the effects of the demand. A match occurs when
external resources provide a similar function to that of an internal resource when
combating stress. In other words, individuals deal with stressors using easily available
internal resources that are qualitatively similar to the nature of the demand. If these
resources are either depleted or not available then a demand for matching external
resources is created, which may be of similar use. If matching external resources are not
available or if they are depleted then individuals will search for other resources. For
example, dealing with emotionally demanding customers has been shown to be strongly
related to emotional exhaustion (e.g. Dormann & Zapf, 2004; Zapf, Seifert, Schmutte,
Mertini, & Holz, 2001). Emotional demands may best be matched by internal emotional
self-regulation strategies (cf. Grandey, 2000). When the individual lacks these internal
resources, external resources such as emotional support from colleagues may also be
useful. When these resources are not available or are depleted, individuals will then
search for other resources (e.g. informational support on how to best deal with
demanding customers). Put simply, the TMP predicts that the strongest interactive
effects of job demands and job resources would be observed when demands, resources,
and strain are based on qualitatively similar psychological dimensions. For example, an
emotional resource is most likely to buffer the effects of emotional demands on
emotional exhaustion.
Inherent within the TMP is the multidimensionality of concepts. Job demands, job
resources, and strain are conceptualized as being composed of three psychological
dimensions: cognitive, emotional, and physical. As described by de Jonge and Dormann
(2006): cognitive demands impinge primarily on the brain processes involved in
information processing; emotional demands relate to the effort required to conform to
organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions (cf. Morris &
Feldman, 1996); and physical demands are primarily related to the musculoskeletal
system (i.e. physical aspects of behaviour).
Similarly job resources can have three distinct dimensions: cognitive-informational
(e.g. colleagues providing informational support or control at work); emotional (e.g.
colleagues providing emotional support); and physical (e.g. providing instrumental aide).
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
20 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Finally, strains can be cognitive (e.g. professional efficacy is cognitively laden);
emotional (e.g. emotional exhaustion); and physical (e.g. somatic complaints including
head aches). Put together, an interaction is most likely to occur when all three
components (job demands, job resources, and strain) are based on qualitatively similar
domains. This does not exclude the possibility of a non-match interaction as these have
been found throughout the literature. Instead, the TMP poses that the probability of
finding an interaction increases as the level of match between demands, resources, and
strain increases (de Jonge & Dormann, 2006).
Empirical studies conducted to test the TMP show that results in general have been
supportive (de Jonge, et al., 2008). More specifically, 8 out of 11 TMP studies reviewed
showed evidence in support of the TMP. The most notable support for the TMP is
provided by de Jonge and Dormann (2006) in their longitudinal study of two groups of
health care workers in The Netherlands. Combining the results of both samples, of the
possible 6 triple-match interactions, 2 were found to be significant (33.33%). There were
also 2 out of 12 possible double-match of common kind interactions (16.7%) and 4 out of
24 double-match of extended kind interactions (16.7%). No non-match interactions
were found.
The present study
The present study applies the TMP to a longitudinal sample of Australian frontline police
officers. Previous research into police stressors has focused on identifying specific
aspects of policing that are demanding, including violence in policing (e.g. Kop,
Euwema, & Schaufeli, 1999), critical incidents (e.g. Liberman et al., 2002), and more
generally, occupational and organizational stressors (e.g. Brown & Campbell, 1990;
Burke, 1993; Collins & Gibbs, 2003; Greller, Parsons, & Mitchell, 1997; Hart, Wearing, &
Headey, 1995). Only one study that we are aware of found interactive effects of job
demands and job resources on strain (Kaufmann & Beehr, 1989).
In their cross-sectional study of police officers in a mid-western state in the USA,
Kaufmann and Beehr (1989) tested interactive effects of job demands (operationalized
as a combination of under-utilization of skills, quantitative workload, and job future
ambiguity), and social support (tangible, emotional, and instrumental support) on strain
(operationalized as job satisfaction, boredom, workload dissatisfaction, and depression).
Both job demands and strain were parcelled into single-item constructs. Of the seven
possible interactions only one interaction was found between job demands (cognitively
laden), instrumental support (physically laden), and strain (cognitively laden). Hence, a
double-match of extended kind was found. However, the interaction found implied
a reverse buffering effect.
The present study therefore extends the work of de Jonge and Dormann (2006) by
exploring the interactive effects of job demands, job resources, and job-related strain in
a two-wave longitudinal sample of Australian police officers. More specifically, we
investigated whether matching psychological dimensions of demands, resources, and
strain (in terms of emotional, cognitive, and physical) results in a greater likelihood of
finding an interactive effect. In addition, we extend the findings by using a different set
of measures to those used in their study with the exception of emotional exhaustion. By
using a different set of scales we hope to strengthen the previous findings, and rule out
effects due to method effects.
In line with the predictions of the TMP, we generally hypothesize that the likelihood
of finding an interaction between job demands, resources, and strain increases with the
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
21
number of matching variables. To achieve this, we chose strain variables that reflected
the three psychological dimensions. For emotional strain we chose emotional
exhaustion, the main component of burnout (Maslach, 1993). Cognitive strain was
operationalized as reduced professional efficacy (Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach, & Jackson,
1996), reflecting a reduced sense of esteem at work. Finally, physical strain was
operationalized as the presence of physical symptoms such as back or neck pain. Using
these measures for strain, two general hypotheses were posed:
Hypothesis 1: Job resources moderate the relation between job demands and health/well-being
outcomes (i.e. reduced professional efficacy, emotional exhaustion, and physical complaints).
There is a weaker association between job demands and job-related strain for police officers
with high job resources than for officers with low job resources.
Hypothesis 2: A moderating effect is more likely to be found when there is a triple-match
between job demands, job resources, and job-related strain, than when there is a double-match
or non-match between demands, resources, and strain.
Method
Sample and procedure
The present study was a two-wave panel survey conducted on Australian frontline
police officers employed in the state of Victoria (1-year time lag). A random sample
(N ¼ 3; 000) was drawn from the Police Association members database. The sample
comprised all sergeants and senior sergeants, and 50% of probationary constables,
constables, senior constables, and leading senior constables working in Victorian
metropolitan and regional uniform police stations. For reasons of confidentiality, the
research packs were mailed to each member’s home address by the Police Association.
As researchers did not have access to the mailing list a unique matching code was
generated based on the first three letters of the respondent’s mother’s maiden name and
the respondent’s year of birth. The survey packs were administered on two occasions,
12 months apart, to the same initial sample. At Time 1, 519 officers returned a
completed questionnaire (response rate of 17.3%) and at Time 2, 456 officers responded
(15.2%). The final sample (respondents to both panels) consisted of 179 respondents
(34.5% of the initial sample).
To explore whether attrition may have biased the results, an independent-sample
t test was performed on all study variables comparing respondents to both waves to
those that only responded to the first wave. No significant differences were found.
The demographic details of the initial sample were not available to the research team,
thus a comparison could only be performed with information on the Victorian police
force as a whole. According to the Australian Institute of Criminology (2003) constables
(including probationary constables and senior constables) comprised 78% of all sworn
police officers in Victoria (excluding officers above the rank of senior sergeant). This
compares to 36% in the current study. In terms of gender, the proportion of females by
rank, the sample was comparable to the population. Therefore, the present sample was
representative by gender but was overrepresented by sergeants.
The final panel sample comprised 161 male and 18 female officers who were aged
between 20 and 64 years (M ¼ 43:4, SD ¼ 7:9) and held the following ranks: constable
(N ¼ 13, 7.3%); senior constable (N ¼ 39, 21.8%); leading senior constable (N ¼ 12,
6.7%); sergeant (N ¼ 89, 49.7%); and senior sergeant (N ¼ 26, 14.5%).
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
22 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Materials
Job demands were assessed using the Demand-Induced Strain Questionnaire (DISQ 1.0;
de Jonge et al., 2003), which has been well-validated in several studies (e.g. de Jonge &
Peeters, 2009; van de Ven, Vlerick, & de Jonge, 2008; van den Tooren & de Jonge, 2008).
The three subscales used addressed cognitive, emotional, and physical demands. Items
included: ‘making complex decisions’ (cognitive); ‘dealing with people (i.e. the public,
colleagues, or supervisors) who have unrealistic expectations’ (emotional); and
‘performing physically strenuous tasks’ (physical). Respondents were asked to indicate
how often their work required then to undertake each of the tasks rated on a five-point
scale (1 ¼ very rarely=never, 5 ¼ very often=always). Scale reliabilities for the present
study were 0.87 for cognitive demands, 0.83 for emotional demands, and 0.73 for
physical demands.
Job resources were also assessed using the DISQ 1.0 (de Jonge et al., 2003). The
DISQ uses items that assess the cognitive, emotional, and physical resources that closely
match the respective components of autonomy and support. Cognitive resources were
assessed using five items such as ‘The opportunity to vary complex tasks with simple
tasks’ and ‘Help when solving complex tasks’. Emotional resources were assessed using
five items such as ‘Emotional support from peers and supervisors’ and ‘To be able to
defuse emotionally heated interactions with others’. Finally, physical resources were
assessed using five items such as ‘Help when tackling physically strenuous tasks’ and
‘The opportunity to take a break when things get physically strenuous’. Respondents
were asked to indicate whether they had enough of each resource to allow them to
perform their job effectively rated on a five-point scale (1 ¼ very rarely=never,
5 ¼ very often=always). Scale reliabilities for the present study were 0.76 for cognitive
demands, and 0.77 for both the emotional demands and physical demands scales.
Cognitive strain was assessed using the professional efficacy subscale of the Maslach
Burnout Inventory – General Survey (Schaufeli et al., 1996). The subscale consisted of
six items such as ‘I can effectively solve the problems that arise in my work’. All items
were rated on a seven-point scale (0 ¼ never, 6 ¼ always). Low levels of professional
efficacy reflect cognitive strain, therefore to assist in the analyses the items were
reversed scored. This way, high scores on this scale reflect high levels of cognitive strain.
The reliability coefficient for cognitive strain in the present study was 0.84 for both
waves of data, and the test–retest coefficient was .63.
Emotional strain was assessed using the emotional exhaustion subscale of the
Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (Schaufeli et al., 1996). The emotional
exhaustion subscale consisted of five items such as ‘I feel emotionally drained from my
work’. All items were rated on a seven-point scale (0 ¼ never, 6 ¼ always). The
reliability coefficient for emotional strain in the present study was 0.93 for both waves of
data, and the test–retest coefficient was .67.
Physical strain was derived from a well-validated questionnaire on physical health
symptoms (de Jonge, Mulder, & Nijhuis, 1999). The derived scale consisted of three
items: ‘muscle pains/aches’, ‘back or neck pain’, and ‘tiredness’. Respondents were
asked to indicate how often they had suffered from these problems in the last month,
rated on a five-point scale (0 ¼ very rarely=never, 4 ¼ very often=always). The reliability
coefficient for physical strain in the present study was 0.83 at Time 1 and 0.82 at Time 2,
and the test–retest coefficient was .79.
In addition to the above items, the demographic variables of gender, age, and rank
(1 ¼ constable, 2 ¼ sergeant) were also included. Descriptive statistics for all study
variables are displayed in Table 1.
Mean
SD
1
–
2.33**
2.09
.03
2.04
.11
2.09
.20*
2.01
2.05
2.07
.00
2.05
2.11
2
–
.03
.00
2 .14
.05
.04
2 .07
2 .11
2 .08
2 .09
.03
2 .05
2 .07
3
(.87)
2 .26**
.28**
2 .24**
.53**
2 .13
2 .02
2 .06
.23**
.17*
.32**
.32**
4
6
7
8
(.76)
2.38** (.73)
.74** 2 .34** (.77)
2.41**
.33** 2 .34** (.83)
.69** 2 .15
.62** 2 .37**
2.27**
.25** 2 .27**
.12
2.20*
.23** 2 .19*
.12
2.41**
.32** 2 .31**
.23**
2.22**
.23** 2 .11
.19*
2.49**
.29** 2 .40**
.35**
2.47**
.28** 2 .42**
.36**
5
10
11
12
13
14
15
(.77)
2.25** (.84)
2.24** .63** (.84)
2.35** .25** .25** (.83)
2.21** .21** .22** .67** (.82)
2.45** .34** .31** .71** .54** (.93)
2.45** .37** .41** .65** .54** .79** (.93)
9
Note. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) are displayed in parentheses along the diagonal. T1, Time 1; T2, Time 2; *p , :05; **p , :01 (two-tailed).
1. Rank
0.65 0.48
–
2. Gender
0.10 0.30 2.28**
3. Age
43.35 7.85
.51**
4. Cognitive demands
4.15 0.53
.22**
5. Cognitive resources
2.09 0.61
.07
6. Physical demands
3.06 0.61 2.16*
7. Physical resources
2.19 0.70
.03
8. Emotional demands
3.80 0.61
.11
9. Emotional resources
2.10 0.70 2.11
10. Cognitive outcome T1
1.46 0.86 2.09
11. Cognitive outcome T2
1.40 0.84 2.01
12. Physical outcomes T1
2.09 1.06 2.09
13. Physical outcomes T2
2.19 1.02
.01
14. Emotional exhaustion T1 2.68 1.24 2.01
15. Emotional exhaustion T2 2.73 1.30 2.03
Variables
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of study variables (N ¼ 179)
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
23
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
24 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Analytical strategy
We adopted the same analytical strategy as that of de Jonge and Dormann (2006). All
analyses were conducted with structural equation modelling (LISREL 8; Jöreskog &
Sörbom, 1993) to cross the three content domains (cognitive, emotional, and physical)
simultaneously with the three conceptual domains (demands, resources, and strain).
Therefore, the analysis consisted of 12 variables (3 £ demographics, 3 £ demands,
3 £ resources, and 3 £ strain). Furthermore, interaction effects between demands and
resources were also included but because of the number of possible interactions
(3 demands £ 3 resources £ 3 strain ¼ 27 possible interactions) we decided to follow
the approach used by de Jonge and Dormann (2006) and split the analysis into two
according to the theoretical assumptions.
The first analysis included all triple-match interactions (e.g. cognitive demands
£ cognitive resources ! cognitive strain) and all double-match of common kind (e.g.
cognitive demands £ cognitive resources ! emotional strain). Therefore, the first
analysis looked at 9 of the possible 27 interactions.
In the second analysis, we included the double-match of extended kind interactions
(e.g. cognitive demands £ emotional resources ! cognitive strain) and the non-match
interactions where no variable matched (e.g. cognitive demands £ emotional
resources ! physical strain). Therefore in the second analysis, we tested 12 doublematch interactions of extended kind and an additional 6 non-match interactions.
Lagged interaction effects were analysed such that all study variables and
multiplicative interactions at Time 1 were used to predict strains at Time 2. Following
de Jonge and Dormann (2006) the structural models were fully saturated because
residuals among the outcome variables were allowed to correlate. Consequently, we
could not report fit indices as saturated models always have a perfect fit.
Results
Table 2 presents the results obtained from simultaneously testing triple-match effects of
demands–resources–strains and double-match effects of common kind of demands–
resources. Unstandardized coefficients (B), standard errors (SE), T values, and
standardized coefficients (b) are presented in the table. Independent variables are
shown in the first column. The three forms of strain analysed were reduced professional
efficacy (cognitive strain), emotional exhaustion (emotional strain), and physical
symptoms (physical strain). The proportion of variance (R2) explained by the interactive
model was .44 for cognitive strain, .53 for physical strain, and .69 for emotional
exhaustion.
For cognitive strain (reduced professional efficacy) the results showed one
significant interaction effect (p , :05), between cognitive demands and cognitive
resources (a triple-match). This interaction was plotted using the method described by
Aiken and West (1991). Values of the predictor variables were plotted at one standard
deviation above and below the mean to create two regression lines: one for high levels of
job resources and one for low levels of resources. To explore whether the slope of the
regressions lines were significantly different from zero, post hoc analyses were
conducted, as described by Aiken and West (1991). The regression lines representing
the interaction between cognitive demands and cognitive resources in predicting
cognitive strain are shown in Figure 1. The figure shows that cognitive strain was not
associated with cognitive demands at low levels of cognitive resources (21 SD; simple
2 0.10
0.07
2 0.07
.05
.05
.04
.06
.06
.07
2 .06
.09
.06
.07
.06
.07
.17
.01
.12
SE
2 1.98*
1.47
2 1.68
7.95**
1.11
0.14
2 1.77
0.95
1.38
0.32
0.67
2 0.91
2 0.08
2 0.97
1.60
T
20.14
0.10
20.11
0.51
0.10
0.01
20.13
0.10
0.01
0.03
0.05
20.08
0.00
20.07
0.12
b
T
D
D
20.18
20.03
0.11
0.17
0.60
0.17
0.10
0.06
0.04
20.03
0.03
20.10
20.26
0.00
20.07
B
.06
.06
.05
.07
.07
.08
.08
.10
.07
.09
.07
.09
.20
.01
.15
SE
22.95**
20.57
2.20*
2.28*
8.84**
2.23*
1.29
0.63
0.59
20.35
0.41
21.11
21.30
0.06
20.46
T
b
20.16
20.03
0.11
0.11
0.57
0.14
0.07
0.05
0.03
20.02
0.02
20.08
20.06
0.00
20.02
Emotional exhaustion 2
D
T
D
Note. Cogn., cognitive; emo., emotional; phys., physical; T, triple-match; D, double-match. *p , :05; **p , :01 (two-tailed).
Interaction effects
Cogn. demands £ cogn. resources
Emo. demands £ emo. resources
Phys. demands £ phys. resources
0.49
0.06
0.01
2 0.11
0.08
0.07
0.02
0.05
2 0.06
Demands and resources
Cognitive demands
Cognitive resources
Physical demands
Physical resources
Emotional demands
Emotional resources
Time 1 outcome variables
Cogn. strain (reduced efficacy) Time 1
Emo. exhaustion Time 1
Phys. symptoms Time 1
2 0.01
2 0.01
0.20
B
Control variables
Gender
Age
Rank
Variable
Reduced professional efficacy 2
0.07
0.13
20.05
0.04
0.12
0.63
0.04
0.13
20.02
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.25
0.01
20.09
B
.06
.05
.05
.07
.06
.07
.07
.09
.06
.08
.07
.08
.19
.04
.14
SE
1.26
2.41*
20.99
0.60
1.79
8.71**
0.54
1.37
20.33
0.27
0.34
0.00
1.35
1.36
20.69
T
b
0.08
0.15
2 0.06
0.04
0.14
0.65
0.04
0.13
2 0.02
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.08
0.09
2 0.05
Physical symptoms 2
D
D
T
Table 2. Lagged structural equation models of reduced professional efficacy, emotional exhaustion, and physical symptoms with triple-match and double-match
‘common kind’ interactions (N ¼ 179)
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
25
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
26 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Figure 1. Triple-match interaction between cognitive demands, cognitive resources, and cognitive strain.
slope test t ¼ 20:47, p ¼ ns). In contrast, in the presence of high cognitive resources
(measured at Time 1), levels of cognitive strain at Time 2 decrease with increasing levels
of Time 1 cognitive demands (þ1 SD; simple slope test t ¼ 2:61, p ¼ :01). It must be
noted that the combination of low levels of cognitive demands and high levels of
cognitive resources was associated with higher levels of cognitive strain. At high levels
of demands, however, the reverse occurs, the level of cognitive strain decreases to its
lowest level.
No other triple-match interaction was found. In terms of double-match of common
kind (i.e. where demands and resources match) three interactions were found. First, a
double-match was found between cognitive demands and cognitive resources on
emotional exhaustion measured 1 year later. Figure 2 shows that in the presence of high
cognitive resources (þ1 SD) the relationship between cognitive demands and emotional
exhaustion was not significant (simple slope test: t ¼ 0:58, p ¼ ns). In contrast, in the
presence of low cognitive resources, increasing levels of cognitive demands were
associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion (þ1 SD; simple slope test:
Figure 2. Double-match interaction of the common kind between cognitive demands, cognitive
resources, and emotional exhaustion.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
27
t ¼ 4:54, p , :01). The next two double-match interactions between physical demands
and physical resources on emotional exhaustion (Figure 3) and between emotional
demands and emotional resources on physical symptoms (Figure 4), resemble reversed
buffering effects. More specifically, at low levels of physical resources (21 SD), high
levels of physical job demands tend to be associated with low levels of emotional
exhaustion (simple slope test: t ¼ 1:87, p , :10). At high levels of physical resources
(þ1 SD), there was no relationship between physical job demands and emotional
exhaustion (simple slope test: t ¼ 1:08, p ¼ ns). In terms of the double-match between
emotional demand and emotional resources on physical strain, increasing levels of
emotional demands were associated with high levels of physical strain in the presence of
high levels of emotional resources (þ1 SD; simple slope test: t ¼ 2:52, p , :05). There
was no relationship between emotional demands and physical strains when emotional
resources were low (21 SD; simple slope test: t ¼ 0:40, p ¼ ns).
The next analysis investigated the non-match interactions as well as the interactions
involving double-match of extended kind, where strains match job demands or where
strains match job resources. Table 3 shows that five significant interactions were found.
Of these, two were found for cognitive strain; a double-match of extended kind between
cognitive demands and physical resources; and a non-match between emotional
demands and physical resources.
The double-match, illustrated in Figure 5 shows that in the presence of high physical
resources (þ1 SD) cognitive strain decreases with increasing levels of cognitive
demands (simple slope test: t ¼ 2:27, p , :05). No relationship was found between
physical demands and cognitive strain when physical resources were low (21 SD;
simple slope test: t ¼ 20:37, p ¼ ns). For the non-match interaction, Figure 6 suggests a
reversed buffering interaction, however, when a slope test was performed neither
regression line was significant (þ1 SD; simple slope test: t ¼ 20:50, p ¼ ns; 21 SD;
t ¼ 20:66, p ¼ ns).
For emotional exhaustion only one significant interaction was found and that was for
a double-match of extended kind between cognitive demands and emotional resources.
Figure 7 shows that the interaction was in the expected direction. More specifically, the
combination of low emotional resources and high cognitive demands were associated
Figure 3. Double-match interaction of the common kind between physical demands, physical
resources, and emotional exhaustion.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
28 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Figure 4. Double-match interaction of the common kind between emotional demands, emotional
resources, and physical symptoms.
with high levels of emotional exhaustion (simple slope test: t ¼ 5:18, p , :01).
In contrast, in the presence of high levels of emotional resources there was no
relationship between emotional exhaustion and cognitive demands (simple slope test:
t ¼ 0:76, p ¼ ns).
Finally, for physical symptoms, two interactions were found. Figure 8 shows a
reversed effect of demands and resources. The combination of high emotional demands
and high cognitive resources were associated with high levels of physical symptoms
(simple slope test: t ¼ 2:01, p , :05). Further, in the presence of low cognitive
resources, there was no relationship between emotional demands and physical
symptoms (simple slope test: t ¼ 1:05, p ¼ ns). The second interaction for physical
symptoms was a double-match of extended kind between physical demands and
physical strain (Figure 9). Under conditions of high cognitive resources, there was no
relationship between physical demands and physical strain (simple slope test: t ¼ 0:93,
p ¼ ns). However, at low levels of cognitive resources increasing levels of physical
demands were associated with higher levels of physical strain (simple slope test:
t ¼ 3:18, p , :01).
To summarize findings, of the 27 possible interactions we found 9 significant
interactions. Of these, 5 were in the predicted direction, in that the association between
high job demands and adverse health/well-being would be weaker in the presence of
high levels of job resources than when job resources were low (Hypothesis 1). However,
we also found the presence of 4 reverse interactions whereby high levels of job
resources were associated with higher levels of strain, in each case a non-triple-match
scenario.
In terms of whether moderating effects were more likely to be found with increasing
level of match between job demands, resources, and strain (Hypothesis 2) we found 1
out of 3 significant triple-match interactions, 1 (and 2 reversed) out of 6 significant
double-match of common kind interactions, 3 out of 12 significant double-match of
extended kind, and 0 (and 2 reversed) out of 6 non-match interactions. Table 4 shows
that when valid interactions were taken into account (i.e. interactions that conform to
general stress theory), the ratio of valid interactions decreased as the match between job
demands, resources, and strain departed from the triple-match.
0.04
2 0.17
2 0.04
0.17
2 0.06
2 0.08
.07
.08
.07
.08
.05
.06
.06
.06
.07
.06
.08
.06
.07
.06
.07
.17
.01
.12
SE
0.60
2 2.15*
2 0.57
2.07*
2 1.24
2 1.26
7.98**
1.30
0.06
2 1.64
0.54
1.35
1.02
0.87
2 1.23
2 0.43
2 0.96
1.76
T
0.06
20.23
20.06
0.23
20.10
20.09
0.50
0.11
0.00
20.12
0.06
0.09
0.09
0.07
20.11
20.03
20.07
0.13
b
D
D
D
N
D
N
2 0.23
0.03
2 0.13
0.11
0.00
0.12
0.16
0.58
0.20
0.08
0.05
0.04
2 0.03
0.05
2 0.09
2 0.18
0.00
2 0.04
B
.08
.09
.09
.10
.06
.07
.07
.07
.08
.08
.10
.07
.09
.07
.09
.20
.01
.14
SE
2 2.78**
0.28
2 1.52
1.18
0.03
1.79
2.27*
8.46**
2.51*
0.71
0.48
0.53
2 0.40
0.66
2 1.05
2 0.86
0.16
2 0.31
T
b
20.19
0.02
20.12
0.10
0.00
0.10
0.11
0.56
0.15
0.04
0.04
0.03
20.03
0.04
20.07
20.04
0.01
20.02
Emotional exhaustion 2
D
N
D
D
N
D
Note. Cogn., cognitive; emo., emotional; phys., physical; D, double-match; N, non-match; *p , :05; **p , :01 (two-tailed).
Interaction effects
Cogn. demands £ emot. resources
Cogn. demands £ phys. resources
Emo. demands £ cogn. resources
Emo. demands £ phys. resources
Phys. demands £ cogn. resources
Phys. demands £ emo. resources
0.49
0.08
0.00
2 0.11
0.05
0.08
0.08
0.05
2 0.09
Demands and resources
Cognitive demands
Cognitive resources
Physical demands
Physical resources
Emotional demands
Emotional resources
Time 1 outcome variables
Cogn. strain (reduced efficacy) Time 1
Emo. exhaustion Time 1
Phys. symptoms Time 1
2 0.07
2 0.01
0.22
B
Control variables
Gender
Age
Rank
Variable
Reduced professional efficacy 2
0.03
0.00
0.26
2 0.10
2 0.15
0.07
0.02
0.11
0.63
0.08
0.15
2 0.01
0.02
2 0.02
2 0.01
0.21
0.01
2 0.09
B
.08
.08
.08
.09
.06
.07
.07
.06
.07
.07
.09
.06
.08
.07
.08
.19
.01
.13
SE
0.35
0.01
3.28**
2 1.08
2 2.72*
0.98
0.30
1.77
8.62**
1.10
1.60
2 0.24
0.25
2 0.34
2 0.15
1.10
1.20
2 0.70
T
b
0.03
0.00
0.32
20.11
20.20
0.07
0.02
0.14
0.65
0.08
0.15
20.02
0.02
20.02
20.01
0.06
0.08
20.05
Physical symptoms 2
N
D
N
D
D
D
Table 3. Lagged structural equation models of reduced professional efficacy, emotional exhaustion, and physical symptoms with non-match or double-match
‘extended kind’ interactions (N ¼ 179)
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
29
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
30 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Figure 5. Double-match interaction of the extended kind between cognitive demands, physical
resources, and cognitive strain.
Discussion
The TMP (de Jonge & Dormann, 2003, 2006; de Jonge et al., 2008) proposes that the
likelihood of finding an interactive effect of job demands and job resources is greatest
when demands, resources, and strain are processed in the same psychological domain
(i.e. cognitive, emotional, or physical). The present study provides support for this
notion. Further, the present paper extends the findings of de Jonge and Dormann (2006)
in two ways. First, in their study, two groups of Dutch health care workers were
investigated whereas the present study replicated their findings in a sample of Australian
police officers suggesting that the principle holds in two separate occupations and in
two separate countries providing some support for the generalizability of the theory.
Second, we used a different set of measures (with the exception of emotional
exhaustion) with similar results adding strength to the TMP.
Figure 6. Non-match interaction between emotional demands, physical resources, and cognitive
strain.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
31
Figure 7. Double-match interaction of the extended kind between cognitive demands, emotional
resources, and emotional exhaustion.
In terms of the types of interactions found, the current study found one out of three
tested triple-match interactions – the interaction between cognitive demands and
cognitive resources on reduced professional efficacy (cognitive strain). This finding
supports the notion that when tasks are cognitively demanding, the availability of
cognitive resources (both in the form of informational support and cognitive autonomy)
negates the effects of high levels of demands on cognitive strain (low levels of
professional efficacy). Put another way, the combination of high cognitive demands and
high cognitive resources is associated with increased levels of professional efficacy – a
finding predicted by the active learning hypothesis of the DC model (Karasek &
Theorell, 1990) and the balance principle of the DISC model (de Jonge & Dormann,
2003, 2006; de Jonge et al., 2008). According to the balance principle, optimal
conditions for active learning, growth, creativity, and performance exist when
there is a balanced mixture of high job demands and corresponding job resources
(de Jonge et al., 2008).
Figure 8. Non-match interaction between emotional demands, cognitive resources, and physical symptoms.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
32 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Figure 9. Double-match interaction of the extended kind between physical demands, cognitive
resources, and physical symptoms.
In terms of a double-match, 4 out of 18 double-match interactions were found that
were in the predicted direction (i.e. excluding the 2 interactions that were in the
opposite direction to that predicted). Of these, 1 was a double-match of common kind
between cognitive demands, cognitive resources, and emotional exhaustion; and 3 were
double-match of extended kind between cognitive demands, physical resources, and
cognitive strain; cognitive demands, emotional resources, and emotional exhaustion; and
physical demands, cognitive resources, and physical symptoms. These findings are in line
with the matching hypotheses proposed by Cohen and Wills (1985) and Frese (1999).
More specifically, strain is mitigated when there is a match between job demands and job
resources, or when strain is matched by either job demands or resources.
It is possible that all triple-match interactions should be significant. A lack of triplematch especially in the emotional domain was surprising and different from previous
tests of the TMP (de Jonge & Dormann, 2006; de Jonge, Le Blanc, Peeters, & Noordam,
2008). In their study, de Jonge and Dormann (2006) found a triple-match between
emotional demands/resources/strain in one sample of health care providers and a triplematch between physical demands/resources/strain in another. Similarly, de Jonge
et al. (2008) found a triple-match for emotional demands/resources/strain in a crosssectional sample of aged care providers. One possible explanation for the difference in
findings is related to the samples examined. It is generally accepted that health care
providers face more emotionally demanding situations than many other occupations.
Table 4. Summary of analyses of interaction effects with different patterns of match
Interaction pattern
Triple-match
Double-match (both kinds)
Double-match (common kind)
Double-match (extended kind)
Non-match
Valid
interactions
Reversed
interactions
Tested
interactions
Ratio of valid
interactions/interactions
tested (%)
1
4
1
3
0
0
2
2
0
2
3
18
6
12
6
33.3
22.2
16.7
25.0
0.0
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
33
Additionally, seeking emotional support when needed could be expected to be
appropriate for health care workers. Police work may be as equally demanding emotionally.
However, in contrast police officers are generally expected to be more ‘macho’ and
therefore may not seek emotional support from colleagues and supervisors. Along these
lines, while emotional resources may be available, the officers may not access them for
fear that doing so may reflect a weakness in their character. This cultural influence may
be the reason why emotional resources did not offset the impact of emotional demands
on emotional resources. The lack of triple-match for policing in the physical domain
may simply be that demands in the physical domain were less pressing for police officers.
In terms of the nature of the interactions, the current study found that while the
pattern was consistent to that expected for high levels of demands, a different picture
emerged at the lower end of the spectrum. For nearly all interactions, at low levels of
demands, high levels of resources were associated with higher levels of strain
compared to low levels of resources. In other words, while the presence of resources
mitigates the relationship between high demands and level of strain, having too many
resources when demands are low may also be detrimental to officer well-being. One
possible explanation is provided by Warr’s (1987) Vitamin model. In essence, this
model suggests that while the presence of job resources is beneficial, in some cases
excessive levels of resources may be harmful. One example is job autonomy. High
levels of job autonomy may be harmful to employee mental health as it may imply
uncertainty, difficulty in decision making and high responsibility. Combined with low
job demands, high levels of job resources may lead to strains associated with lack of
opportunity to actually utilize resources.
The notion of excessive job resources resulting in more strain may help explain the
4 interactions that were contrary to predictions, otherwise referred to as reverse
buffering or enhancer effects. In the present study, enhancer effects were found for
2 out of 18 double-match interactions and for 2 out of 6 non-match interactions. More
specifically, the combination of high levels of physical demands and high levels of
physical resources were associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion than
when resources were low. Likewise, the combination of high levels of emotional
demands and resources were associated with higher levels of physical strain than when
resources were low. Enhancer effects have also been reported in other studies
(e.g. Beehr, 1976; Frese, 1999; Kaufmann & Beehr, 1989). Other suggestions for the
possible mechanisms that could produce enhancer effects include where discussing
the situation with supportive others could result in the perception of matters being
worse than they originally first thought (LaRocco, House, & French, 1980), and in the
situation where the source of the support is also the source of the demand (for a review,
see Kaufmann & Beehr, 1989).
Kaufmann and Beehr (1989) argue, in line with stress adaptation theories that
suggest that individuals adapt to environmental stressors by selecting appropriate
strategies, that it is possible that individuals may select informational support when
dealing with job demands and strain that are highly related. A closely related view is
presented by Frese (1999) who suggests that the emotional support component of
social support does not change the objective stress situation, particularly when the
stressor is physical in nature. Applied to the TMP, it could be argued that when a job
resource is available that does not adequately match the psychological processes
associated with the job demand then there is a risk of increasing strain (reverse
buffering). The finding that the only non-match interactions found in the present study
were reverse buffering interactions lends support to this idea.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
34 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Limitations
One limitation of this longitudinal study was the relatively low response rate. One
reason for this is that questionnaires were mailed out by the Police Association to
members on their database. Unfortunately, it could not be determined who was an
active frontline officer and within the scope of the study (i.e. gazetted to a uniform
police station). For example, approximately 10% of responses were from officers who
were not gazetted to a station (excluded from the sample), as assessed by an initial
screening item. Consequently, the reported response rate is an underestimation of the
actual response rate. Furthermore, it has been suggested that Australian police officers
are less likely to respond to questionnaires unless accompanied by letter of introduction
from a senior administrator (Hart et al., 1995). In their study, Hart and colleagues
achieved a similar response rate (23%) in a validation study when the questionnaire was
not accompanied by a letter from a senior police administrator, compared to 53% in a
sample that included a letter of introduction. Our survey was accompanied by a letter of
support by the Police Association rather than the police force. In addition, anecdotally it
has been suggested that this particular occupational group has been over-surveyed in
the past few years.
In terms of representativeness, sergeants were overrepresented in the present study.
The result of this may be that the current findings reflect sergeants rather than police
officers as a whole. This may explain why only a triple-match was found for cognitive
demands/resources/strain as sergeants’ roles tend to be more managerial than frontline.
Replication studies with more representative samples are required to establish whether
this is the case.
The implications are that the current findings may be specific to the present sample.
Further research is required to replicate these findings in more representative samples.
However, it should be noted, however, that the research was concerned with
relationships between variables rather than differences between levels of variables, the
sample was matched from T1 to T2, and the general pattern of findings of this study
reflect those of de Jonge and Dormann (2006), overall providing some credibility to the
stability and the generalizability of the findings.
Another limitation of the study is that it relied on self-report outcome measures,
potentially increasing the likelihood of common method bias. This could be reduced in
future research by obtaining more objective measures such as days absent from work or
measures derived from other sources like supervisors or colleagues (cf. de Jonge &
Peeters, 2009). Unfortunately, this level information was not available in the current study.
There are several strengths to the current study worth noting. A methodological
strength was the use of longitudinal modelling which enabled us to analyse lagged
relationships between job demands, resources, and strain. Second, we used structural
equation modelling in which the three different outcome measures were analysed
simultaneously. By regressing each type of strain at Time 2 on all types of strain at Time 1,
we were able to eliminate the conceptual overlap and eliminate chance capitalization
(i.e. reduction of Type I errors). Finally, temporal separation of variables and interaction
findings suggest common method bias may not be such an issue.
Implications and future research
Future research, especially for policing, may benefit from assessing the psychological
components of more specific job demands that relate specifically to tasks performed by
police. Previous police stress research usually involves a ‘laundry list’ of stressors that
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
35
are combined into global constructs. By separating these into the three psychological
dimensions, and matching the appropriate resources and strain, the probability of
identifying appropriate buffering resources is increased. For example, correspondence/paperwork may be matched by more cognitive resources such as informational
support than emotional resources like emotional support. As argued by Cohen and Wills
(1985), the use of global measures that tap the general availability of resources without
accessing specific resources is likely to result in main effects without buffering effects.
In terms of the overall findings of the present study, in addition to addressing the
need to match resources to demands and strain in terms of psychological processing,
the present findings highlight the differences in the nature of resources that are relevant
in different occupations. For example, de Jonge and Dormann (2006) found that in aged
care workers, emotional resources were the most relevant resource, possibly due to
nature of their work. In aged care residences, employees are often exposed to residents
that have serious medical conditions and are sometimes exposed to death and dying.
In terms of emotional labour, these employees then have to regulate their emotions to
present the organizationally required emotions of a caring caregiver (cf. Morris &
Feldman, 1996). Consequently, emotional resources are crucial in these instances, and
availability and access may be not problematic for these workers.
In contrast, for policing, cognitive resources presented as the most important
resource. The measure used in the current study resembles a combination of
informational support and cognitive autonomy. In the case of policing, officers are often
exposed to situations that require quick decisions (Patterson, 2003). The availability of
appropriate information and the ability to access this information is crucial, especially
when decisions involve life or death situations. This may be through appropriate
training in handing demanding situations or through mentoring programmes whereby
less experienced officers are given access to more experience colleagues or supervisors.
The fact that emotional resources seemed less important due to their lack of
amelioration potential was unexpected. Therefore, additional research is required to
understand occupationally specific dynamics that may occur when resources are
available and required but not accessed due to cultural influences, and the implications
of this for the TMP. Matching of quantity in addition to quality may also be indicated as an
additional line of research to further explicate reverse buffering findings.
In conclusion, the findings lend support to the TMP as a guiding framework, for
research, to explore possible interactive effects in work stress research, and for practice,
to inform interventions matching resources to occupational demands, to offset strain.
Acknowledgements
This research is funded by the Australian Research Council (ARC grant number: LP0562310) and
Industry partners – the Police Association.
References
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Australian Institute of Criminology (2003). The composition of Australia’s police services as at
June 2002. Canberra: Author.
Beehr, T. A. (1976). Perceived situational moderators of the relationship between subjective role
ambiguity and role strain. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 35–40.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
36 Sergio Chrisopoulos et al.
Brown, J. M., & Campbell, E. A. (1990). Sources of occupational stress in the police. Work and
Stress, 4, 305–318.
Burke, B. J. (1993). Work–family stress, conflict, coping, and burnout in police officers. Stress
Medicine, 9, 171–180.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological
Bulletin, 98, 310–357.
Collins, P. A., & Gibbs, A. C. C. (2003). Stress in police officers: A study of the origins, prevalence
and severity of stress-related symptoms within a county police force. Occupational Medicine,
53, 256–264.
de Jonge, J., & Dormann, C. (2003). The DISC model: Demand-induced strain compensation
mechanisms in job stress. In M. F. Dollard, A. H. Winefield, & H. R. Winefield (Eds.),
Occupational stress in the service profession (pp. 43–74). London: Taylor & Francis.
de Jonge, J., & Dormann, C. (2006). Stressors, resources, and strains at work: A longitudinal test of
the triple-match principle. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1359–1374.
de Jonge, J., Dormann, C., & van den Tooren, M. (2008). The demand-induced strain compensation
model: Renewed theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. In K. Näswall, J. Hellgren,
& M. Sverke (Eds.), The individual in the changing working life (pp. 67–87). Oxford:
Cambridge University Press.
de Jonge, J., Dormann, C., van Vegchel, N., von Nordheim, T., Dollard, M. F., & Cotton, S. (2003).
DISQ 1.0: The DISC questionnaire english version 1.0. Utrecht: Utrecht University.
de Jonge, J., Le Blanc, P. M., Peeters, M. C. W., & Noordam, H. (2008). Emotional job demands and
the role of matching job resources: A cross-sectional survey study among health care workers.
International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(10), 1460–1469.
de Jonge, J., Mulder, M. J. G. P., & Nijhuis, F. J. N. (1999). The incorporation of different demand
concepts in the job demand-control model: Effects on health care professionals. Social Science
and Medicine, 48(9), 1149–1160.
de Jonge, J., & Peeters, M. C. W. (2009). Convergence of self-reports and coworker reports of
counterproductive work behavior: A cross-sectional multi-source survey among health care
workers. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 46, 699–707.
de Lange, A. H., Taris, T. W., Kompier, M. A. J., Houtman, I. L. D., & Bonger, P. M. (2003). The very
best of the millennium: Longitudinal research and the demand–control–(support) model.
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 282–305.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands–resources
model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 499–512.
Dormann, C., & Zapf, D. (2004). Customer-related social stressors and burnout. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 61–82.
Frese, M. (1999). Social support as a moderator of the relationship between work stressors and
psychological dysfunctioning: A longitudinal study with objective measures. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 179–192.
Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotional regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize
emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 95–110.
Greller, M. M., Parsons, C. K., & Mitchell, D. R. D. (1997). Additive effects and beyond:
Occupational stressors and social buffers in a police organization. In J. C. Quick, L. R. Murphy,
& J. J. Hurrell (Eds.), Stress and wellbeing at work: Assessments and interventions for
occupational mental health (pp. 33–47). Washington, DC: APA.
Hart, P. M., Wearing, A. J., & Headey, B. (1995). Police stress and well-being: Integrating
personality, coping and daily work experiences. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68, 133–156.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.
American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General
Psychology, 6, 307–324.
Copyright © The British Psychological Society
Reproduction in any form (including the internet) is prohibited without prior permission from the Society
The triple-match principle
37
Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, work place social support and cardiovascular
disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of Swedish population. American Journal
of Public Health, 78, 1336–1342.
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide. Chicago Scientific
Software International.
Karasek, R. A. (1990). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job
redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–308.
Karasek, R. A., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity and the reconstruction of
working life. New York: Basic Books.
Kaufmann, G. M., & Beehr, T. A. (1989). Occupational stressors, individual strains, and social
supports among police officers. Human Relations, 42, 185–197.
Kop, N., Euwema, M., & Schaufeli, W. (1999). Burnout, job stress and violent behaviour among
Dutch police officers. Work and Stress, 13, 326–340.
LaRocco, J. M., House, J. S., & French, J. R. P. (1980). Social support, occupational stress, and
health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 202–218.
Liberman, A. M., Best, S. R., Metzler, T. J., Fagan, J. A., Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (2002). Routine
occupational stress and psychological distress in police. Policing: An International Journal of
Police Strategies and Management, 25, 421–439.
Maslach, C. (1993). Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, &
T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research
(pp. 19–32). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. (1996). The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of
emotional labour. Academy of Management Review, 21, 986–1010.
Patterson, G. T. (2003). Examining the effects of coping and social support on work and life stress
among police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 215–226.
Pomaki, G., & Maes, S. (2002). Predicting quality of work life: From work conditions to selfregulation. In E. Gullone & R. A. Cummins (Eds.), The universality of subjective well-being
indicators (pp. 151–173). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with
burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25,
293–315.
Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1996). The Maslach Burnout Inventory –
General Survey test manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Vancouver, J. B. (2000). Self-regulation in organizational settings: A tale of two paradigms.
In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation
(pp. 303–341). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
van de Ven, B., Vlerick, P., & de Jonge, J. (2008). The interplay of job demands, job resources and
cognitive outcomes in informatics. Stress and Health, 24, 375–382.
van den Tooren, M., & de Jonge, J. (2008). Managing job stress in nursing: What kind of resources
do we need? Journal of Advanced Nursing, 63, 75–84.
van der Doef, M., & Maes, S. (1999). The job demand-control (-support) model and psychological
well-being: A review of 20 years of emprical research. Work and Stress, 13, 87–114.
Warr, P. (1987). Work, unemployment and mental health. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Zapf, D., Seifert, C., Schmutte, B., Mertini, H., & Holz, M. (2001). Emotional work and job stressors
and their effects on burnout. Psychology and Health, 16, 527–545.
Received 4 June 2008; revised version received 26 June 2009
Copyright of Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology is the property of British Psychological
Society and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.