BAYBAYIN vol. I, no. 1 (August 2015)
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THE GENEALOGY OF MALE
DOMINATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Rodrigo Abenes
ABSTRACT:
Women oppression is a universal reality. She is the victim, the exploited, the
dominated and the other. As a post-colonial thinker, I argue that Filipino
women have been victims of the movement of social dialectics. As Philippine
Society evolved and developed, she had been a victim not only of male
domination but also of political economy. This research shows how female
subordination and male domination emerged in the Philippines. As such, it
contends that there is a blurring identity of Filipino women – that is, Filipino
women as situated in the neo-colonial period - are victims of political
economy and male domination.
KEYWORDS:
Feminism, Male Domination in the Philippines, Neo-colonialism,
THE PROBLEM: CONTEXTUALIZING
THE STATUS OF FILIPINO WOMEN
K
arl Marx’s in his Communist Manifesto declared that “History is
the history of the class struggle.” Marx proclaimed this statement
due to the realization that the term ‘class’ signifies a group of persons
with a common economic relationship who aims to bring other groups
having different economic relationship to these means. Furthermore,
Marx added that if we were going to analyze class historically, the
existence of class differentiation emerged due to the appearance of the
prevailing mode of production. Some men own the means of
production, whereas the others do not. The ones who own the means
of production are in the position of power – the exploiting class, where as
the one who does not have is the exploited class. In so doing, there are
two classes in every existing society: the exploiting class and the
exploited class.
On problematizing the said struggle one cannot escape the
reality that there is also a gender struggle, that there is a parallelism of
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Marx’s theory of class to the status of women: that there are parallelism
on these two statements: “The history of all hitherto existing societies is the
history of class struggle” and the “history of all hitherto existing societies is the
history of gender struggle.” (Abenes 2014)
This had been reflected in the book written by De Beaviore
entitled The Second Sex. According to her, in some societies the
proletariats had successful revolutions in other parts of the world but
still the status of the subordination of women remains and the male
domination has been an acceptable and invisible reality. The lower class
had already transformed and challenged the status quo of the upper
class. These transformations were basically manifested in the successful
upheavals like that of the British and French Revolutions. These two
revolutions had changed and brought new ideologies and structures.
These upheavals had transformed the whole world into a promise of
freedom, enlightenment, progress, autonomy and social order
specifically for the lower class of the societies the slaves and the serfs.
Taking into consideration these two important turning points in human
struggle, enlightenment has not changed the status of women in the
female-subordinated society. British revolution, for instance, becomes
problematic for it is a revolution that does not promise liberation and
emancipation for all, particularly to women. What makes British
revolution problematic is because it is an ideology that proclaims
equality, representation, democracy, freedom, and autonomy, that are
not for all individuals but are rather only limited to men. This political
constraints have their loopholes particularly to women, for liberal
democracy is basically grounded on economic welfare or better still
work, in which women themselves are been alienated. It must be noted
that liberal democracy is only limited to productive work – that is, work
for exchange, and not that of reproductive – or work for use and the
satisfaction of human needs. With this, one would consider that female
subordination is rooted in a set of customary and legal constraint that
blocks women’s entrance to and success in the so-called public world.
(Dagmang 2011) Females are considered less-intellectual and lessphysical for they are given less consideration in the structures such as
economy, education, religion, politics, academe, forum and mark.
French revolution, on the other hand, though had promised new
enlightenment for the serfs but had not promised liberation and
emancipation for women; for women had been a new form of
objectification, an objectification of capital. Women had been part
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unconsciously commodified in this new economic social system. With
the emergence of new social structure that is capitalism, a new
exploitation and new dehumanization had emerged. “At this stage, a
social class appears which intervenes in the economy” (Eviota 1993, 12).
In this structure, reproductive work is not the goal of the individual but
rather productive work. “As a result there is a reallocation of work effort
between women and men and among family members in the household
production and reproduction” (Eviota 1993, 12). Women therefore,
need to work in public. Working in the marketplace by women is an
additional burden for they do need to work into shifts- first shift is the
productive work, second shift – reproductive work in the home and
third shift is her obligation to her husband at night.
It was for this reason that Bordieu [2000] in his Prelude in his
book entitled “The Male Domination” had considered this universal
subordination of women as one of the paradox of doxa. It is “... an
established order, with its relations of dominations, its right and
prerogatives, privileges and injustices ultimately perpetuates itself so
easily apart from a few historical accidents and that the most intolerable
conditions of existence can so often be perceived as acceptable and even
natural” (Bordieu 2000, 1). Thuss, he categorized male domination as
symbolic violence that is imperceptible, invisible even to women. This symbolic
violence against women is understood to mean any act of gender-based
violence that is directed against a woman because she is a woman or that
affects women disproportionately.
The Philippines, as any other societies, is also experiencing these
realities. Filipino women are also victims of this symbolic violence. But,
reviewing the history prior to the colonization, Filipino women are
women of strength and power. According to Philippine historians,
Filipino women were enjoying egalitarian rights that they shared with
men. Alzona (1934) enumerated a number of rights that Filipino women
were enjoying like:
(1) they are treated as an equal by her husband and to share his
honors; (2) they retain her maiden name; (3) she can freely dispose
of the property she had brought into the marriage; (4) she must be
consulted or informed by her husband about his business affairs and
contracts; (6) she can divorce her husband in case of non-support or
maltreatment; and (7) she can assume the headship in the barangay.
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With this, one would notice that Filipino women during the Prespanish colonization were not only confined to domestic roles and
responsibilities; for their womanhood is a privilege rather than a
disadvantage. It was for this reason that in an exaggeration a group of
historians would argue that Filipino women during the Pre-spanish
colonization were leaders and priestesses of religious rituals. As priestess
or babaylan,
She presided over all the rituals of her people, from planting to
harvest, from birth, disease, to death, from weddings, hunts, wars, to
victory. Aside from being a priest, she was an empowered healer,
midwife, herbalist, a trusted confidante, a reputed and wise
counselor/adviser, a mediator (between humans), a medium or
bridge (between humans and the spirit world), a historian,
cosmologist. She was not only a mystic/ shaman, but also an
influential leader grounded in almost all of life’s different spheres;
she was not only a talented poet / chanter and dramatic artist, but
it has also been written that she was a “proto-scientist. (Cagayan
2005 p. 5)
Filipino women during that time, therefore, were a reflection of
strength, emancipation, liberation, autonomy and power. But sadly, gone
are those days. Gone are the days when Filipino women are considered
as equal to Filipino men. Gone are the days when Filipino women were
liberated, emancipated and considered an asset. For now, they are
considered a liability.
It is along with these that this study would like to achieve. This
research would like to investigate how female subordination and male
domination emerged in the Philippines. With this, the researcher would
contends and argues that there is a blurring identity of Filipino women –
that is Filipino women, as situated in the postcolonial period, are victims
of political economy and male domination. In order to arrive at such
conclusion, the researcher had tried to answer this question: how did
these realities emerge? Thus, in dealing with the problems of this paper
the researcher would consider the following as his guide:
1. Filipino Women in Colonial Period: A Legacy of Roman
Catholicism
2. Filipino Women in Neocolonial Period: A Cyberspace
Investigation
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3. Filipino Women as Symbolic Victims: The Blurring Identity
FILIPINA WOMEN IN COLONIAL PERIOD:
THE LEGACY OF ROMAN CATHOLICISM
The Philippines is considered as the only Catholic nation in the world.
With this, personal and community values mirror the teaching of the
Catholic Church. What made the Philippines as such is because of
almost more than 300 years of the colonization of the Spaniards. Prior
to the colonization, Filipino women are women of strength and power
for they had enjoyed egalitarian rights that they shared with Filipino
men.
The long period of colonization of the Spaniards using Roman
Catholicism as tool had brought into a new social structure. Its social
system had transformed the Philippines into a patriachal system. The
teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, which is male-centered and
male-dominated viewed that gender and sexuality is a formulation of
biological destiny. As such, the simplistic equation of sex/gender/desire
contingent on the perpetuation of patriarchy, therefore, is afforded
The biological view of advances that the housewife/working husband
role specialization of the sexes is rooted in bio-physical differences
between male and female. Males, owning to their physical
superiority, are suited to heavy mechanical task necessary for earning
a living while females, due to their biological function of childbearing, are meant for child care and housekeeping. (Medina,
2001, 141)
In this regard, Filipino women are not that different from other
women in the world. The colonization had brought Filipino women
closer to nature and away from culture. It was for this reason that
through their lifespan, Filipino women are always subordinated to a
male figure: her father before marriage and her husband after marriage.
Before marriage, Filipino women were trained to be a good wife. It is
because after her marriage she is expected to be the ‘ilaw ng tahanan’ or
the light of the home. Being ‘light’ entails a metaphorical message, it
means that Filipino women are expected to care, the wife is considered
as the „queen of the home‟ as she takes care of the children, she also
takes care of the budget. Wives are expected to perform the role of the
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housekeeper, cook, laundress, seamstress and nursemaid whereas the
males are expected to be ‘haligi ng tahanan’ or the foundation of home. As
foundation, husband therefore is expected to take charge of his family.
He is expected to be the breadwinner and chiefly responsible for the
financial sustenance of the family.
The Philippine colonization, therefore, had changed the status of
Filipino women from egalitarian rights to male subordination and male
domination. This male domination of Filipino women is very clear in
Rizal’s writings. In his letter to the Women of Malolos, Rizal described
that Filipino women were dehumanized and marginalized for they are
only limited to domestic affairs – that is they are only limited to
reproductive work. Women’s education was only confined with
productive ones. Consequently, women’s roles are just limited to private
affairs. In some of the characters in Rizal’s novel, he tried to depict the
marginalization and exploitation of Filipino women through the
characters of Maria Clara, Juli and Sisa. These characters were images of
Filipino women who are naturally weak and just cry inspite of
oppression and exploitation. The Spaniards had established schools
exclusively for women. These schools trained Filipino women to be a
good wife and be confined only to such roles. Such training, therefore,
had been institutionalized and had been part of the entire Philippine
traditions, consequently, resulting to female subordination.
With such colonization of the Spaniards, Friedrich Engels’ claim
that male domination had its beginning due to the introduction of
private property was not applicable in Philippine society. In the
Philippines, with the introduction as such, women had enjoyed
egalitarian rights. Introduction of private property, therefore, does not
place Filipino women in an alienable situation for Filipino women were
not deprived due to gender inequality and differentiation but rather it
reaffirms their strength, liberation, emancipation and power. .
With such institutionalization of gender differentiation and
inequality, Filipino women started to experience symbolic violence
which appears to be an imperceptible and invisible reality. Filipino
women were only tied to roles and responsibilities at home and nothing
else. Due to such limitation to private life, Filipino women have been
considered as less-intellectual and less-physical. Filipino women were
regarded as inferior to men.
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FILIPINO WOMEN IN NEOCOLONIAL PERIOD:
A CYBERSPACE INVESTIGATION
The Philippines at present is experiencing neocolonialism. It can be
traced by looking at our political economy as it adapts
transnationalization in the economic policies of the country.
Transnationalization had its remote origins when the Philippines had
gained its independence from the Americans. Few days before
Philippine independence, Bell-Trade agreement had been made in
exchange for the said freedom. The said one sided agreement was sealed
because of two reasons: first is to keep low wages of Filipino and
maintain the cheap prices of primary exports like sugar, copra, rice and
mineral products; second is to a leading country of finished product
importer. (De Leon, 2003) Following this line of thought, Sartre in his
book entitled Colonialism and Neo-colonialism argues that capitalism
itself became the colonist. With the transformation of a new social
structure the means of production is not anymore attached to land but
rather is already tied in the capital. In the context of the Philippine
economy, US imperialism in giving independence on July 4, 1946 had
created spending power and therefore “the colonists who will benefit
from all the advantages and who will be turned into potential buyers.
The colonist is above all an artificial consumer, created overseas from
nothing by a capitalism which is seeking new markets.” (Sartre, 1964, 10)
As Philippine society evolved and developed so did
transnationalization of the Philippine economy. With US goal of
integrating capitalist world into a cohesive, cooperative system with its
flag of leadearship, they had tried to ensure economic domination and
control over their former colonies. It was for this reason that the
establishment of International Monetary Fund, World Bank and Asian
Development Bank in Asia became a necessity so as to ensure economic
domination in the guise of helping the third world countries.
The Philippines, as a third world country continue to loan
money from these international financial institutions. But such loans had
certain conditions. Initially, the borrowed money should finance
infrastructure projects and not livelihood programs for the Filipinos.
Second, these international financial institutions dictate the devaluation
of Philippine currency; thus, would result in decrease in its purchasing
power. (Gripaldo, 2000)
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These continuous loaning of money from International financial
institutions resulted to the diversion of economic policies in the country.
It was for this reason that developmental policy export industry had
been implemented. With such implementation, export industry had
benefited the country economically and politically by providing jobs to
its citizens. Consequently, as export industry grows so do the number of
jobs in the country. But eventhough, it had provided numerous jobs to
the Filipinos, it also created a new venue of exploitation. Initially, it
resulted in the establishment of cheap labor in comparison with the 1st
World. Second, it resulted in low cost raw materials in the country which
later resulted to exploitation of the country’s natural resources.
The Philippines, like other 3rd world countries, despite being
rich with natural resources has been experiencing economic starvation.
In order to ease such starvation, in 1974 the Philippines started to
export not only raw materials but also labor. At present, the Philippines
had been top labour exporter in the world. In this sense, the Philippine
had been dependent mostly on the remittances of OFW as a
determinant of the growth of its economy. With this, former President
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo regarded Filipino OFW as Filipino Overseas
Investors, because of their great help to the country’s economy.
With this reality, cyberspace investigation is a good methodology
in trying to know the real status of Filipino women in neocolonial
period. What made cyberspace investigation as such is because even
though it is the domain of those linked by computer via international
networks. Cyberspace is not different from reality. It shows things that
are closely related to reality and all of them are true. It is the simulation
of an environment or conditions all around us. Cyberspace as one of the
modes of production in neo-colonial era somehow has a certain link
towards the current social structure. Cyberspace, as an infrastructure in
the neo-colonial society – that is a post-capitalist one, therefore is a
venue of new dehumanization and new exploitation.
Browsing the internet in any search engines, using the keyword
‘Filipina’, one would notice that the common denominators are
commodification of Filipina women. Most of the results would show
dating sites, marriage servicing agency and sex tourism targeting
foreigners from the first world country as its main clients. Filipinas tend
to look for husband abroad, specifically in the first world countries, for
the purpose of greener pasture. Marrying a foreigner would be an easy
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escape from poverty. Many Filipinas therefore have actually taken an
easy road to financial security. Almost all of the result sites introduce
themselves to its foreign male viewers and clientele with a guarantee of
its services. Some websites have their own testimonials narrating how
they meet the Filipina of their dreams. Googled results websites had
portrayed Filipino women just like commodities. One site, for instance,
would say that:
To maintain that magical feeling of love in a relationship, put your
love into action. Filipina women are among the most beautiful girls
in the world. In addition, they are composed, educated and patient.
No matter how a certain person will test her patience, Filipina
women will remain calm and composed. They never easily get flare
up whenever there will be arguments. Filipina women inculcate in
their minds that no problems will be solved if both parties are hot
under
the
collar.
(http://www.cebuanas.com/filipina_women.htm, 2011,
1)
These words somehow implied that Filipino women are
different from the west, that Filipinas are traditional, submissive and
docile. One of the studies made by Philippine Women Centre of B.C
would claim that there are two factors why foreigners choose Filipino
women as wife. First is because of social and economic reasons; social
because media had portrayed Filipino women as meek, docile slaves,
oriental beauties with shady histories, passive and manipulable to that of
women who are grasping predatory, using marriage to jump immigration
queues; economic reasons because retiring and spending their money
here in the Philippines would also promise a greener pasture for the
exchange rate of their currency is high in the Philippines. Thus, spending
it here would entail greater value. Second reason is the Philippine
Government has capitalized on the image of Filipino women by using
tourism marketing strategy portraying women as sexual objects.
(Philippine Women Centre - Canada, 2000)
Using the same methodology by using “Filipina OFW” as a
keyword, one would see and notice those numbers of Filipinas who have
been exploited, raped, and murdered. Based on the recent survey done
by NSO (2011), “The sex ratio among overseas Filipino workers is 100
female per 104 males.” Meaning Filipino women were strikingly growing
more than its male counterpart. But, what is bad here is that “Fifty eight
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out of 100 female overseas work as laborers and unskilled workers”.
(NSO 2011, 1)) Thus, based on statistics, majority of the Filipino
workers are domestic helpers. Since domestic work is a waged work for
women, this had been a venue of exploitation, maltreatment and
dehumanization among Filipino women. What made this as such is
because “It has no set working hours, that is, there is unlimited
appropriation of women’s labour; domestic are on call for most of the
day and into the night” (Eviota, 131). Domestic helpers, thus hold lowly
jobs because these lowly jobs are what their employer hated to do and
cannot do. They fix their mess. They care for their employer’s elders.
They clean their house. They care about their employer’s pets. In short,
they do these jobs which seem to be lowly and menial. This scenario
thus made Filipinas more susceptible to abuses, maltreatment, physical
and sexual abuses. It was for this reason that even though Filipino
women had already surpassed by an increasing number of Filipino men
working abroad. While experiencing the same problems of exploitation
and oppression as their male counterparts, Filipino women face the
additional problems of gender violence and oppression. Many have
returned home to the Philippines dead or the victims of brutal rapes,
beatings or other forms of violence. One website, for instance, would
claim, based on interviews to Filipinas as victims of oppression and
violence that this reality seems to be normal. “Physical abuse and rape
are rampant, and Filipinas are often defenseless, leaving some with no
option but to run away from their employers and live underground.”
(COWA, 2011, 37) Abuse is encouraged by the fact that domestic
workers are not covered by the law of their sponsored country. Majority
of the Filipino women in this industry were “highly educated, highly
skilled individuals with impressive professional backgrounds… as the
economies of the receiving countries began to constrict, the need for
domestic workers and women to participate in the informal sectors as
entertainers and prostitutes began to dominate” (PWC, 23).
These portrayals of cyberspace concerning Filipino women are
true and real. It is true that there are numbers of Filipino women who
are mail-to-order-brides and domestic helpers, who are maltreated and
abused. Numbers in statistics were proofs concerning this
dehumanization. These realities and reflections of Filipino women are
considered as the “other”. This otherness, had brought negative impacts
regarding the universal view concerning Filipino women. It was for this
reason that the number of experiences by Filipino women is worth
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telling. In an article written by Rachelle Bascara in Youngblood in Daily
Inquirer, she narrated her own experience as Filipina living overseas.
According to her, Filipino women were known as a people of maids.
People from other countries would view that Philippines is best known
for producing these modern-day capitalist-slaves. She narrated her
conversation with other nationalities telling that “In Saudi, you aren’t a
real Saudi family without a Filipino maid. At a modeling stint in London,
an English model recounted how she had a Filipino nanny growing up.
My speech teacher in San Francisco was all praises for how well her
Filipino maid cleaned her house” (Bascara 2011, 1).
CONCLUSION:
FILIPINO WOMEN AS SYMBOLIC VICTIMS
After having discussed the two important points, the researcher is in the
position to conclude that Filipino women are symbolic victims – that
Filipino women have been victims of the movement of social dialectics.
As Philippine Society evolved and developed, she had been a victim not
only of male domination but also of political economy. This research
shows how female subordination and male domination emerged in the
Philippines. As such, there is a blurring identity of Filipino women –
that is Filipino women - as situated in the neo-olonial period- are victims
of political economy and male domination.
The researcher had divided Philippine history into three periods:
the pre-colonial period, colonial period and neocolonial period. With
this, he had showed that different epochs had different views with
respect to sexuality as one of the ideological elements in the social
structure. In the pre-colonial period, Filipino women were enjoying
egalitarian rights that they shared with men. At this period, there were
not only confined to domestic roles and responsibilities for they were
participating in the public sphere. Thus, we could say that their
womanhood is a privilege rather than a disadvantage.
On the other hand, Spanish colonization had transformed the
status of Filipino women into a subordination and submission to
Filipino men. With the aid of Christianity as justification for female
submissiveness, male domination had perpetuated and legitimized. Male
domination, though a false consciousness, therefore had been
perpetuated through culture and ideology for it has been captured by its
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agents as natural throughout the history and Philippine tradition. With
such institutionalization of gender differentiation and inequality, Filipino
women started to experience symbolic violence which appears to be an
imperceptible and invisible reality. Filipino women were only tied to
roles and responsibilities at home and nothing else. Due to such
limitation to private life, Filipino women have been considered as lessintellectual and less-physical. Filipino women were regarded as inferior
to men. This had been perpetuated as well in the neocolonial period. At
present, Filipino women are experiencing negation and otherness. The
otherness of Filipino women as implied in cyberspace media
investigation is a manifestation that Filipino women are victims of
political economy. Such claim had been made by the researcher because
the political economy in the Philippines had its roots in the
transnationalization of the economic policies of the country. their great
help to the country’s economy.
This scenario had its implication particularly to Filipino women.
Since the Philippines had adapted labor export as an alternative
livelihood, the Philippines “has scattered eight million Filipinos to over
186 countries. About 2,000 Filipinos leave the Philippines everyday, the
majority being women leaving as domestic workers, entertainers,
prostitutes and mail-order brides.” (PWC, 15) Studies done by other
sectors show that “despite being highly educated and highly skilled,
many of the women, if employed at all, are segregated into low-paying,
service-sector jobs.” (PWC, 11) Being exposed to such therefore
resulted in OFW women being more susceptible to abuses,
dehumanization, maltreatment, physical and sexual abuses.
Thus, we could therefore view male domination as an ideology
in its pejorative sense. As such, it had its tripartite properties: epistemic,
functional and genetic. Female subordination in the Philippines had its
epistemic properties for considering three periods of colonialization:
pre-colonial, colonial and postcolonial periods, they have different
‘epistemes’ that have been followed by its agent. Pre-colonial period had
regarded egalitarian rights among Filipino women with Filipino men.
Filipino women during this period had enjoyed liberation and
emancipation for they were been treated not as secondary citizen but
rather as co-creators of reproductive and productive work. Gender
difference therefore had not been a hindrance towards the realization of
the individual. On the other hand, colonialism had transformed Filipino
women in a very compromising reality. With colonization, male
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domination had been legitimized by the hands of Roman Catholicism
and had justified the “objectification” mistake (functional), for as a
social phenomenon it has been accepted as a natural phenomenon. Its
agents therefore had been deceived into taking that activity to be
something foreign to them especially if they take that activity to be
natural process outside their control. With such, Filipino women had
been linked into nature and excluded into culture. As a woman, she had
to take reproductive roles and be alienated with productive ones. Thus,
as she was linked with nature and excluded into culture so do so with
immanence and be away with transcendence.
This false consciousness had been perpetuated in the
neocolonial period. With the emergence of new social structure that is
capitalism, a new exploitation and new dehumanization had emerged.
“At this stage, a social class appears which intervenes in the economy.”
(Eviota, 1993, 12) In this structure, reproductive work is not the goal of
the individual but rather productive. “As a result there is a reallocation
of work effort between women and men and among family members in
the household production and reproduction.” (Eviota, 12) In this dense,
women, therefore, need to work in public. Working in the marketplace
by women is an additional burden for she does need to work into shiftsfirst shift is the productive work, second shift – reproductive work in
the home and third shift is her obligation to her husband at night.
With this, the gender differentiation appears to be in the order
of things as its agents sometimes would refer to it as normal and natural
to the point of being inevitable. It had therefore become “... an
established order, with its relations of dominations, its right and
prerogatives, privileges and injustices ultimately perpetuates itself so
easily apart from a few historical accidents and that the most intolerable
conditions of existence can so often be perceived as acceptable and even
natural.” (Bordieu, 1)
In this regard, Filipino women therefore as situated in the third
world country had their distinguishing ‘habitus’. What made her had as
such is because her internal structure has been derived entirely from a
different pre-existing outside social structure. As a woman, Filipino
women are not different from other women in the rest of the world who
are also experiencing male domination. As a woman, her otherness is
deeply rooted in her feminine psyche. As an individual, a woman has
also pursuits in life. She needed to survive, she needed capital and she
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wanted prestige. But as a woman, she has been considered as dependent
on such pursuits. On the other hand, considering the outside preexisting social structure, Filipino women were considered as the ‘other’
for she is not only a victim of male domination but also of political
economy of whom a male-centered society had created.
REFERENCES:
Abenes, Rodrigo. 2014. "On the Predicament of Metaphysics of
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