Organic food authentication: potential and limitations
Saskia van Ruth (saskia.vanruth@wur.nl)

RIKILT Wageningen UR
Wageningen University

Souls for sale?
 What’s in it 4U?
 Food product adulteration and counterfeiting is a thriving multi-billion euro global industry. It is highly profitable and the risks of significant legal consequences are low.

The food supply network
 Retail demands shape global food market
 Price is the main governing feature
 Food and ingredients are sourced world-wide
 Extensive, fragile, vulnerable food supply chain

Ercsey-Ravasz M, Toroczkai Z, Lakner Z, Baranyi J (2012) Complexity of the International Agro-Food Trade Network and Its Impact on Food
Safety. PLoS ONE 7(5): e37810. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037810 http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0037810

Food fraud
 Food fraud differs from most food safety issues in that fraudsters intentionally aim at deceiving targets by food adulteration or counterfeiting for their own economic gain .

The crime triangle

Food authenticity and safety
 Control systems are nowadays primarily aiming at food safety and defense
 Food authenticity and integrity has received less attention in the last decade
 Development of fraud risk assessment:
 Temptation ACCP: People factor, critical points, how to optimize detection

Detection
 Laboratory-based: checks of occasional samples
● Single markers
● Patterns
 Supply-chain: pro-active, red/green light, 100% check

Single markers

Sensory evaluation

Multiple markers: looking for patterns
•Spectroscopy techniques: FTIR, NIR, MIR, UV etc.
•GC-MS, LC-MS, IR-MS, ICP-MS, PTR-MS, SELDI-TOFMS, NMR, DART-MS, etc.

Multi marker fingerprints?
Fingerprints of target product group versus counterparts (e.g. genuine and adulterated products).

Method developments and confirmation
 Laboratory-based: finding the relevant markers:
 Combining analytical chemistry and chemometrics

AuthenticFood EU project

Organic vs Conventional Tomatoes
 Tomato samples (n=24)
Region of origin in
Italy
Botanical origin
Production method
Basilicata
2
Organic,
Conventional
Emilia 2
Organic,
Conventional
•
Sample design was a full factorial 2x2x2 design
•
Triplicate samples batches
•
Duplicate analysis

Italian tomatoes
 PTR-MS
 Sensory analysis

Sensory profiling of the tomatoes
 Only 9 of the 12 samples from Emilia were assessed by sensory profiling due to early deterioration.
 Sensory analysis was performed by 13 expert assessors from the Flavour Research Team of Caroline Labrie and
Petra Dorstijn at Wageningen UR Greenhouse
Horticulture.
 A total of 17 sensory attributes comprised of aroma, taste and texture were used to evaluate the samples

Method developments and confirmation
 Laboratory-based: finding the relevant markers AND
(international) validation

The egg study continued
Organic
Cage Barn
Free range

Instrumental method based on yellow pigments: carotenoids

Carotenoids in egg yolk
 Natural carotenoids
● Lutein
● Zeaxanthin
 Feed additives
● Canthaxanthin
● Apocarotenoic ester
● Citranaxanthin

~750 eggs

~200 pooled samples

~250 samples to be analysed

Chromatographic analysis of the yellow pigments

Cage2E
Bio3W
FR3E
Bio2S
Bio3S
Cage2S
Cage2S
Bio2N
Cage3S
Barn1E
Cage1E
FR1W
Barn2E
Bio3E
Cage3W
Cage3E
Bio3W
FR3E
Bio2S
Barn3S
FR2S
FR2W
FR2E
Cage2N
FR1E
Bio2E
Bio1E
Bio1E
FR2N
Barn3N
Barn1N
Bio3N
Bio2S
Barn3S
FR2S
FR2W
FR2E
FR2E
Cage2N
FR1E
Bio2E
Bio1E
FR2N
Barn3N
Barn1N
Bio3N
Cage2E
Bio3W
Barn3S
FR2S
FR2W
FR2E
Cage2N
FR1E
Bio2E
Bio1E
FR2N
Barn3N
Barn3N
Barn1N
Bio3N
Cage2E
Bio3W
FR3E
Cage3W
Cage3E
Barn4E
FR3W
Barn2S
FR3S
FR1N
FR1N
Bio3S
Cage2S
Bio2N
Cage3S
Barn1E
Cage1E
FR1W
Barn2E
Barn4E
Barn4E
FR3W
Barn2S
FR3S
FR1N
Bio3S
Cage2S
Bio2N
Cage3S
Barn1E
Cage1E
Cage1E
FR1W
Barn2E
Bio3E
Bio3E
Cage3W
Cage3W
Cage3E
Barn4E
FR3W
Lots of data
4
1
1
1
1
4
3
1
3
2
3
3
1
3
1
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
3
3
4
1
1
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
4
3
3
4
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
4
1
3
3
4
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
2
2
3
3
1
4
4
1
4
1
1
4
1
4
1
1
1
4
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
2
4
3
1
1
Raw results
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
2
8
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
0
3
1
3
2
3
0
0
3
1
0
3
0
2
0
1
2
0
0
1
0
1
3
1
1
0
2
0
1
3
0
2
0
1
2
0
0
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
0
1
0
3
2
2
1
2
0
0
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
3
0
3
0
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
3
3
3
0
3
2
1
2
0
3
1
2
3
0
3
0
3
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
28A1
28A2
29A
30A
31A
32A
17B
18B
20A
21A
22A
23A
24A
25A
26A
27A
13C
14C
15C
16C
17A
18A1
18A2
19A
6C
7C
8C1
8C2
9C
10C
11C
12C
14B2
15B
16B
1C
2C
3C
4C
5C
7B
8B
9B
10B
11B
12B
13B
14B1
16A
1B
2B
3B
4B1
4B2
5B
6B
9A
10A1
10A2
11A
12A
13A
14A
15A
17C
18C
19C
20C
21C
22C
23C
24C
25C
26C1
26C2
27C
28C
29C
19B
20B
21B
22B1
22B2
23B
24B
25B
26B
27B
28B
29B
30B
31B
32B1
32B2
1225.7
1209.5
745.7
944.8
900.7
1073.7
1030.7
626.3
564.7
542.4
632.3
736.7
951.6
619.5
820.2
1470.0
1109.1
1574.4
1664.4
1624.2
1493.8
799.7
827.7
1912.6
863.1
1096.3
1170.6
494.4
1144.9
1005.7
928.9
1772.2
1744.6
1811.8
1386.4
1076.1
753.3
1165.3
839.2
498.1
1170.7
2581.2
1542.9
1506.2
789.7
919.3
1384.7
1948.9
2109.3
1280.8
701.3
787.1
1264.4
1900.3
1047.2
1445.5
990.3
635.4
536.8
634.4
808.9
572.4
441.2
980.9
647.0
1275.9
940.5
689.4
848.8
743.9
945.7
843.5
1462.5
697.1
819.6
666.9
836.0
736.6
600.4
633.7
1863.6
750.0
700.8
2301.0
953.8
769.9
reg/non-reg
2
2
2
2
1A
2A
3A
4A
5A
6A
7A
8A
665.6
624.9
624.3
668.9
361.9
838.1
1818.6
981.7
582.3
722.4
694.7
1002.6
1788.1
932.1
2625.1
1335.1
126.8
73.7
341.4
416.7
99.0
108.7
82.5
93.3
59.7
55.2
386.6
25.8
470.4
813.0
33.4
425.4
368.2
330.7
335.4
71.2
104.3
68.6
174.0
91.5
45.7
294.5
64.0
364.2
27.9
347.9
117.9
63.9
96.2
306.4
62.3
189.5
427.5
44.8
38.3
36.0
37.9
101.0
61.8
42.0
216.1
509.2
400.3
605.5
42.4
336.7
722.8
40.1
43.7
35.3
45.0
85.2
67.8
69.4
54.1
215.0
397.5
459.9
63.8
323.4
122.1
44.9
43.2
171.8
60.5
47.6
159.0
475.0
47.4
60.5
77.9
55.1
76.9
104.3
56.0
81.5
95.0
81.9
81.9
319.2
291.5
105.8
282.4
161.4
81.1
75.3
516.9
426.6
74.4
99.5
112.3
94.4
79.4
92.6
443.0
55.7
456.2
32.5
Unknown 2
26.2
41.7
49.5
31.3
57.9
58.9
53.6
124.0
79.7
97.6
100.1
92.8
81.7
23.6
27.1
74.8
27.6
146.6
74.1
65.9
23.3
27.7
100.1
112.7
128.9
100.9
80.6
50.6
18.5
125.5
30.0
23.4
131.1
67.7
23.4
31.6
60.5
107.9
47.8
103.9
60.5
27.2
20.8
33.4
29.2
41.0
22.6
29.7
18.7
24.9
28.0
41.7
101.7
42.6
161.8
93.3
27.4
16.2
34.4
25.1
14.4
25.2
106.6
57.5
93.2
29.6
46.8
35.7
32.2
36.0
33.1
28.0
27.9
75.2
41.6
25.4
28.3
27.6
35.5
36.8
94.3
39.3
39.6
159.0
43.8
30.6
19.0
23.6
31.1
41.5
28.6
19.9
31.0
70.7
64.6
66.0
29.8
17.1
17.7
20.4
55.2
29.6
Unknown 3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.77
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
13.53
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Unknown 4
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.56
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
12.91
0.00
15.15
15.51
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
20.07
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
17.67
0.00
27.08
18.88
18.10
17.53
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
24.37
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
17.72
0.00
27.40
24.98
0.00
25.47
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
25.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
92.22
25.79
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.39
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
82.36
134.39
16.94
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.51
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Unknown 5 B-apo-carotenal Unknown 6 Unknown 7 Unknown 8 B-Carotene
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.73
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.29
0.00
16.42
10.82
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.38
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
9.34
0.00
14.06
11.21
6.93
11.23
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
17.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.58
0.00
12.63
28.92
0.00
13.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.56
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
22.46
11.89
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
29.19
46.55
9.91
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
14.97
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
414.3
Sum
16.79
37.92
22.12
32.61
29.87
97.48
17.40
43.04
47.67
143.71
80.86
36.76
75.85
16.62
17.24
22.97
43.32
71.77
44.78
52.57
22.03
23.64
32.55
75.67
88.53
68.75
48.41
34.73
19.78
24.78
30.15
16.17
43.58
36.46
21.26
18.34
32.01
55.86
33.49
120.60
18.50
18.02
14.13
34.67
23.28
62.03
13.79
25.77
19.12
21.15
24.00
27.49
46.32
23.07
55.31
50.12
11.81
14.61
10.31
15.63
9.38
22.76
46.92
24.58
41.40
14.71
19.63
12.29
17.22
36.56
13.54
36.59
19.81
38.49
21.07
16.18
20.84
23.73
22.59
37.67
15.04
16.29
33.18
32.32
22.18
20.98
32.43
50.52
34.13
35.86
23.14
24.67
23.26
22.60
53.93
13.26
39.78
17.64
14.08
51.15
21.52
13.34
14.34
18.75
24.51
38.09
23.53
76.20
11.28
31.40
35.99
124.76
57.44
30.33
71.28
13.34
14.48
19.81
23.71
44.02
41.35
41.21
19.46
12.23
23.91
57.49
71.51
38.66
30.66
27.45
12.64
25.89
24.67
10.92
26.90
36.35
17.15
12.82
24.55
41.01
27.04
113.38
31.13
17.61
7.96
32.19
14.64
35.77
6.39
14.33
17.32
9.15
16.01
19.81
32.09
21.37
47.53
32.23
9.98
12.27
13.09
16.01
6.56
15.60
31.71
22.15
33.45
13.23
16.66
11.42
11.34
34.93
12.21
38.12
19.69
23.29
15.15
10.38
11.72
18.00
16.13
28.36
9.74
11.70
16.20
22.92
11.90
11.52
26.26
31.04
25.28
25.63
14.87
19.82
17.08
20.11
42.87
9.23
24.71
7.89
14.14
36.10
17.81
8.17
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
543.78
406.87
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
239.66
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
356.77
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
209.25
579.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
170.56
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
148.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
225.07
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
552.99
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.22
7.70
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.81
0.00
506.96
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1729.9
2062.0
2051.7
1866.0
1843.4
1716.2
1584.9
2136.0
1163.2
1669.7
1864.0
1543.8
1594.3
1334.5
1379.9
2107.7
2176.0
2139.6
1654.3
1749.8
1247.2
1872.4
1619.9
581.0
1547.7
3046.4
1784.1
1741.1
1728.2
1409.5
1945.1
2322.6
1160.2
1242.9
966.3
1395.9
1555.7
2103.2
517.3
1476.1
2466.1
1494.9
1275.0
1266.6
1805.8
2240.8
1546.4
1917.8
1174.7
962.5
985.1
1237.9
420.1
1249.6
2153.9
1149.8
1230.7
1108.3
1098.1
1387.3
2095.7
1368.5
3095.3
1628.6
1264.5
1533.4
1080.1
1056.1
1125.7
1322.3
1539.1
1740.6
1753.6
1614.0
965.0
1031.1
1324.2
1712.6
1018.0
2036.2
1417.4
1406.3
1143.4
1221.3
1356.2
1718.2
1284.2
1508.8
650.8
1274.8
1435.6
2087.5
1573.2
1523.3
1468.6
1732.4
2170.0
1135.7
1036.3
2748.9
1097.4
1082.4
0.0
549.7
886.9
260.2
0.0
291.8
32.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
83.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
329.4
0.0
401.5
0.0
0.0
468.3
0.0
459.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
325.4
0.0
308.3
0.0
0.0
489.4
0.0
621.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
224.5
0.0
280.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
230.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
115.3
0.0
823.7
320.4
1263.8
0.0
19.5
0.0
272.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
276.0
224.4
30.0
0.0
212.8
344.1
0.0
1214.0
515.3
816.1
513.7
0.0
512.2
0.0
275.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Statistical analysis
8
4
0
BIO22
BIO8
BIO15
BIO
BIO4
BIO18
BIO17
BIO10
BIO14
0
BA9
BA5 smp25 BA4
2
FR5
FR12
FR13
4
Class1
6
BA12
BA3
FR11
8
BA2

Scientific validation
 Cross-validation with training set: all organic and 24 out of 26 non-organic egg samples were correctly classified
 Validation with new eggs from 12 organic and 12 conventional farms from
● The Netherlands
● New Zealand

Validation with new eggs
3
1
-1
BIO BA-unk6
BA-unk2
BA-unk1
FR-unk1
Org-unk2
Org/-unk3
Org-unk9
Org-unk8
Org-unk10
4
BA-unk4
BA-unk5
Class 1
8
FR-unk2
Org-unk7
12

Canada
Taiwan

Organic egg classification based on model for Dutch eggs
EU: 1 Belgian, 1 Greek and 1 Italian farm unusual

Application
 For certifiers
 For farmers/trade
 For NGO’s
 For research
 For the press

Supply-chain: pro-active, red/green light,
100% check
 In industry
 100% check
 Anomaly testing
(red/green light)
 Rapid, low-cost, in-/atline detection

Multiple markers: wine

Meat testing
 Hyperspectral measurements

Principles hyperspectral imaging

Principles hyperspectral imaging 2

Comparison organic/conventional beef

Potentials and limitations
 Interdisciplinary developments: social sciences/food science/chemistry/physics/statistics/economics/financial world
 Technology allowing more detailed evaluations
 Limitations: one can only find differences if they are present (consistently)....

Outlook food authentication
 Interaction with social sciences required to understand what would be perceived as a fraud opportunity which will allow eventually science-based determination of critical temptation points
 Developments in authentication in confirmatory laboratory testing, especially with regard to fingerprinting
 New opportunities to measure in industrial environment

Thanks