RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT OF FEMALE BACHELOR DEGREE
STUDENTS
AASMA-TUZ-ZAHRA
04-arid-25
University Institute of Education and Research
Pir Mehr Ali Shah
Arid Agriculture University
Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
2010
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT OF FEMALE BACHELOR DEGREE
STUDENTS
By
AASMA-TUZ-ZAHRA
04-arid-25
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Education
University Institute of Education and Research
Pir Mehr Ali Shah
Arid Agriculture University
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
2010
CERTIFICATION
I hereby undertake that this research is an original and no part of this thesis
falls under plagiarism. If found otherwise, at any stage, I will be responsible for the
consequences.
Student’s Name:
Asma-Tuz-Zahra
Signature: __________________
Registration No: _________04-arid-25__________ Date: ______________________
Certified that the contents and form of thesis entitled “Relationship between
Self-Concept and Academic Achievement of Female Bachelor Degree Students”
submitted by Asma-Tuz-Zahra have been found satisfactory for the requirement of
the degree.
Supervisor: __________________________
(Lt. Col (R) Dr. M. H. Arif)
Member: ____________________________
(Dr. Rabia Tabassam)
Member: ___________________________
(Dr. Zaigham Qadeer)
Director: ____________________________
University Institute of Education & Research
Director, Advanced Studies: ______________________
i
DEDICATION
I dedicate my work to the well-known brave person,
the great Chief Justice and Jurist, the great
commander-in-chief and administrator, the great
writer and speaker, the great founding spiritual leader
and thinker, who is known in the entire history as
“DOOR OF KNOWLEDGE” For whom it is said by
the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) that
“He is the greatest (eminent & erupt)
ALLAM after me”.
HAZRAT ALI Aleh Salam
ii
CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgement
viii
Abstract
x
1.
INTRODUCTION
1
2.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
6
2.1
SELF-CONCEPT
6
2.1.1 Self Concept Cycle
8
2.1.2
Positive And Negative Self-Concept
9
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND
SELF-ESTEEM
10
2.3
ATTITUDES
12
2.4
STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT
12
2.5
THE SHAVELSON MODEL
13
2.6
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF
17
2.6.1 Infancy
17
2.6.2 Early Childhood
18
2.6.3 Middle and Late Childhood
19
2.6.4 Adolescence
19
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SELF-CONCEPT
21
2.7.1 Students’ Prior Behaviors and Performance
21
2.7.2 Behaviors of Others
22
2.7.3 Expectations for Students’ Future Performance
23
2.2
2.7
2.8
COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
2.8.1 Academic Self-Concept
23
24
2.8.1.1 Subject matter specificity
26
2.8.1.2 Verbal ability
26
2.8.2 Physical Self-Concept
27
2.8.2.1 Physical appearance
28
2.8.2.2 Physical abilities
29
2.8.3 Social Self-Concept
30
2.8.3.1 Peer relations
31
2.8.3.2 Parent relations
32
iii
2.9
3
4
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT
AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
33
2.10
MEASUREMENT OF SELF-CONCEPT
35
2.11
DEVELOPMENT OF SDQIII
38
2.12
RELATED RESEARCH
39
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1
POPULATION
47
3.2
SAMPLE
47
3.3
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
47
3.3.1 Pre-Testing
48
3.3.2 Validation of the Instrument
49
3.4
DATA COLLECTION
50
3.5
SCORING AND DATA ANALYSIS
50
RESULTS
54
4.1
FIRST APPROACH
54
4.2
AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH
64
4.2.1 Criticizing the Approach
65
4.2.2 The Outcome from Factor Analysis
66
4.2.3 Correlations
69
FINAL CONCLUSION
72
4.3
5
47
DISCUSSION
75
5.1
CONCLUSIONS
81
5.2
RECOMMENDATIONS
82
5.3
REFLECTIONS AND FUTURE WORK
84
SUMMARY
85
LITERATURE CITED
87
APPENDICES
99
Appendix-I
99
Appendix-II
101
Appendix-III
102
Appendix-IV
103
Appendix-V
111
Appendix-VI
118
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
1
Title
Mean and SD of academic self-concept scores of the
sample and population
2
54
Mean and SD of physical self-concept scores of the sample
and population
3
55
Mean and SD of social self-concept scores of the sample
and population
4
56
Mean and SD of general self-concept scores of the sample
and population
5
57
Degree of relationship between academic self-concept
scores and academic achievement scores
6
59
Degree of relationship between academic self-concept
scores and social self-concept scores
10
59
Degree of relationship between academic self-concept
scores and physical self-concept scores
9
58
Degree of relationship between social self- concept
scores and academic achievement scores
8
58
Degree of relationship between physical self-concept
scores and academic achievement scores
7
Page
60
Degree of relationship between physical self-concept
scores and social self-concept scores
v
60
11
Inter Item correlation of academic self-concept scores.
61
12
Inter Item correlation of physical self-concept
62
13
Inter Item correlation of social self-concept scores
63
14
Areas of exploration
64
15
Correlations with Academic Achievement
64
16
Inter-Item Correlations
67
17
Factor Analyses for Six Sub-areas
69
18
Question Responses and Academic Achievement
70
19
Academic Self-Concept
73
20
The Six Contexts
75
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No.
Title
Page
1
Self-concept cycle
8
2
Model of general self-concept
16
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All the praises and acclamations are for Almighty Allah, the most merciful,
the Most Benevolent, All blessings for the Prophet Mohammad (SAW) who is forever
a beacon of knowledge for humanity.
The researcher feels honor to express deep sense of gratitude to her supervisor
Col. (R). Dr. Manzoor Hussain Arif for his cogent criticism, sincere advice and
thought provoking suggestions which have been indispensable for the completion of
this dissertation.
The researcher expresses her sincere gratitude to Dr. R.A. Farooq and Dr.
Rabia Tabassum who were an unfailing source of inspiration, encouragement and
technical advice.
The researcher is deeply indebted to Dr. M. Iqbal , Director of UIER for his
expert advice and timely suggestions.
The researcher is grateful to Dr. Norman Reid (University of Glasgow UK.)
for his personal interest, support and guidance regarding data analysis.
The researcher is also thankful to Mr.Rana Naseem, Deputy DEO, Rawalpindi
and Dr. Zaigham Qadeer, Islamabad Directorate, who took personal interest and
whose timely help specially regarding population of the study made the research
possible.
The researcher acknowledges great support of Dr. Javed Iqbal, Assistant
Professor, Mr.Iqbal, senior research officer and Mr. Ameen, Allama Iqbal Open
University, because with out their help, the statistical treatment of data would not be
possible.
The researcher acknowledges the ever patronage loving attitude of her parents
whose affection, cooperation and encouragement is always thrilling and striving. A
viii
special thanks goes to researcher's brother Syed Adeem Safdar who extended his full
cooperation and patience during each visit to UIER and colleges for data collection.
The researcher is grateful to Jabeen, Tasleem and Saad for their every possible
cooperation in carrying out the research work.
A special thanks goes to researcher’s all cousins specially Iram, Munazza,
Shomaila, Sadia and Nadia who were always there for assistance in collecting data
from colleges and libraries.
Last but not the least, special thanks from researcher goes to all class fellows,
seniors and those who directly and indirectly supported her.
Aasma-tuz-Zahra
ix
ABSTRACT
Self-concept as the core of human personality refers to the sum total of
people’s perceptions about their physical, social and academic competence. It is the
view that one has of oneself. It is the set of perceptions that the person has about
himself, the set of characteristics, attributes, qualities and deficiencies, capacities and
limits, values and relationships that the subject knows to be descriptive of him.
The study was designed to investigate relationship between self-concept and
academic achievement of female bachelor degree students.
The objectives of the study were (1) to explore by measurement the areas of
physical, social and academic self-concept of students, (2) to obtain a measure of
academic achievement, (3) to relate the areas of physical, social and academic selfconcept of students to their academic achievement, (4) to discuss possible ways to
enhance aspects of the self-concepts of students
The population of the study was comprised of all bachelor degree female
students of 27 graduate and post graduate women colleges located in Islamabad and
Rawalpindi. Sample of the study consisted of 1,500 students randomly chosen from
15 selected colleges with 100 students of 3rd and 4th year from each college.
To measure self-concept, Self-Description Questionnaire III constructed by
Marsh (1985) was used after modifying and translating in Urdu. Marks obtained by
the students in recently held previous exams were acquired from college records as an
indicator of their academic achievement.
Two approaches were used for data analysis. in the first approach, collected
data were scored and raw scores on each variable were summarized by using
x
descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviation. In order to infer mean and
standard deviation of the population self-concept scores, standard error of mean,
standard error of standard deviation were calculated. The correlation coefficient
among the study variables was calculated by using Pearson ‘r’. To determine the
degree of relationship between three dimensions of self-concept and academic
achievement, technique of probable error of a coefficient (PEr) was applied. An
alternative factor analysis approach was also used for the data analysis and Kendall’s
Tau-b was employed to correlate the responses obtained on each of the 60 items of the
questionnaire with the academic achievement scores. Looking at the results as
obtained through two approaches, it was found that week though real relationship
existed between the academic self-concept and academic achievement. No
relationship was however found between physical self-concept and academic
achievement as well between social self-concept and academic achievement.
xi
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Personality is a complex, multidimensional concept. It is the total configuration of
characteristics, ways of feelings thinking, and behaving that comprise the individual’s
unique method of adapting and reacting to his environment. The term ‘personality’
includes character, temperament and self. Character is the moral side of personality;
temperament is the emotional side, and the self, the integrated core of personality,
represented by ‘I’ (Kagan and Segal, 1988).
Self-concept refers to “the composite of ideas, feelings, and attitudes people have
about themselves”. Self-concept can also be considered as our effort to explain ourselves
to ourselves, to build a scheme that organizes our notions, sentiments and approach about
ourselves. But this scheme is not enduring, incorporated or static. In every phase of our
life our self-perceptions vary from situation to situation (Woolfolk, 1998).
One-dimensional construct of self-concept is strictly rejected by most of the
researchers due to its inadequate explanation of behavior in a wide range of settings.
Schierer & Kraut (1999) suggested that self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct and
they warned against generalizing the term. They stated "self-concept should not be
conceptualized as a simple, unitary phenomenon, but as a complex construct having
descriptive, evaluative, comparative, and affective aspects which can and should be
discriminated”.
Self-concept has at least three sub components; academic, social and physical.
Students are usually aware that they have both strengths and weaknesses, that they do
1
2
some things well and other things poorly. Students may have somewhat different views
about themselves in these three areas. Firstly, they have universal beliefs regarding their
academic capability and performance. Secondly, they have general thoughts about their
potential to narrate with other people, especially with their peers. Thirdly, they have
universal beliefs about their ability to connect in corporeal activities such as sports and
out door games (Ormrod, 2000).
The self-concept develops through continuous self-assessment in different
circumstances. Children and adolescents are frequently asking themselves, in effect,
“How am I doing?” To make an opinion about them, verbal and nonverbal responses of
parents and other family members are judged by them in the early years and friends,
peers and teachers later. A comparison is made by the students with their own standards
and with the performance of peers. Both personal and social comparisons are important
(John, 2000).
Self-concept, like all other cognitive concepts, develops and refines with growing
age and increasing experience, According to Harter (1985) self-concept develops in
stages. Infants develop a sense of self in the second year of life. Children begin to
develop a sense of self by learning to distinguish themselves from others. The first step in
the development of self-concept is self-recognition, which is evidenced by young
children fascination with looking at themselves in the mirror “Hey, I recognize you;
you‘re me!” (Eggen and Kauchak, 1997).
3
Some important developments in self take place during childhood and
adolescence. Among these developments are facing the emotions of shame, guilt and
empathy (Santrock, 1997).
Self-understanding gradually shifts from defining oneself through external
characteristic to defining oneself through internal characteristics in middle and late
childhood. Elementary school children also define themselves in terms of social
characteristics and social comparisons (Santrock, 1997).
One of the most extensively detained ideas about adolescence is that it is the
period when the person falsifies the basis for a stable adult personality. Teenagers’ adult
sense of self is established when they start thinking independently (Cole and Cole, 1993).
The period of adolescence has sometimes been viewed as filled with stress and
uncertainty about self, riddled with sudden and frequent mood shifts, a time dubbed as
the identity crisis. Adolescents often engage in new ways of behaving and thinking that
develop greater self-sufficiency, independence, and expressions of familiarity with others
as they approach the teen years (Bukatko and Daehler, 1995).
It is difficult to find ways to help students do better in school without also
exploring ways to help them feel better about themselves as learners. At the same time it
is almost impossible to help students improve their self-concepts without assisting them
finding ways to improve their school performance (Hamachek, 1995).
4
The objectives of the study were as follows:
1. To explore by measurement the areas of physical, social and academic selfconcept of students,
2. To obtain a measure of academic achievement,
3. To relate the areas of physical, social and academic self-concept of students
to their academic achievement,
4. To discuss possible ways to enhance aspects of the self-concepts of students.
Purkey as cited by Berg (1990) underscores the need for parents and educators to
understand and appreciate the importance of self-concept in education in the following
statement:
“An overwhelming body of contemporary research points instantly to the
relationship between self-concept and academic achievement and
suggests strongly that self-concept can no longer be ignored by parents
and teachers”.
It is therefore, important to investigate the relationship between self-concept and
academic achievement in order to rescue those students who may be victims of their own
negative beliefs about themselves. Although such studies have been conducted in other
countries with contradictions in results, there does not exist much research literature on
relationship between self-concept and academic achievement within a Pakistani context.
In Pakistan, a few studies such as Haque and Sarwat (1998), Sabir (1999), Rehman
(2001), Ali (2002), Maqbool (2002) and Shafique (2002) were conducted on only one
5
component of self-concept, that is, academic self-concept and achievement. Other
components i.e. physical, social and emotional self-concepts remained unexplored. The
present study, therefore, aimed at finding relationship between self-concept (i.e.
academic, physical and social self-concepts) and academic achievement of female
bachelor degree students.
The study is significant because the results may generate useful knowledge and
understanding of the relationship between the female students’ self-concept and academic
achievement. The results of the study are likely to assist educators to improve students’
academic achievement and self-concept, if there appears to be some association between
the two in country like Pakistan where success rate in university exams, particularly in
women colleges, is considerably low. The study results, therefore, are likely to be
significant for students, teachers, parents and society at large in order to promote higher
education among females.
6
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Since the topic of this research was “Relationship between Self-Concept and
Academic Achievement of Female Bachelor Degree Students”, the main purpose of this
chapter is to provide the educational context of general self-concept and its three domains
i.e. academic self-concept, physical self-concept, social self-concept along with the
relationship of self-concept with academic achievement. The chapter is therefore, divided
into two parts. First part consists of theoretical framework of the self-concept, that
includes material from the books and internet, second part of the chapter consists of a
cross section of the related studies that has so far been conducted abroad as well as in
Pakistan.
2.1
SELF-CONCEPT
We are all aware of ourselves as individuals. The self-concept is the information
that we have about ourselves—what we think we are like.
“Self-concept is a person’s perceptions of himself formed through
experience with and interpretations of the environment. These
perceptions are influenced by a number of factors such as evaluations
of significant others, reinforcements, and attributions of behavior”
(Shavelson et al., 1976).
“Self-concept is the product of one’s reflectivity; it is concept of the
individual of himself as a physical, social and moral and existing
6
7
being. The self-concept is sum total of the individual’s thoughts and
feelings about him or herself as an object” (John, 2000).
Self-concept may be defined as
“An individual's assessment of his or her status on a single trait or on
many human dimensions using societal or personal norms as criteria”
(Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, 2004).
Gordon as cited by Shafique (2002) calls self-concept
“The structure of self-referential meanings available to an individual’s
conscious interpretive processes”.
According to Hamachek as cited by Shafique (2002)
“Self-concept refers to that particular cluster of ideas and attitudes we
have about ourselves at any given moment”.
Self-concept
“is the set of perceptions or reference points that the subject has about
himself: the set of characteristics, attributes, qualities and deficiencies,
capacities and limits, values and relationships that the subject knows
to be descriptive of himself and which he perceives as data concerning
his identity” (Sanchez and Roda, 2007).
According to Bracken (1992)
“Self-concept is a multidimensional and context-dependent learned
behavioral pattern that reflects an individual's evaluation of past
behaviors and experiences, influences an individual's current
behaviors, and predicts an individual's future behaviors".
8
According to Purkey (1988):
“Self-concept may be defined as the totality of a complex, organized,
and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that
each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence”.
Self- concept is considered broadly to include the perceptions of a person’s
attitudes, knowledge, and feelings about his capabilities, appearance, and social
relationships. Self-concept in precise dimensions will provide better forecast of most
external criterion than broad measures of general self-concept, and if the
multidimensionality of self-concept is ignored, the relationship between self-concept and
other constructs cannot be adequately understood (John, 2000).
2.1.1
Self-Concept Cycle
A person’s self concept is developed early in life and affects his functions in the
environment. Children’s self-concept is developed through this thought that what are the
feelings of the people about them who are important in their lives. This is best expressed
in the self-concept cycle:
As I see myself
Other’s reactions to me
my actions
As others see me
Fig. 1 Self Concept Cycle
9
“As I See Myself” is formed largely by our own perception of what others think
of us. Our actions are highly influenced by this. These actions are in return determined by
how others see us and influence their reactions to us. These reactions modify our
concepts of looking at ourselves. This cycle continues throughout our life (Skidmore,
2003).
2.1.2 Positive and Negative Self-Concept
How a person thinks about himself affects his behavior to a great degree. A
positive view of self makes one confident giving him high self-esteem which results in a
positive self-concept. Positive self-concepts make him feel capable and competent. His
actions demonstrate those feelings, and others react positively to his actions, which, in
turn, validate those feelings. These conditions are promoted in individuals’ security and
self-confidence which results in a well adjusted social behavior.
On the other side, low love of self, and lack of positive opinion about self, a lot of
criticism and judgment, blaming yourself and having self-doubt contribute to a negative
self-concept. In this, the person experiences uncertainty and lack of self-confidence in his
capabilities which results in general anxiety in situation. These negative feelings affect
his actions and others’ reactions, validating negative feelings about self. In these
situations, the adolescent’s personal and social conduct looses its balance (Jerajani,
2006).
Erickson as cited by Jerajani (2006) gives a sequence of psychosocial
developmental stages. At each stage individuals have to face divergence or crisis. Their
dealings with crisis affect their development. A positive dealing leads to positive selfconcept while a negative dealing leads to negative self-concept.
10
2.2
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM
Feelings about ourselves is self-esteem, and these feelings are clearly reflected by
our behavior. Self-concept and self-esteem are expressions often used interchangeably to
portray the insight and assessment of a person within the background of their experiences
and environments they live in. Self-esteem usually refers to the children’s good feelings
about themselves. With young children self-esteem refers to the extent to which they
expect to be accepted and valued by the adults and peers they consider important.
Self-concept is an increasing belief about yourself that helps one deal successfully
with the events in life and leaving a positive impact on others’ lives.Both self-concept
and self-esteem, imply two things: one is a sense of feeling good about oneself and two
knows that one is thought well by others. In other words one who treats himself with
respect and deliberation will do the same for others and will get positive response in
return.
Self-esteem is considered as a main input to success in life. The development of a
positive self-concept or healthy self-esteem is extremely crucial for the happiness and
success of children and teenagers.
For example, a child or teen with high self-esteem will be able to:
•
Act independently
•
Assume responsibility
•
Take pride in his accomplishments
•
Tolerate frustration
•
Attempt new tasks and challenges
•
Handle positive and negative emotions
•
Offer assistance to others
11
In contrast, a child having low self-esteem will:
•
Avoid trying new things
•
Feel unloved and unwanted
•
Blame others for his own shortcomings
•
Feel, or pretend to feel, emotionally indifferent
•
Be unable to tolerate a normal level of frustration
•
Put down his own talents and abilities
•
Be easily influenced
Self-concept and self-esteem are important factors influencing behavior and
achievement in school: students tend to behave in accordance with their beliefs about
themselves. Those who consider themselves “good students” tend to pay more attention,
follow directions in class in better way, use effective learning strategies are more likely to
work independently and tirelessly to solve difficult problems, and often get enrolled in
challenging courses. On the other hand, those who believe they are “poor students”
misbehave in class, study rarely or not at all, abandon to turn in their homework
assignments and mostly avoid taking difficult subjects. Along a similar vein, students
who see themselves as friendly and likable are apt to seek the company of their
classmates and to run for student council, whereas those who believe they are disliked by
classmates may keep to themselves or perhaps even act with hostility and aggression
toward their peers. Students with a high sense of physical competence will go out for
extracurricular activities, whereas those who see themselves as total klutzes probably will
not. Clearly, students with a positive self-concept and high self-esteem are most likely to
succeed academically, socially and physically (Ormrod, 2000).
12
2.3
ATTITUDES
According to Reid (2006), attitudes express our evaluation of something or
someone. They are based on our knowledge, feelings and behavior and they may
influence future behavior (Self-concept is simply an attitude towards oneself in a
context). In the background of studies in the sciences, attitudes are assessments
influencing thinking and behavior. A target in essential for an attitude. Our attitude is
always directed towards something or someone. Attitudes are highly composite and they
can affect learning comprehensively. Attitudes influence performance and performance in
turn influences attitudes including attitudes to one. Similarly, assessment leads to
evaluation and self evaluation will influence the future performance.
2.4
STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT
According to Vispoel as cited by Woolfolk (1998), students have many separate
but related concepts about themselves. Further to the review of self-concept literature
1976, Shavelson, Hubner and Stanton proposed multifaceted and hierarchical model of
self-concept (Fig. 2). It was recommended that the general self-concept is composed of
four self-concept domains: the academic self-concept, social self-concept, emotional selfconcept and physical self-concept. The academic self-concept can be divided further into
second order specific subject self-concepts like English, History, Mathematics, and
Science etc. which can explain learner achievement in each subject. Social self-concept
can be divided into peer self-concept and significant others self-concept. Emotional selfconcept will refer to specific emotional states such as anxiety, love, happiness,
depression, and anger. Finally, the physical self-concept consist of physical ability and
physical appearance self-concepts. The overall concept of self appears to be divided into
13
at least three segregated but partially related self-concepts i.e. academics, emotional, and
nonacademic. Recent research has recognized artistic ability as a separate entity of selfconcept. These self-concepts are themselves made up of more specific, separate
conceptions of the self, such as of physical ability, appearance, relations with peers, and
relations with parents. These conceptions are based on many experiences and measures
such as: sports performance; assessment of body, skin, or hair; friendships; artistic
abilities; contributions to community groups etc. (Myburgh et al., 1999).
Adolescents seem to have separate, precise self-concepts, but these may not
essentially integrated into an overall self-concept. Perhaps the young adolescents, facing
the challenges of different academic subjects in school and the “life task” of forming
individuality, try to incorporate across their many “selves” to achieve that individuality.
Adults can define themselves in terms of their current interests and activities because
they are not actively involved in all the academic domains (math, science, social studies),
so self-concept is more situation-specific in adults (Byrne & Worth Gavin; Pintrich &
Schunk as cited by Woolfolk, 1998).
2.5
THE SHAVELSON MODEL
Shavelson et al. (1976) defined self-concept as a person’s view of himself created
through experience with and interpretations of his surroundings. Other’s assessments,
reinforcements and ascription of the individual’s behavior influence these interpretations.
Shavelson et al. (1976) described the effects of this concept as recurring. Self-perceptions
affect an individual’s behavior, and that behavior affects the way in which the individual
perceptions about him. Reviews of self-concept research have identified inadequacy of a
theoretical basis for defining and interpreting the construct and the poor quality of
14
measurement instruments used to measure it. Shavelson, et al. (1976) assessed existing
research and self-concept tools to remedy this situation, and succeeded in developing a
multidimensional, hierarchical model of self-concept that basically affected the selfconcept research. In the model, global self-concept was represented at the top of the
hierarchy having academic and nonacademic components, which were in turn further
subdivided. Increased particularity of the dimensions further down the hierarchy made
each subdivision less appropriate across various circumstances. The structure was
multifaceted, thus it provided the proposal for the development of a new generation of
multifaceted self-concept instruments. These can become the sources of significant
advances in the quality of self-concept research.
They identified seven features are critical to their definition of self-concept:
1.
Self-concept is systematized and planned; in that individuals categorize the
immense amount of information they have about themselves and relate this
information to one another.
2.
It is multidimensional, and the specific facets symbolize a self-referent category
system adopted by an individual.
3.
It is hierarchical, which perceives personal behavior in specific situations at the
base of the hierarchy, inferences about the self in broader domains (i.e. academic,
social, and physical) at the middle of the hierarchy, and a global, general selfconcept at the apex.
4.
General self-concept is constant, but as an individual descends the hierarchy, selfconcept becomes increasingly situation-specific and less stable.
5.
As an individual grows up, self-concept in response becomes increasingly
multifaceted as the individual moves from infancy to adulthood. Preadolescents
have self-concepts that are global and undifferentiated. Self-concept becomes
15
differentiated and integrated into a multifaceted, hierarchical construct with
increasing age.
6.
Self-concept has both an expressive and an evaluative feature such that
individuals may describe themselves (“I am happy”) and evaluate themselves (“I
do well in gymnastics”). Evaluations can be made against some absolute ideal,
comparisons with peers, or expectations of significant others.
7.
Self-concept can be distinguished from other constructs to which it is theoretically
related. For example, academic achievement should be more highly correlated
with academic self-concept than with social or physical self-concept, and selfconcepts in specific school subjects should be more highly correlated with
achievement in matching school subjects than achievement in other school
subjects.
Continued research proved that the hierarchy proposed by Shavelson et al. (1976) was
weak, and also that the particular facets of self-concept (which include social, academic,
physical, and emotional) were highly differentiated. Thus findings finally led to the
Marsh-Shavelson revision (e.g., Marsh and Shavelon, 1985) of the original model. As a
result, the multidimensional nature of the Shavelson et al. (1976) model became the
original theory’s greatest legacy, as it proved basic in the development of innovative selfconcept measurement instruments that in turn led to revisions in self-concept theory
(O’Mara, 2003).
16
A Model of General Self- Concept
General Self- Concept
Academic
History
Math
Science
Peers
Emotional
Significant
others
Emotional
States
Shavelson, R. J., J. J. Hubner. & G. C. Stanton (1976)
Fig: 2
Physical
Physical
ability
Physical
appearance
16
English
Social
17
2.6
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF
Self-concept originates in the early months of life and is modelled and remodelled
through repeated experiences, particularly with significant others, because the selfconcept is learned, and no one is ever born with a self-concept (Purkey, 1988).
2.6.1
Infancy
Infants are not just “given” a self by their parents or the surrounding; rather, they
find and construct selves through repeated experiences. Studying the self in infancy is
difficult mainly because of infants’ inability to describe with language their experiences
of themselves. Two aspects of the self that have been studied in infancy are selfawareness and self-recognition. Infants can distinguish between the self and others in the
first few days of life, they actively work to elaborate and consolidate boundaries
between self and other through the first 3 or 4 months of infancy. Infants younger than 4
months of age show a preference for perfect contingency, which is typical only of the
self’s own actions. The young infant’s intentional bias toward perfect contingency
reflects categorization of the self as distinct from other objects. After the first 3 or 4
months of age, infants show a preference for imperfect contingency, which is
uncharacteristic of the self’s actions but typical of interactions with both others and the
natural world. The preference for imperfect contingency draws attention away from the
self and toward the social and natural world. Infants cannot verbally express their views
on the nature of the self. They also cannot understand the complex instructions required
to engage in a child develop-mentalist’s tasks. Researchers test infants’ visual selfrecognition by presenting them with images of themselves in mirrors, pictures, and other
18
visual media. For example a dot of rouge on the infant’s nose is put by his mother. It is
observed that how many times the infant touches its nose. Than the infant is positioned
in front of a mirror, and the frequency of nose touching is observed. In two separate
observations, it is concluded that in the second half of the second year of life, infants
recognize their own images in the mirror and correspond with the images in the mirror
with the actions of touching their own bodies. It is also concluded that sense of partial
self-recognition in human infants initially develops at almost 18 moths of age (Santrock,
1998).
2.6.2
Early Childhood
Some important developments in the self take place through this period. Self-
recognition is the child’s cognitive depiction of self. A child’s self-recognition is evolves
through various roles and membership categories which define him, though not the whole
of personal identity, self-understanding provides its rational underpinnings. The
rudimentary beginning of self-understanding begins with self-recognition; it takes place
by almost 18 months of age. Since children can verbally communicate their ideas,
research on self-understanding in childhood is not limited to visual recognition, as it was
during infancy. Children usually conceive of the self in physical terms in early childhood.
They think the self as a part of their body, usually their head. Young children usually
confused amongst self, mind and body. They illustrate it with many physical dimensions,
such as size, shape and color. Researchers also believe that the active dimension is a
central component of the self in early childhood (Santrock, 1997).
19
2.6.3
Middle and Late Childhood
Self-understanding increasingly shifts from defining oneself through external
characteristics to defining oneself through internal characteristics in middle and late
childhood. They also define themselves in terms of social characteristics and social
comparison. During this stage, children recognize differences between inner and outer
states as well as they include subjective inner states in their self definitions. In one
investigation, second grade children define themselves through psychological
characteristics (such as preferences or personality traits) rather than physical
characteristics (such as eye color or possessions). In addition to the increase of
psychological characteristics in self-definition during these years, the social aspects of
the self also increase in this stage. Increasing social comparison is also included in the
elementary school years. At this point in development, children are more likely to
distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms.
(Santrock, 1998).
2.6.4
Adolescence
Adolescence is the period when the individual falsifies the foundation for a
constant adult personality. Teenagers’ capability to consider several factors while
thinking through a problem, their broader knowledge of norms and moral codes, and their
increasing awareness that adulthood is approaching all put in to the establishment of an
incorporated, adult sense of self. T this stage, children’s self-definition also move from
comparatively tangible quality ( for instance,” I’m a good listener” or “I’m easy going”)
to more comprehensive, higher order concepts (“I am tolerant”). Another trait that
differentiates between the self-concepts of adolescents and younger children, is the
20
diversity of qualities they include. In middle childhood, children describe themselves in
terms of either their cognitive, physical and social competence or a global notion of selfworth. Adolescents describe themselves in terms of scholastic competence, athletic
competence, job competence, physical appearance, social acceptance, close friendship,
romantic appeal, and conduct--- categories that overlap but are not identical to those that
are prominent in middle childhood (Cole and Cole, 1993).
Psychological and social relationships also affect the self-concept of adolescents.
They are aware of their self-recognition, this leads to increased self-consciousness and a
sense of control. In middle adolescence, they recognize self-described discrepancies and
in late adolescence they settle the discrepancies in their images and descriptions of
themselves. They start thinking in terms of constant, conceptual and unifying features
(Iqbal, 2003).
As the adolescents approach the teen years, they frequently engage in new ways of
behaving and thinking that involve greater self-sufficiency, self-determination, and words
of familiarity with others (Bukatko and Daehler, 1995).
Thus, the children’s self-concepts are results of private reactions to themselves and
the reactions from others who are important in their lives. The teacher evidently plays a
very crucial role in the configuration of the child’s self-concept. Teachers have a direct
affect on the day to day socialization of the child. The mastery of developmental tasks
and capability influence every part of the self. The abstemious thought is that it is fairly
resistant to change the self once it is established. The “looking-glass self” reflects
everything. “We derive our picture of ourselves through the picture we have of other
21
people’s picture of us… We build up a continuous and changing picture of ourselves out
of our interaction with others” (Iqbal, 2003).
2.7
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-CONCEPT
There are three factors, which definitely do influence the degree to students from
positive or negative self-concept:
•
Their own prior behaviors and performance
•
The behaviors of other individuals toward them
•
The expectations that others hold for their future performance
Each one offers insights as to how, as teachers, we can enhance our students’ self-
concept.
2.7.1
Students’ Prior Behaviors and Performance
Students’ self-concepts influence the ways in which they behave. Yet the reverse
is true as well: to some extent, students’ self-concepts and self-esteem depend on how
successfully they have behaved in the past. Students are more likely to believe that they
have an aptitude for mathematics if they have been successful in previous math classes,
to believe they are capable athletes if they have been victorious in athletics competitions,
or to believe they are likable individuals if they have been able to establish and maintain
friendly peer relationships (Ormrod, 2000).
Learners at various levels have experienced successes and failures. Those
experiencing success tend to project a more positive academic self-concept than those
with more failure experiences. For example, learners dropping out of school have cited
negative experiences such as poor grades and repeating a grade as some of the main
reasons for dropping out. Since success has been linked to high self-concept and
22
academic achievement, failure would also contribute to a low self-concept and future
failure in academic situations. For example, learners have first to do well in school in
order to have a positive academic self-concept (Hamachek, 1995).
Hamachek (1995) concluded that academic achievement precedes a positive selfconcept. In addition, academic self-concept tends to improve significantly and
commensurately with high academic achievement for higher school learners. There is
therefore evidence to show that following an improvement in achievement, learners with
previously low academic self-concept tend to have improved their self-concept. Thus, a
learner’s past performance can influence his/her academic success through the
enhancement or of self-concept.
2.7.2
Behaviors of Others
The behaviors of other people, both adults and peers, also play a crucial role in
the development of students’ self-concepts. How these individuals behave toward a child
communicates their evaluations of the child and their beliefs about his or her worth as a
person. For example, parents who accept their children as they are and who treat their
children‘s interests and problems as important are likely to have children with positive
self-concepts and high self-esteem. Parents who punish their children for the things they
cannot do, without praising them for the things they do well, are likely to have children
with low self-esteem (Ormrod, 2000).
Teacher behaviors undoubtedly have a similar effect; for example, the relative
proportion of positive and negative feedback from a teacher tells students great deal
about their academic capabilities. And students’ classmates communicate about their
23
social competence through a variety of behaviors. For example, by seeking out their
companionship or by ridiculing them in front of others (Ormrod, 2000).
2.7.3
Expectations for students’ future performance
People in a student’s life often communicate expectations for that student through
their behaviors. Students tend to have more positive self-concepts if the parents and
teachers have high expectations and they offer support and encouragement for the
accomplishment of challenging goals. When parents and teachers expect children to
achieve academically, those children are more likely to have confidence in their own
academic capabilities (Ormrod, 2000).
The result of all this feed back from others is that students’ perceptions of
themselves are usually similar to how others perceive them. For example, students’
beliefs about their academic ability are same as their classroom teachers’ beliefs about
their aptitude and ability. Their conceptions about their physical ability are correlated
with the insights of their physical education teachers. And their perception of competence
in social situations depends on their actual fame with peers (Ormrod, 2000).
2.8
COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept includes a range of areas or facets, some of which are part of certain
personality aspects (physical, social, emotional) while others are linked to academic
achievement (in different areas and subjects) (Sanchez and Roda, 2007).
“Self-concept includes the total of people’s perceptions about their
physical, social and academic competence” (Pintrich and Schunk, as
cited by Eggen and Kauchak, 1997).
24
2.8.1
Academic Self-Concept
Academic self-concept is one of the facets of general self-concept.
According to Ahmad (1986),
“It is the student’s attitude and feelings with regards to their abilities
and academic potential.”
The most important component of general self-concept for a teacher is academic
self-concept, the part that deals with people’s beliefs of their ability as students.
Academic self-concept refers to how well we perform in school or how well we learn.
Self-concept and school performance strongly interact. Children enter expecting to learn
and do well, but as they progress, their activities and achievements change this
anticipation. There are two levels: a general academic self-concept of how good we are
overall and a set of particular content-related self-concepts that describe how good we are
in specific subject. Self-concept enhances when learning experiences are positive, but it
suffers when they are negative (Eggen and Kauchak, 1997).
Students develop academic self-concept as they form self perceptions of their
academic efficacy through experiencing the classroom environment and through
evaluations by significant others. Academic self-concept predicts the extent of diligent
and persevering effort that students will devote toward their academic work. Academic
self-concept is an effective variable for predicting students' learning behaviors.
According to Dambudzo (2005), the academic self-concept deals with perceptions of
causes of academic performance which figure prominently in theories of achievement
motivation and have important implications for the behaviour of individuals in academic
situation. In other words, academic self-concept has to do with beliefs about one’s ability,
25
effort, performance, intelligence and behaviour in general and in specific situations such
as subject areas or specific tasks.
Craven et al. (2000), emphasise the point that a positive academic self-concept is
linked to academic effort and consistency, coursework selection, educational ambition,
completion of high school and following university attendance.
The way learners feel about their abilities may impact their academic
performance. Consequently, academic achievement may not marily be an expression of
the learners’ abilities but also of their self-concept of ability which, when positive, helps
them feel confident and able but, when negative, cause them to feel hesitant and uncertain
(Hamachek, 1995).
In addition to being related to promoting students' interest in learning, academic
self-concept can be used to promote students' motivation for further learning (Byer,
2000).
According to Hamachek (1995), learners at various grade levels have experienced
successes and failures. Those experiencing success tend to project a more positive
academic self-concept than those with more failure experiences. For example, learners
dropping out of school have cited negative experiences such as poor grades and repeating
a grade as some of the main reasons for dropping out. Learners who believe in their
academic competence tend to work harder and take school work more seriously than
learners who feel that they are less competent. Higher self-concept learners are less likely
to miss classes and more likely to complete homework assignments and spend more time
studying. This may be due to the fact that learners with positive self-concepts attribute
higher performance to them and see more clearly the relationship between the effort they
26
put into their work and their success. Since success has been linked to high self-concept
and academic achievement, failure would also contribute to a low self-concept and future
failure in academic situations. For example, learners have first to do well in school in
order to have a positive academic self-concept.
Academic achievement precedes a
positive self-concept. Academic self-concept tends to improve significantly and
commensurately with high academic achievement for higher school learners.
2.8.1.1 Subject matter specificity
Academic self-concept is further differentiated and refined with growing age.
Students may have varying self-concepts in various school subjects depending upon the
impressions of teachers, class fellows and parents about the student’s competence in a
specific subject, particularly, the student’s own performance in the subject (Santrock,
1997).
2.8.1.2 Verbal ability
Generally the verbal ability stands for a person's skill of putting ideas into words,
both oral and written. This skill requires not only an active vocabulary but also the ability
to select the right words to convey nuances of meaning to a chosen audience. Verbal
ability also includes the ability to organize words in coherently. Verbal ability is a part of
the traditional construct of intelligence, with most conventional intelligence tests
measuring verbal ability, quantitative reasoning, and logical thinking. Verbal ability is
usually demonstrated as the ability to write and speak well. Many students cannot help
themselves by putting their ideas into words. They feel trouble while writing effectively
because of poor vocabulary. They cannot express their ideas in an effective way. To help
them, teachers need to explain things in classrooms. Explaining is frequently a verbal
27
process. Good teachers should be well equipped with skills of speech and good writing.
They must also be skillful at understanding the verbal communication of their students
and helping them to improve their verbal skills. Verbal and teaching abilities are closely
linked; therefore, it is not surprising that verbal ability is considered the most essential for
choosing prospective teachers. Verbal ability is at once a substitute for general academic
ability as well as the basis for communication, which is an crucial part of teaching
(Andrew, 2005).
2.8.2
Physical Self-Concept
The physical aspect of self-concept relates to concrete physical features: what we
look like, our gender, height, weight, etc.; what kind of clothes we wear; what kind of car
we drive; what kind of home we live in; and so forth (Huitt, 2004).
“Physical
self-concept
(PSC)
is
a
person’s
perceptions
of
himself/herself formed through experience with and interpretations of
him/her environment related to her physical domain” (Shavelson et
al., 1976).
Psychologists are more interested in the psychological effects, perceptions and
implications of the physical self-concept and subsequent behaviour. For example, if the
attitude towards one’s body is positive, a positive self-concept will develop, and if
negative, a negative self-concept will develop. In other words, the reactions to our
physical attributes such as appearance, body size, maturity and activities dependent on
physical skills will influence the self-concept (Mwamwenda, 1995).
According to Harter (1999), physical self-concept is part of general self-concept.
Three domains (physical appearance, peer popularity and athletic competence) are linked
28
to peer-approval; and two domains (scholastic competence and behavioral conduct) to
parental-approval. Only two domains of physical self-concept i.e. Physical Appearance
and athletic competence will be discussed in present study.
2.8.2.1 Physical appearance
According to Alahuhta as cited by Kjaldman (2006), one of the many elements in
self-schemas are body images, cognitive maps of the physical self. The forming of body
image is a basis for self-concept development. The imagined self and the actual somatic
styles of an individual are influenced by those body images. Declarative statements like
“I am too fat” are influenced by their symbolic representations and also by ideal body
images. Thus, the person may exhibit to others a systematic variance in how he or she
walks, gestures, or expresses the self through voice or facial expressions, in different
states of mind. When ideal body images are active, the movements and sensations may be
flowing and graceful; when dreaded body images are active, they may be awkward and
constricted. Observers can infer another person’s self-concepts by listening to his or her
narratives and watching how he or she uses the body. Observers can then form inferences
about what the other person’s body images and self-schemas might be. The observer’s
reports might not be the same as the self-reports of conscious representations by the
subject person. Especially difficult for observers to infer are the intentions of self that
may go with certain self-schema. These are usually a private area of knowledge, and the
use of frank expression is necessary in psychotherapy in order to get at such material.
Self-concepts are often reflected in how the person describes others. That is, the person
may have a self-concept or a self-schema that is part of an associational matrix that can
be called a role relationship model (Kazdin, 2000).
29
Physical characteristics and physical achievements are especially connected to
self-concept among children at school age (Cratty, 1967).
The adolescent’s physical self-image is based to a large extent on cultural norms,
and particularly on the interpretation of these norms that is accepted as the standard by
the peer group. Thus, girls often have a culturally accepted image of femininity
represented by some glamorous or television star, and boys often select an athlete as the
ideal masculine image, although they too are often influenced by actors who are
considered “masculine” men. These images are rather generally perceived as ultimate
goals that may be reached in adulthood, and the more immediate ideal physical image is
likely to be based on the physique of another adolescent. A well-developed, wellgroomed adolescent girl is often the ideal physical image for another adolescent girl of
the same age and may be even more of an ideal to younger girls. A well-built, athletic,
handsome male adolescent serves as the physical self-image for his peer group and for
younger males. Not only are the physiological aspects of the ideals’ development
important, but their way of dress and caring for their hair and the kind of physical
activities in which they engage are all imitated by those who seek to be like them
(Powell, 1963).
2.8.2.2 Athletic competence or physical abilities
Athletic competence is another domain of physical self-concept that is discussed
in the present research. Researcher consistently highlighted the benefits of physical
activities to the health of young people. Physical activity has been shown to aid in
children's psychological well-being and may assist in their devotion to regular physical
fitness, where there may be further benefits such as reduced risk of hypo kinetic diseases
30
(Hagger et al. 1998). Thus, physical activity impacts the overall functioning of an
individual (Scherman, 1989).
The value of sports and exercise can be enhanced through establishing a
connection between physical activity and the development of self-concept (Ebbeck and
Weiss, 1998). Many studies have showed positive relationship between participation in
physical activities and sports and the development of self-concept (Sherrill and Alguin,
1989; Olu, 1990; Sonstroem, 1984; Joesting, 1981). Individuals can experience feelings
of personal competence and to gain a sense of achievement, as well as to develop selfconcept with the variety of situations provided by physical education and sport programs
Pangrazi (1982). Harter's model (1978) holds that the elements of capability are integrally
related to the development of self-esteem and provide an appealing structure from which
to study patterns of self-esteem and achievement behavior in sport and physical activity
(Weiss, 1987). Theory and research support the idea that a child's physical self-esteem, or
self-perception of physical capabilities, is a major determinant of future sport-related
behavior (Duda, 1987 and Weiss, 1987).
2.8.3
Social Self-Concept
According to Myburgh et al. (1999):
“The social self refers to the learners’ perception of themselves in a context”
This measure of self-concept reflects the extent to which learners deem themselves
effective, accepted, respected and appreciated by others in social contexts. For the
learner, it also describes the extent to which they, among other things, believe that they
are popular with others, capable of getting along with others, making friends easily and
31
living up to any situation. These factors influence the social self-concept of the learners.
Social self-concept even though can not be realized but we are all familiar with it. We
want to be seen by other people as beautiful, intelligent, and successful.
It is the
perception of how others should see us. Adults want to be seen by others as neighborly,
friendly, successful, tasteful, etc. This is their social self-concept (John, 2000).
During infancy, childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood close relationships
are formed that give rise to continuing relationships, and finally to individual
development. Relationships are formed as adaptive measures necessary for dealing with
adjustments and evolutions. Adolescents are concerned with developing individuality
while still looking for acceptance of those around them. Young adults tackle the
challenge of shaping an adult identity. Relationships provide background in which
children, adolescents, and young adults can determine life-stage-related preoccupations
about their individual personality (Cardillo, 1998). Some aspects of social self-concept
include:
2.8.3.1 Peer relations
According to Holly and John (2000), peer relations refers to which same-age
peers accept or reject other students; some students with learning disabilities have
difficulties in relating well with their peers. According to Hunt (1997), adolescents tend
to spend more time with peers that with their parents. Consequently, satisfaction with
peer relationships leads to the development of a positive social self-concept. She goes on
to say that adolescents who are accepted by their peers tend to experience positive selfconcepts and higher academic achievement. On the other hand, those less accepted
experience both social and academic problems. For the adolescents, conformity with peer
32
norms is a critical factor. For example, if peers do not value academic achievement, any
member of their group who becomes academically successful is rejected while the desire
to retain group membership often leads to the decline in general cognitive self-concept
and low academic achievement (Woolfolk, 1998). The opposite is likely to be true.
Shaffer (1996) underscores the point when he says:
“Peers are also an important source of influence on grade school
children and adolescents and can sometimes undermine parents efforts to
encourage academic achievement. They are more concerned with having
the athletic and social skills that lead to popularity. Since peer
acceptance is highly important to most adolescents, perhaps it is not
surprising that some of them emphasis academic goals less and more
particularly if they attend schools where few learners are highly
achievement oriented”.
According to Ladd (1990), learners who have many classroom friends at the time
they enter school have more favorable perceptions of the school. Learners maintain such
friendships and grow to like their school more as the year progresses. He reports that
making new friends was positively associated with school performance gains. On the
other hand, early peer rejection tends to lead to less favorable perceptions of the school,
higher levels of school avoidance and lower academic performance.
2.8.3.2 Parent relations
Hamachek (1995) reviewed self-concept literature and came to the conclusion that
learners whose parents are involved and supportive and who set reasonable and reachable
expectations have positive social self-concepts. The review is also supported by Shaffer
33
(1996) who points out that parent, encouraging achievement and respond warmly to
successes, are likely to raise mastery-oriented children who enjoy challenges.
2.9
RELATIONSHIP
ACHIEVEMENT
BETWEEN
SELF-CONCEPT
AND
ACADEMIC
Achievement has been defined as,
“A task oriented behavior that allows the individual’s performance to
be evaluated according to some internally or externally imposed
criterion, that involves the individual in competing with others, or that
otherwise involves some standard of excellence” (Spence as cited by
Sabir, 1999).
Educational Psychology has been concerned with analyzing different types of
relationships, both associative and predictive, that exist between self-concept and
academic performance. Purkey (1970) observed that “there is a persistent and significant
relationship between the self-concept and academic achievement” and that “change in
one seems to be associated with change in the other”. In spite of the abundance of studies,
however, there are no decisive studies that clearly identify the direction of the relation,
which joins these two variables. In results obtained, one perceives different extraneous
variables that can modify the results to differing degrees. These authors indicate the need
to differentiate four possible patterns or causal models between self-concept and
academic performance. These models are:
1. Academic performance determines self-concept.
2. Levels of self-concept determine the degree of academic achievement.
3. Self-concept and academic performance influence and determine each other
mutually.
34
4. Other authors who support this model postulate the existence of additional
variables that may be the cause of both self-concept and of academic
performance, among which we might find personal and environmental variables,
academic and nonacademic variables.
The idea that there is a relationship between self-concept and school performance is
not a new one. Over 45 years ago, Lecky as cited by Shafique (2002), was one of the first
to point out that a student’s self-perception that he is unable to learn academic material
might be related to low academic achievement. Lecky’s pioneering research, although
simplistic and uncontrolled by today’s standards, opened the door to a mind-boggling
possibility: students’ feelings about their abilities may, for better or worse, consciously or
unconsciously, impact their academic performance. Thus, the idea was planted that
suggested that academic achievement might not be simply an expression of student’s
perceptions of their intelligence, which when positive helps them feel confident and able,
but when negative makes them feel hesitant and uncertain.
Benjamin, Buckley and Scanlan (as cited by Hamachek, 1995) found a significant
correlation between self-concept and academic achievement. Ever since then, several
studies have been conducted with most finding a significant correlation between
academic achievement and self-concept., thereby emphasizing the importance of the selfconcept for academic achievement. For example, Hamachek (1995), following a review
of self-concept literature came to the conclusion that a relationship existed between selfconcept and academic achievement and that the relationship was reciprocal, with each
variable affecting the other. Consequently, learners have to do well in school in order to
have a positive self-concept about their academic abilities and a positive self-concept was
35
a necessary pre-requisite for doing well in school. From these results she also concluded
that learners with a high self-concept tended to approach school related tasks with
confidence, and that success in those tasks reinforced their self-confidence. The opposite
was also likely to be true for children with a sense of inferiority or low academic selfconcept. Consequently, educators have to be sensitive to learners’ self-concepts and their
perceived academic achievement. Hamachek (1995) further underscores both the
importance of self-concept for academic achievement and the reciprocal relationship,
with the following conclusion of the review regarding self-concept research:
“It is difficult to find ways to help students do better in school without also
exploring ways to help them feel better about themselves as learners. At the
same time it is almost impossible to help students improve their self-concepts
without assisting them finding ways to improve their school performance”.
2.10
MEASUREMENT OF SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept is almost always assessed through self-report. Four commonly used
self-report methods are described below:
1.
Most frequently used types of instruments are the “Rating Scales”. Most of the
currently published instruments are of this type. Rating scales typically are
composed of a set of statements to which the respondent expresses a degree of
agreement or disagreement. Five- and seven-point Likert scales are common.
Typical items might be "I am good at math" or "On the whole, I am satisfied with
myself." Responses are then summed to form a score for a specific scale (e.g.,
math self-concept) or a measure of global self-concept.
36
2.
"Checklists" involve having respondents check all of the adjectives that they
believe apply to themselves. Because the adjectives have been assigned to a
category, such as "self-favorability," based on either rational or empirical criteria,
the person's choices can be tabulated to form a self-concept measure. Checklists
provide interesting qualitative information, but have two shortcomings. First,
responses are dichotomous (yes/no); there is no way for the respondent to indicate
degree of agreement. Second, the categorization of the adjectives is done by an
external party, without knowing what exact meaning the adjective has for the
individual.
3.
"Q-sorts" have been used frequently in self-concept research but are seldom used
by practicing counselors because they are time-consuming and require
considerable commitment from the client. In brief, the Q-sort technique involves
having the person sort cards that contain self-descriptors (e.g., "I am strong") into
a pre-defined number of piles ranging from "most like me" to "least like me."
Typically, 100 or more cards would be used and each pile can contain only a predetermined number of cards. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be
used to evaluate the results of the sorting task.
4.
Respondents typically complete partial statements (e.g., I feel best when...) in “Free
Response” methods. Although some sets of these sentence-completion tasks have
been published formally, complete with quantitative scoring schemes, responses
more frequently are evaluated qualitatively. Free-response methods are seldom
used in self-concept research but have favor with many counselors because the
open-ended, qualitative nature of the task lends itself to facilitating discussion with
37
the client. The rather low reliability of such methods, however, argues against
interpreting the results as a "measure" of self-concept.
Self-report method has been employed to measure the self-concept of individuals in
most of the researches. These self-report methods have mostly employed rating scales
including the questionnaires, inventories and scale on ‘Attitude towards Self’ (Strein,
1995).
The following are the names of some measures of self-concept area, which either
have been used consistently in published works or seen to have potential for further
development:
1. Bills Index Of Adjustment & Values, Adult Form (IAV) 1951
2. Butler Haigh Q Sort Technique 1954
3. The Interpersonal Checklist (ICL) LaForge & Suczeh, 1955
4. Semantic Differential Technique (SD) Osgood, Suci & Tannebaum 1957
5. Piers Harris Children Self-Concept Scale (PH). 1964
6. Tennesse Self-Concept Scale, 1964
7. The Adjective Checklist (ACL) Gough & Heilbrum 1965
8. Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) 1965
9. Cooper Smith Self-Esteem Inventory (SCI) 1967
10. Self Description Questionnaire (SDQ) Shavelson 1976
11. Non Phenomenal Self Measuring Techniques
12. Spontaneous Self-Concept Approach. 1954
To measure self-concept of college female students, self-description questionnaire
(SDQIII) (Marsh and O’Neill, 1984) has been used in present study. The SDQIII is
38
available as one of the strongest multidimensional instruments for late adolescents and
early adulthood. Reliability of each subscale typically ranges of .80s to low .90s and
external validity has constantly been found with ratings by significant others, academic
achievement, age, gender, locus of control as examples. Further factor analysis has
consistently supported the a priori factor structure of the SDQ III. Therefore, this was the
more appropriate and valid instrument for measuring different components (Academic,
Physical and Social) of self-concept.
2.11
DEVELOPMENT OF SDQIII
The multidimensional of self-concept is a basic assumption of the Shavelson
model that has important implication for understanding self-concept. Marsh (1988)
argued that much of the confusion in substantive areas of self-concept research prior to
the 1980s was due to the failure of researchers to take into account the
multidimensionality of self-concept. Marsh (1988, 1989, 1990, 1993) developed the set
of Self Description Questionnaires (SDQ) to measure multiple dimensions of self-concept
for preadolescent primary school students (SDQ-I), adolescent high school students
(SDQ-II), and late adolescents and young adults (SDQ-III) based on the Shavelson,
Hubner and Stanton (1976) model of self-concept. Strong tests of the Shavelson et al.
(1976) model have been provided by the set of three SDQ instruments, and have been
evaluated to be among the best multidimensional instruments in terms of psychometric
properties and construct validation research (Craven and Debus, 1997).
The theoretical development of the SDQIII began with the Shavelson model. The
factors to be included on the SDQIII were based in large part on the Shavelson model.
Item pools for each factor were initially developed and preliminary analyses were used to
39
refine the items designed to measure each scale. Once a suitable version of the SDQIII
had been developed, additional research was conducted to examine characteristics of the
SDQIII and to test assumptions of the Shavelson Model (Fig. 2). Hence, the development
of the SDQIII represents interplay between theory and empirical research.
2.12
RELATED RESEARCH
Dambudzo (2005) conducted a study about the relationship between learner self-
concept and achievement in secondary schools in Zimbabwe. The sample consisted of
1281 adolescent learners in urban and rural government and nongovernmental secondary
schools. Data were collected by means of questionnaires and interviews. A positive and
reciprocal relationship between learner self-concept and academic achievement was
found. It was also revealed that sports have an influence on the academic achievement of
male students in government schools. Students believed that sports improve their
confidence, discipline, time management skills and social relationships.
Sanchez and Roda (2007) conducted research on relationship between selfconcept and academic achievement in primary students. The sample consisted of 245
primary school students currently studying in public or subsidized schools in Almeria
Province (Spain). Self-Description Questionnaire was administered to obtain data
regarding the subjects’ self-concept, and their scholarship performance through marks
assigned by their teachers. A close relationship was found between academic self-concept
and measures of academic performance. Results indicate that non-academic self-concept
negatively predicts school achievement (and that of language, arts and of mathematics),
while academic self-concept powerfully and positively predicts both general achievement
as well as that in language arts and in mathematics.
40
A study conducted by Rehman (2001) attempted to investigate the relationship of
self-concept with classroom environment, gender role, cognitive development, and
academic achievement of the students at secondary school level. Self-developed
instruments were used to measure classroom environment and self-concept of the student.
Cronbach’s alpha formula was used to estimate the internal consistency of the scales and
the reliability of the scales was also determined. Data were obtained regarding the
students’ academic achievement with the help of the test in the subject of Pakistan
studies. Standard progressive matrices were used to measure students’ cognitive
development. The scale had a re-test reliability varying with age, from 0.83 to 0.93.
Correlation, F-ratio- and t-test were used as statistical techniques to analyze data. It was
found that self-concept was positively correlated with educational success.
Haque and Sarwat (1998) conducted a study using Academic Self-Concept Scale
to investigate the age, gender and achievement effects on academic self-concept of high
school children. The results showed that there was a strong positive relationship between
achievement and academic self-concept.
The study conducted by Maqbool (2002) was aimed at investigating the
relationship between self-concept and achievement among reading and non-reading
disabled school children. The effect of various other variables on self-concept was also
studied, i.e., ability, aspiration level, gender, overall school achievement and adjustment.
The ages of the subject sample ranged between 12 years 0 months to 12 years 11 months
and 30 days. The instruments that were administered to the subjects were, the standard
progressive matrices, an adapted version of the piers-harris children's self concept scale,
the wide range achievement test-revised level-2, reading subtest and aspiration and
41
adjustment level rating scales. To assess the significance of difference among various
variables, statistical analyses of the data were done and mean comparison t-test was
computed. To find correlation between students’ self concept scores and their overall
school achievement scores, pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used as
statistical technique. To observe the effect of various variables on each other, intercorrelations of the entire sample were computed. It was revealed that overall school
achievement and self concept were significantly and positively correlated.
Black adolescents: a descriptive study of their self-concepts and academic
achievement was conducted by Mboya (1986). This study was designed to determine the
relationships among global self-concept, self-concept of academic ability, and academic
achievement of black American adolescents. The sample of the study comprised of 211
tenth-grade students in five public high schools in the Pacific Northwest school district.
Academic ability was measured by the brookover self-concept of ability (General) scale,
and California achievement test was used to measure academic achievement. Pearson
product-moment correlations and Fisher Z were used as statistical tools. It was found that
there was significant and strong relationship between self-concept of academic ability
and academic achievement.
Sabir (1999) conducted a study on Academic self-concept and Achievement
among university students as related to their psychological adjustment. A Psychological
Adjustment Scale (PAS) has been developed for Pakistani population and an Academic
Self-concept Scale (ASCS) originally developed by Ahmad(1986) was modified to
explore the relationship among three variables, namely psychological adjustment,
academic self-concept, and achievement. Sample consisted of 75 M.Sc. (4th semester)
42
students (including 36 boys and 39 girls) from Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad.
PAS consisted of 27 items in all. It was found that academic self-concept and
achievement (p<0.05) were significantly and positively correlated.
Ali (2002) conducted a study on relationship of self-esteem, self-concept and
academic achievement in Orphan and Non-orphan children. The effect of academic
grades on self-esteem and self-concept was also determined. The sample consisted of 100
male children (both orphan and non-orphans) including 50 students of class 5th and 50
students of class 10th taken from Anjuman Faizul Islam and F.G.School Rawalpindi.
Urdu Adjective Checklist of 52 adjectives was used to measure the self-concept of these
children and Urdu translation of Self-esteem Scale comprised of 25 items was used to
measure self-esteem. Academic achievement of the students was measured with the help
of their marks in the last attended exams (high, medium, low). A positive correlation was
found between self-esteem, self-concept and academic achievement.
Shafiq (2002) has conducted a study on Relationship between Academic Selfconcept and academic Achievement among School children. The sample of the study
consisted of 60 school children (30 boys and 30 girls) from age range of 11 to 15 years.
Academic Self-concept Scale (ASCS) was used. To measure the internal consistency of
the scale, alpha reliability of the scale has been computed. The alpha reliability
computed for the ASCS (40 items) was .88. Results indicated that students with high
academic self-concept differ significantly on achievement from those who had low
Academic Self-concept.
Gordon (1997) carried out a relationship study. The aim of this study was to
determine the relationships among academic self-concept, academic achievement, and
43
persistence with self-attribution, study habits, and perceived school environment. The
sample of the study was consisted of seventh- and eighth-grade students (N = 214), in a
rural mid-western school. Two questionnaires were administered using a likert-type
format, in order to obtain data. The two instruments contained items from the Survey of
Achievement Responsibility, Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, the Locus of
Control Scale, the Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes and the Classroom Environment
Scale. Grade point average was used as the criterion variable. It was revealed that
academic self-concept, academic achievement, and persistence were related significantly
to academic self-concept and academic achievement.
Yu, et al. (2006) conducted a study on the topic, are physical activity and
academic performance compatible? Academic achievement, conduct, physical activity
and self-esteem of Hong Kong Chinese primary school children. The sample of the study
comprised of 333 Chinese pre-adolescents (aged 8–12) in Hong Kong. Examination
results and conduct grades were obtained from the school records. Physical activity
questionnaire for children (PAQC) was administered to assess physical activity of the
children. Results showed that physical activity level was neither related to academic
achievement nor school conduct.
A study conducted by Muijs (1997) attempted to investigate predictors of
academic achievement and academic self-concept: a longitudinal perspective. This study
aimed to replicate these findings among Belgian primary school-age children, controlling
for a number of other relevant variables such as school commitment, parental socioeconomic status (SES), gender and teacher expectations. The longitudinal design of the
study made it particularly suited for this purpose. Data were analyzed using correlation,
44
regressions of time 1 independent variables on time 2 dependent variables, multiple
classification analysis and path analysis. Academic self-concept and academic
achievement were found to be strong predictors of one another. The only other variable to
enter significantly into regressions on time 2 academic achievements and academic selfconcept was parental socio-economic status (SES). Both the regression analyses and path
analysis were undertaken specifically to test causal predominance found achievement to
be causally predominant in this sample.
Self-Concept and school achievement of pupils with cleft lip, cleft palate or both,
was a longitudinal study conducted by Kjaldman (2006), which aimed to survey the selfconcept and school achievement of pupils with cleft lip, cleft palate or both from juvenile
age to adolescence. The target group in this study consisted of Finnish children with
clefts comprising four different age groups. 175 children formed the research subjects.
The data were collected through the use of a questionnaire, which consisted of common
questions and a personality inventory test that was developed for Finnish students by
professor Maija-Liisa Rauste-von Wright. To examine the structure of self-concept and
school achievement, quantitative analysis methods were used. According to these results,
structures of self-concepts and school achievement are in fact stable. Basic self-concept
elements are seen to be formed at an early age. The developmental aspects of selfconcept following puberty were observed as the stability of self-concept and as the
forming of a general self. The level of school achievement was stable, but the structure of
school achievement changed. From these results, it is possible to state that the gender of
the child had a statistical significance regarding self-concept and school achievement.
45
However, the experienced disorder does not have statistical significance as regards with
self-concept and school achievement.
Ahmed (1986) worked upon the initial development and validation of Academic
Self-concept Scale (ASCS) to explore this area of research in Pakistan. He found that
there is moderate positive relationship between academic self-concept and academic
achievement. No significant relationship was found between physical appearance and
academic achievement in a study of 180 girls at two rural secondary schools in Botswana
conducted by Mboya (1999).
Asci et al. (2001) conducted a study to investigate the relationship of self-concept
and perceived athletic competence to physical activity level and gender among Turkish
early adolescents. Self-concept was measred by means of Piers-Harris Children's SelfConcept Scale, and athletic competence subscale of Harter's Self-Perception Profile for
Children was administered to measure perceived athletic competence. Additionally, to
assess physical activity level, the Weekly Activity Checklist was used. Univariate
analysis demonstrated a significant main effect for physical activity level on perceived
athletic competence. In addition, with respect to gender, non-significant difference was
found in r perceived athletic competence.
In a study on the relationship between self-concept and academic achievement for
African-American preadolescents, Trusty et al. (1996) found a negative relationship
between social self-concept and academic achievement.
Ahmed (1986), Gordon (1997), Haque and Sarwat (1998), Sabir (1999), Mboya
(2000) and Shafique (2002) concluded that academic self-concept and academic
achievement were strongly correlated. Findings of studies conducted on relationship
46
between physical, social self-concept and academic achievement were conflicting.
Mboya (1999) concluded that there was no significant correlation between physical
appearance and academic achievement. Yu et al. (2006) revealed in their study that
physical activity level was quite an independent entity that was not related to academic
achievement. Dambudzo (2005) however, concluded that sports and academic
achievement appear to have a mutual influence on each other. Trusty et al. (1996) came
to the conclusion that there is a negative relationship between social self-concept and
academic achievement. Rehman (2001), Maqbool (2002) and Ali (2002) found that there
is positive relationship between general self-concept and academic achievement. Sanches
and Roda (2007) concluded that academic self-concept was good predictor of general
self-concept, whereas Muijs (1997) concluded that academic self-concept and academic
achievement were best predictors of one another.
47
Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the method and procedures of the study adopted to investigate the
research problem. The study was aimed at examining the relationship between selfconcept and academic achievement of female bachelor degree students.
3.1
POPULATION
The population of the study comprised all bachelor degree female students of 27
graduate and post graduate women colleges located in Islamabad and Rawalpindi
(Appendix I).
3.2
SAMPLE
The sample of the study consisted of 1,500 students (Appendix II). At the first
stage of sample selection, 15 colleges were randomly selected, ten from Rawalpindi and
five from Islamabad. During the second stage of sample selection, 1,500 students were
randomly chosen from the selected colleges, with 100 students of 3rd and 4th year from
each college, 60 from third year and 40 from fourth year classes.
3.3
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
A modified version of Self-Description Questionnaire III (Appendix V) based
upon the Shavelson Model of self-concept (1976) (Figure 2) constructed by Marsh (1985)
was used, after permission from the author (Appendix III), to measure self-concept of
college girls. The modified version assessed three components namely academic selfconcept, physical self-concept and social self-concept having 60 items. 50% statements
47
48
were negatively phrased. The original SDQIII (Appendix IV)based on 8-point self-rating
scale consisted of 136 items, which assessed four areas of academic self-concept, eight
areas of nonacademic self-concept, and the area of General-self. All 13 SDQIII areas
consisted of 10 or 12 items each, half of which were negatively worded.
Modifications were made in SDQIII to use it in Pakistani institutions. It was
translated into Urdu language. Responses were delimitated to 4-point scale and the
number of items were reduced to 60. As the study was restricted to three components of
self-concept i.e. academic self-concept, physical self-concept and social self-concept,
only 6 areas (i.e. Verbal, Academic, Physical Ability, Physical Appearance, Same Sex
Peer Relations and Parent Relations) of SDQIII were included in the instrument. Each
area consisted of 10 items. Verbal and academic areas were merged to assess academic
self-concept, items of physical ability and physical appearance were fused to assess
physical self-concept, and items of same sex peer relations and parent relations were
combined to assess social self-concept. Same sex peer relations were changed into same
age group peer relations because population of the study was only female students.
3.3.1
Pre-Testing
To pre-test the questionnaire, 20 students from five colleges were selected, four
students from each college. After pre-testing, language expression was improved in a few
statements. As it was difficult for students to make finer discriminations between very
unimportant and important responses, the 8-point scale was converted into 4-point scale.
The average working memory capacity is 7 for those aged over 16. The working memory
is where thinking takes place and it cannot operate to its full capacity. Having 4, 5, 6
categories can be handled.
49
3.3.2
Validation of the instrument
To check the validity of the instrument, comments and opinions were obtained
from the experts i.e. advisor and advisory committee as well as from the students during
the pretest. The instrument was accordingly shown to the experts to evaluate whether it
was measuring the dimensions of self-concept that it was supposed to measure.
While pre-testing, the students were also asked to give their opinions about the
instrument items as to whether these adequately measured students’ views regarding their
abilities and interest in academics, their perceptions about their own physical attributes or
appearance and their conceptions about themselves in a social context.
The opinions from both sides were positive who judged that the questionnaire was
appeared to measure three dimensions of self-concept, namely academic self-concept,
physical self-concept and social self-concept through statements that were well
formulated and easy to respond.
Having obtained the evidence about its validity, it was also necessary to examine
reliability of the questionnaire.
To check the reliability of modified version of SDQIII, test-retest method was
used because it was considered by the measurement experts to be the best method for the
purpose. The reliability coefficient obtained through test-retest method was 0.89 which is
quite reasonable.
To assess whether students responses on various items measuring each specific
dimension of self-concept had adequate concordance, Kendall’s-tau-b was applied. While
using this technique, positive and negative statements were also taken into consideration.
50
Negative item no were 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38,
39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 56, and 58. The analyses illustrated that many inter item
correlations were significant. However, most of the correlation values were low although
with such a large sample, they were often highly significant. This reveals that students
were tending very slightly to reasons in parallel ways in different questions. The effects
were small but real. The results of these correlations are shown in table 11, 12, 13 in
chapter 4 and further analyses are discussed in 4.2.
3.4
DATA COLLECTION
For collecting data from the respondents, the colleges were personally visited in
accompaniment with trained research assistants. Data were collected from students in
classrooms with the permission of concerned authorities. Before administering the
instrument, all students were thoroughly briefed about the purpose of the study and
procedure of completing the instrument. Students’ marks obtained in recently held
previous exam were also obtained from college records as an indicator of their academic
achievement.
3.5
SCORING AND DATA ANALYSIS
The following procedure was used for scoring the scale items: For positive
statements, the following criterion was used:
i.
Definitely False
=4
ii.
More False than True = 3
iii.
More True than False = 2
iv.
Definitely True
=1
51
For negative statements, the above scoring procedure was reversed.
After scoring the items, the scores on each component of self-concept were
summed up. The scores on each dimension of self-concepts are given at Appendix VII.
Each component had maximum score of 80 and minimum score of 20.
The support for the above scoring procedure and summation of scores is given by
Borich (1999). Borich suggests that when items represent a common underlying theme
(such as self-concept), responses on each item may be scored and scores across individual
items may be summed up and averaged. He uses the name “summated ratings” for this
process. The approach has been criticized by Reid (2006). Problems with the approach
have been discussed in detail on page 70. To avoid these problems and to offer more
useful insights, another alternative approach and further analyses have been shown in
section 4.2.2.
After scoring, the following statistical techniques were applied in order to analyze
the data subsequently manually as well as by using computer software SPSS version
13.0:
1.
In order to find academic self-concept, physical self-concept, social selfconcept and general self-concept of the female college students, data were
summarized by using techniques of mean, standard deviation, standard error
of mean, standard error of standard deviation, mean of population and
standard deviation of population. The data were summarized by using the
following formulas:
52
a. Standard Error of Mean:
SEM =
SD
N
(Garrett, 1962)
b.
Standard Error of Standard Deviation:
SESD =
.71× SD
N
(Garrett, 1962)
c.
Population Mean:
MPOP = M ± 1.96 * SEM
d.
Limits of Population Standard Deviation:
SDPOP = SD ± 1.96 * SESD
To reduce error in making predictions from the sample value to the
population values, the lower limits of the population range were taken into
account while making interpretations.
2.
In order to compute the relationship between self-concept scores and
academic achievement scores, Pearson product moment correlation was
applied by using computer software SPSS version 13.0.
53
Formula of Pearson r is:
∑ XY −
r=
(∑ X ) ( ∑ Y )

(∑ X ) 
2
∑ X −

N


2
N

(∑ Y ) 2 
2
∑ Y −

N 

(Gay, 1996)
3.
In order to find the degree of real relationship between three dimensions of
self-concept and academic achievement, the method of probable error of a
coefficient (PEr) was used, (Garrett, 1999). According to Garrett, to be
reasonably sure that there is ‘some’ correlation present, an obtained r should
be at least 4 times its PE. To be certain of a ‘low’ degree correlation, an r
should be 5 or 6 times its PE.
The probability error of correlation was found by applying from the following
formula:
PEr =
.6745 × (1 − r)
N
(Garrett, 1999)
4.
In order to obtain the inter item correlation of the instrument; kendall’s-tau-b
was applied. All the procedure was performed on computer software SPSS
version 13.0.
54
Chapter 4
RESULTS
4.1
FIRST APPROACH
Table 1.
Mean and SD of academic self-concept scores of the sample and
population
N
1500
M
59.1
SD
7.4
SEM
0.19
SESD
0.14
MPOP
SDPOP
58.7
7.2
to
to
59.4
7.7
As table 1 indicates, the mean academic self-concept score of the population
ranges from 58.7 to 59.4 out of the maximum score of 80. The spread of scores around
the mean academic self-concept score ranges between 7.2 and 7.7.
Taking the lower limits of the estimated population as mean (58.7) and population
standard deviation (7.2) at 0.05 level of confidence, it is interpreted that average female
college student perceived herself to be having positive academic self-concept and that
there was not much divergence in self-concept levels of individual college students.
54
55
Table 2.
Mean and SD of physical self-concept scores of the sample and
population
N
1500
M
58.9
SD
8.9
SEM
0.2
SESD
MPOP
SDPOP
58.5
8.6
to
to
59.4
9.2
0.2
As table 2 indicates, the mean physical self-concept score of the population
ranges from 58.5 to 59.4 out of the maximum score of 80. The spread of scores around
the mean physical self-concept score ranges between 8.6 and 9.2.
Taking the lower limits of the estimated population as mean (58.5) and population
standard deviation (8.6) at 0.05 level of confidence, it means that average female college
student perceived herself to be having positive physical self-concept though there was
much divergence in self-concept levels of individual college students.
56
Table 3.
Mean and SD of social self-concept scores of the sample and
population
N
1500
M
66.4
SD
7.0
SEM
0.2
SESD
0.13
MPOP
SDPOP
66.0
6.8
to
to
66.7
7.3
As table 3 indicates, the mean social self-concept score of the population ranges
from 66 to 66.7 out of the maximum score of 80. The spread of scores around the mean
social self-concept score ranges between 6.8 and 7.3.
Taking the lower limits of the estimated population as mean (66) and population
standard deviation (6.8) at 0.05 level of confidence, which means that average female
college student perceived herself to be having positive social self-concept and that there
was less divergence in self-concept levels of individual college students.
57
Table 4.
Mean and SD of general self-concept scores of the sample and
population
N
1500
M
184.4
SD
17.6
SEM
0.5
SESD
0.3
MPOP
SDPOP
183.5
16.96
to
to
185.2
18.2
As table 4 indicates the mean general self-concept score of the population, which
ranges from 183.5 to 185.2 out of the maximum score of 240. The spread of scores
around the mean general self-concept score ranges between 16.96 and 18.2.
Taking the lower limits of the estimated population as mean (184) and population
standard deviation (16.96) at 0.05 level of confidence, it is interpreted that average
female college student perceived herself to be having positive general self-concept and
that there was not much divergence in self-concept levels of individual college students.
58
Table 5.
Degree of relationship between academic self-concept scores and
academic achievement scores
N
R
PEr
Degree of relationship
1500
.15
.02
Moderate relationship
Table no 5 above indicates that the correlation coefficient between academic selfconcept scores and academic achievement scores of the sample was .15 whereas the
probability error of this coefficient was .02. The value of correlation coefficient being
greater than six times the probability error can be interpreted, according to Garret (2006),
as moderate relationship between the above two variables.
Table 6.
Degree of relationship between physical self-concept scores and
academic achievement scores
N
R
PEr
Degree of relationship
1500
-.02
.02
No relationship
Entries in table no 6 above indicate that the correlation coefficient between
physical self-concept scores and academic achievement scores of the sample was -.02
whereas the probability error of this coefficient was .02. The value of correlation
coefficient being below than four times the probability error can be interpreted, according
to Garret (2006), as no relationship between the above two variables.
59
Table 7.
Degree of relationship between social self-concept scores and
academic achievement scores
N
R
PEr
Degree of relationship
1500
-.04
.02
No relationship
Entries in table no 7 indicate, the correlation coefficient between social selfconcept scores and academic achievement scores of the sample was -.04 whereas the
probability error of this coefficient was .02. The value of correlation coefficient being
below than four times the probability error can be interpreted, according to Garret (2006),
as no relationship between the above two variables.
Table 8.
Degree of relationship between academic self-concept scores and
physical self-concept scores
N
r
PEr
Degree of relationship
1500
.31
.02
Strong relationship
Table no 8 indicates that the correlation coefficient between academic selfconcept scores and physical scores of the sample was .31 whereas the probability error of
this coefficient was .02. The value of correlation coefficient being much greater than six
times the probability error can be interpreted, according to Garret (2006), as strong
relationship between the above two variables.
60
Table 9.
Degree of relationship between academic self-concept scores and
social self-concept scores
N
r
PEr
Degree of relationship
1500
.34
.02
Strong relationship
As table no 9 indicates, the correlation coefficient between academic self-concept
scores and social scores of the sample was .34 whereas the probability error of this
coefficient was .02. The value of correlation coefficient being far greater than six times
the probability error can be interpreted, according to Garret (2006), as strong relationship
between the above two variables.
Table 10.
Degree of relationship between physical self-concept scores and social
self-concept scores
N
r
PEr
Degree of relationship
1500
.36
.02
Strong relationship
As table no 10 indicates that the correlation coefficient between physical selfconcept scores and social scores of the sample was .36 whereas the probability error of
this coefficient was .02. The value of correlation coefficient being far greater than six
times the probability error can be interpreted, according to Garret (2006), as strong
relationship between the above two variables.
61
62
63
64
4.2
AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH
The questionnaire used was based on the original questionnaire entitled SDQIII.
The original questionnaire claimed 13 distinct aspects of self-confidence. In the revised
version, six areas were explored under three headings (table 14). For each sub-area, 10
questions were used, derived from the SDQIII survey.
Table 14. Areas of Exploration
Area
Academic
Sub-Area
Verbal
Academic
Physical
Physical Ability
Physical Ability
Social
Same-sex peer relationships
Parent relationships
The previous analysis coded the responses for each question (appropriately
polarised) as 4,3,2 and 1 and calculated the means and standard deviations for each of the
three areas for the total population of 1500 female students. The individual scores for
each of the three areas were correlated with the academic achievement scores (from
academic tests), this giving the following:
Table 15. Correlations with Academic Achievement
Area
Pearson Correlation
Academic
0.15
Physical
-0.02
Social
-0.04
This was interpreted as suggesting that only academic self-concept had any
significant relationship with academic achievement. The relationship is described as
65
moderate but this is somewhat misleading. While the large sample makes the finding
highly significant, the actual value is very low. This can be seen by considering any
potential cause-and-effect relationship where the extent of cause-and-effect, if it exists, is
only 2.3%. Thus, if academic self-confidence is caused by academic performance or
academic performance causes academic self-confidence, the extent of causation is 2.3%
(found by: 0.15 x 0.15 *100). In simple terms, if causation does exist (and correlation
cannot show this), then the extent is so low that it is utterly unimportant.
4.2.1 Criticising the Approach
Reid (2006) has argued that, ‘Attitude scaling should not be used for logical and
statistical reasons. It must be recognised that such an approach will only show gross
trends simply because the rich detail is lost in the adding process and precision is lost
because the method relies on the application of scale methodologies to categorical data
and the use of inappropriate statistics.’
This almost certainly explains why the
correlation value is so low. The approach has lost so much interesting detail that only
gross trends can be shown and these trends are not very helpful.
The problems with this approach are discussed in some detail in Reid (2006) and
many authors have signaled concern over the approach. There are numerous problems
with this approach, four of which are listed here.
(a)
Ordinal numbers are being added - a mathematical mistake. Thus, it is assumed
that a ‘definitely true’ is worth four times a ‘definitely false’: a meaningless
statement.
(b)
There is no way of knowing how the values assigned to categories on one
question are related to the values assigned to categories on other questions;
66
(c)
It is assumed that all the questions in one area are measuring the same
underlying construct. This can be examined statistically very easily and shown
not to be true (see 4.2.3);
(d)
Each question explores something specific. Any kind of ‘adding up’ masks the
interesting detail.
The problem is to find another approach which avoids the problems and the
following section describes further analyses which can be shown to offer more useful
insights.
4.2.2 The Outcomes from Factor Analysis
It has already been shown that the responses of some of the 60 items correlate
significantly with each other although the correlation values are not high. In fact, tables
12,13 and 14 show some 270 correlations (45 for each of the six sub-areas). Looking at
these shows that only a tiny minority of inter-question correlations are high (table 16),
with only 7 correlations out of the 270 exceeding 0.4.
67
Table 16.
Inter-Item Correlations
Sub-areas
Possible Number
Correlations
Correlations
of Correlation
above 0.2
above 0.3
Verbal
45
0
0
Academic
45
18
6
Physical Ability
45
38
24
Physical Appearance
45
22
9
Same-sex peer relationships
45
17
5
Parent relationships
45
17
4
Total
270
112
48
Percentage
100
41
18
Because of the large sample, many of the correlations are statistically significant
but the values obtained are very low, especially in the verbal sub-area.
Factor analysis can explore the pattern of these correlations and ask if they are
being caused by a small number of underlying factors. In this study, factor analysis
should give six factors if the claims of the original authors are to be substantiated. In this
study, principal components analysis was used, with varimax rotation.
Factor analysis cannot identify the factors. It merely shows their existence or
otherwise. When a factor analysis is run, the factors which are identified must explain
most of the variance in the data. In this study, a limit of 70% was set as the minimum to
be explained. Six sub-areas were being explored and, thus, six factors might have been
expected.
68
First analysis: an analysis of all 60 questions showed no factor structure at all. In fact, it
took 29 factors to account for 70% of the variance. This raises serious questions about
the claims of the original authors.
Second analysis: analysing the responses to the first 20 questions (academic area)
required 11 factors to explain 70% of the variance.
Third analysis: analysing the responses to questions 21-40 (physical area) required 9
factors to explain 70% of the variance.
Fourth analysis: analysing the responses to questions 41-60 (social area) required 11
factors to explain 70% of the variance.
Even setting the target lower (say, at 60% of the variance) did not offer any clear
structure of factors. Thus, it can be stated, with certainty, that the 60 questions do not
offer any clear factor structure at all. If the claims of the original authors were correct,
then six factors would have been expected, not 29.
The next stage is to look at each of the six sets of 10 questions separately to see if
there is any clear structure. The outcomes are shown in table 17.
69
69
Table 17. Factor Analyses for Six Sub-areas
Sub-areas
Number of
Factors to explain
Questions
70% of variance
Verbal
10
6
Academic
10
5
Physical Ability
10
5
Physical Appearance
10
5
Same-sex peer relationships
10
6
Parent relationships
10
6
Each of the six sub-areas should have shown ONE factor if each was measuring
only one variable. It is very clear that each sub-area is measuring five or six variables.
Thus, even if each sub-area is one underlying variable, the questions are not measuring
that variable but measuring many variables.
Indeed, the questionnaire is really measuring 60 different things and each question
must be analysed on its own. How to do this is now considered.
4.2.4 Correlations
It is possible to correlate (using Kendall’s Tau-b) the responses of each of the 60
questions with the academic achievement scores. The outcomes are shown in table 19.
Because of the very large sample, any value above 0.039 is significant at p < 0.05 while
any value above 0.055 is significant at p < 0.01. However, the correlation values are very
low.
70
70
Table 18. Question Responses and Academic Achievement
Question
R
Question
R
Question
R
1
-0.06
21
-0.03
41
0.05
2
0.01
22
0.02
42
0.00
3
0.00
23
-0.03
43
-0.02
4
0.03
24
0.03
44
-0.03
5
-0.09
25
-0.05
45
0.05
6
0.05
26
0.03
46
0.00
7
-0.06
27
-0.04
47
0.01
8
-0.06
28
0.01
48
-0.02
9
-0.07
29
-0.07
49
0.01
10
0.04
30
-0.04
50
-0.06
11
0.01
31
-0.03
51
0.02
12
-0.01
32
-0.02
52
-0.07
13
0.02
33
-0.01
53
0.02
14
-0.10
34
0.09
54
0.02
15
0.08
35
-0.05
55
0.04
16
-0.01
36
-0.01
56
0.01
17
0.08
37
-0.01
57
0.00
18
-0.03
38
-0.05
58
0.00
19
0.14
39
0.03
59
-0.05
20
-0.15
40
-0.05
60
-0.02
In fact, only three questions show a correlation value of 0.10 or above.
Question 14
I have trouble with most academic subjects
This shows that those who say they have little trouble do in fact tend to
perform better.
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Question 19
I get good marks in most academic subjects
This shows that those who say they get good marks do in fact tend to
perform better.
Question 20
I could never achieve academic honours, even if I worked harder.
This shows that those who say they could never achieve academic honours
are those who tend to get lower marks.
All this is totally unsurprising. What is surprising is that perceptions of verbal
skills and most academic skills do not correlate even as high as 0.10. It is unsurprising
that all aspects of perceptions of physical ability, physical appearance, same-sex peer
relationships, and parent relationships show no correlations as high as 0.10. This is
consistent with the findings of Oraif (2007) in her study of confidence. The tiny effects
arising from questions 1 to 20 have ‘added up’ to give a small correlation of 0.15 (table
15). However, what this number masks is that the effect is mainly caused by questions
14, 19 and 20 and it is totally unsurprising that students self-perception in these areas
show correlations with academic performance. The data analysis here confirms what
most teachers would know of their students: those who do best are more sure that they
are doing well.
Looking in more detail at the areas of verbal self-concept and academic selfconcept, many of the question response patterns correlate significantly with academic
performance although the correlation values are very small. This explains why the value
of 0.15 was obtained under the previous analysis. The tiny effects are ‘adding up’.
However, this assumes that these effects can be ‘added’. The factor analysis shows that
the questions are measuring different things and addition is, therefore, highly suspect.
72
4.3
Final Conclusions
Looking at both approaches together, but recognising that the second approach
undermines logically the methodology of the first approach, the following broad
conclusions can be drawn.
(a)
Self-concept in relation to physical ability, physical appearance, same-sex
relationships, and parent relationships is unrelated to academic performance
(consistent with the findings of Oraif, 2007 where the context was very
different).
(b)
Self-concept in relation to verbal ability is related to academic performance but
the effects are extremely small, suggesting that, at this stage, almost all the
students are coping with language demands.
(c)
Self-concept in relation to academic study is related to academic performance
although the relationship is not strong (again, consistent with the findings of
Oraif, 2007).
(d)
The relationship between self concept in academic study and academic
performance is largely caused by awareness among the more academically
successful that they are coping well while those who are performing less well
know that they are performing less well.
Correlation does not of itself, of course, indicate causation. Consider the area of
academic self-concept (questions 11-20) and academic performance.
Five questions
show very low but significant, correlations. This means that the relationship is tiny but it
is likely to be real. Is it cause and effect?
73
Table 19 brings it together as only the actual wording of the questions can offer any
insights.
Table 19. Academic Self-Concept
Q
Statement
Kendall’s
Tau-b
Responses (%)
Definitely
False
More false
than true
More true
than false
Definitely
true
R
p
27
26
39
9
-0.10
< 0.001
3
7
54
37
0.08
< 0.001
4
8
47
41
0.08
< 0.001
4
7
60
30
0.14
< 0.001
24
15
35
26
-0.15
< 0.001
I have trouble with most
14
academic subjects
I am good at most academic
15
subjects
I learn quickly in most
17
academic subjects
I get good marks in most
19
academic subjects
I could never achieve academic
20
honours even if I worked harder
Thus, those who show better academic performance tend to be those who do not
have trouble with most academic subjects, who feel they are good and learning quickly,
who feel that they get good marks and who believe that, with hard work, they could be
honoured. All this is exactly as might be expected. However, it is likely that good
performance leads to such perceptions while the perceptions then give the students
confidence to perform well.
Care has to be taken in interpreting all this. The correlations are very low and
therefore the effects are small. Part of this is the actual wording of the questions which
tends to encourage students not to use the full four point scale. Discrimination is,
inevitably low. Equally, it cannot be deduced that encouraging students to develop
74
positive self-concepts in these areas will generate better performances. It is much more
likely that good academic performance and positive self-awareness with regard to
academic matters go hand in hand, in the same way as tall people tend to weigh more.
75
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to explore any relationships between self-concept
and academic achievement of female bachelor degree students in Pakistan. Self-concept
is an elusive idea. It can almost be seen as attitudes towards oneself, in a variety of
contexts. The SDQIII divided the contexts into some 13 areas. In some ways, this
division is reasonable although there is no evidence that self-concept is actually
structured like this in individuals. Six of these contexts were considered in this study and
the six areas were grouped into three areas (table 20).
Table 20. The Six Contexts
Area
Academic
Sub-Area
Verbal
Academic
Physical
Physical Ability
Physical Ability
Social
Same-sex peer relationships
Parent relationships
Two very different approaches were employed to consider the data obtained. In
the first, scores were obtained in the three areas, derived from survey data, and these were
correlated with academic performance scores. From this, it was found that the academic
self-concept of the college girls was positive and there was a moderate relationship
between academic self-concept and academic achievement.
75
76
This approach, although often used, has been increasingly criticized in the
literature (see Gardner, 1995, 1996; Reid, 2006). It makes unwarranted assumptions
about the unidimensionality of the constructs being measured and abuses the nature of
number. To check if this approach was valid with the data here, various factor anlyses
were conducted and these show, without doubt, that each of the six areas was NOT a
unidimensional construct at all. An alternative approach to analyses was then adopted and
this revealed the reason why a moderate relationship between academic self-concept and
academic achievement: the college students who were performing well knew they were
performing well while those who were performing less well knew that as well.
Many researchers (eg. Maqbool, 2002; Ahmed, 1986; Gordon, 1997; Haque and
Sarwat, 1998; Sabir, 1999; Mboya, 2000; and Shafique, 2002) have found that academic
self-concept is related to academic performance and this is totally unsurprising. When
students do well, they see themselves in a positive light in relation to their studies;
equally when students see themselves positively in relation to their studies, they are likely
to have the confidence to work well and achieve highly.
The first wave of self-concept studies in the 1950s by Benjamin, Buckley and
Scanlan (Hamachek, 1995) found a significant correlation between self-concept and
academic achievement. Ever since then, several studies were conducted, most of them
finding a significant correlation between academic achievement and self-concept. It is
sometimes assumed that positive self-concept will be assist students to perform well.
However, it is more likely that positive self-concept arises from academic success.
Indeed, in her detailed analyses of large numbers of school students and university
students in Saudi Arabia, Oraif (2007) found that the only aspect of confidence (very
77
much life positive self-concept) which related to academic success was academic
confidence.
All of this raises the question of what is causing what? Indeed, is there any cause
and effect relationship at all? For example, Hamachek (1995), following a review of self
concept literature, came to the conclusion that the relationship was reciprocal, with each
variable affecting the other. Consequently, learners have to do well in school in order to
have a positive self-concept about their academic abilities and a positive self-concept was
a necessary pre-requisite for doing well in school. From these results, she also concluded
that learners with a high self-concept tended to approach school related tasks with
confidence, and that success in those tasks further reinforced their confidence.
All this might be better stated as positive academic self-concept tends to go along
with high academic performance. Each feeds the other: those who do well develop
positive academic self-concept while those with positive academic self-concept have the
self-belief that they can succeed and they then have the desire, confidence and motivation
to succeed.
Many years ago, Purkey (1970), observed that “there is a persistent and
significant relationship between the self-concept and academic achievement” and that
“change in one seems to be associated with change in the other”.
Wylie (1979)
concurred with this evaluation and hypothesized a number of plausible causal links
relating ability, academic achievement and self-concept. She posited that variations in
success in academic activities could influence self-perception; likewise, she noted that
overall self-concept might be related more to achievement than to ability.
78
Purkey (1970) also cautioned that perceived ability and achievement may not
correspond to measures of these factors. Finally, Wylie (1979) noted evidence indicating
that persons tend to evaluate themselves against the reference group that seems relevant
to them. to explore relationship between self-concept and academic achievement.
All
this makes sense but any experienced teacher at any level knows that students who do
well tend to hold positive academic self-concepts.
The results of the study revealed that the physical self-concept of college girls
was perceived by them to be positive, but there was no relationship between physical
self-concept and academic achievement, consistent with the findings of Mboya (1999).
Yu et al. (2006) revealed that physical activity level was quite an independent entity that
was not related to academic achievement, consistent with the findings of Byrne, as cited
by Ormrod (2000) and Marsh & Shavelson (1985).
Again, all this makes sense if it is appreciated that self-concept is a multidimensional construct. There is absolutely no reason why perceptions of physical
appearance or physical activity should relate to academic performance (see: Mboya,
1999; also Dambudzo, 2005, who did find some relationship between sports and
academic achievement). Some have found a connection between fitness training and good
body appearance and academic achievement. However, this is not the same as positive
self-concept. It is well established that being healthy is connected with mental activity
and this may well offer the explanation. Women, particularly adolescents, are easily
affected by the way they and others view their bodies because physical appearance,
especially in girls, has a strong relationship with self-concept. This, in turn, may
influence academic achievement (Mostert, 1995; Dembo, 1994).
79
The results of the study revealed that the social self-concept of college girls was
positive but there was no relationship between social self-concept and academic
achievement (consistent with the findings of Byrne as cited by Ormrod (2000); Marsh
and Shavelson, 1985). There is some doubt about how social self-concept and academic
achievement relate, with Trusty et al. (1996) coming to the conclusion that there was a
negative relationship between social self-concept and academic achievement.
A few studies show that negative social self-concept declines with academic
achievement. For example, Downey et al. (1998) found that learners who were sensitive
to peer rejection declined in academic functioning over time more than learners who were
insensitive to peer rejection. Buhs and Ladd (2001) reported that rejected learners
perform poorly on academic measures. Similarly, findings of some studies show that
positive social self-concept increases academic achievement. For example, according to
Myburgh et al. (1999), a positive social self-concept is associated with higher level of
academic achievement. According to Hunt (1997), adolescents who are accepted by their
peers, tend to experience positive social self-concept and academic achievement.
Of course, adolescents (and younger children) are often acutely socially aware. In
the adolescent years, there is often a struggle to cope with a changing identity in relation
to others. This may inevitably affect performance in all areas of life (Huitt, 1998) and
parental attitudes may be important here (McGrath and Repetti, 2000). When students are
older, the importance of social self-concept may decline as the teenager gains
increasingly confidence in their social relationships. The effect on academic achievement
may then not be apparent, as in this study.
80
The concept of general self-concept is flawed as the factor analyses in this study
have shown incontrovertibly. Many (eg. Marsh, 1992; Wylie as cited by Muijs, 1997; and
Mboya, 1986;
in contradiction with Garzarelli and Lester, 1989; Rehman, 2001;
Maqbool, 2002; and Ali, 2002) have claimed that general self-concept relates to academic
achievement but it is almost certain that what they are seeing is that certain aspects of
self-concept relate. Their methods of analysis have obscured this. The contradictions
between the various studies reflect the methods used and unsatisfactory nature of their
analyses.
In clear terms, the various aspects of self-concept are not unidimensional and,
indeed, the various aspects themselves are quite separate. Using dubious methods, some
(eg. Mostert, 1995) have found some interconnections and the findings of this study show
that there is statistically significant relationship between academic and physical selfconcepts, academic and social self-concepts, physical and social self-concepts. However,
the factor analyses show clearly that this is not the basis of any notion of general selfconcept.
81
5.1
CONCLUSIONS
This study has revealed a number of key points:
1. The basis for the observed relationship between academic self-concept and
academic performance is that those who do well in examinations and tests are
those who know they have done well and have the confidence to believe that
they will do well in the future.
2. In general, these female college students tended to show positive self-concept
in all three broad areas. This is to be expected: they achieved college entrance
on the basis of past successes and these successes will tend to give them
considerable self belief.
3. The fact that aspects of academic self-concept relate positively with academic
performance cannot be used to suggest that one variable causes the other.
Academic success and self belief in academic success simply go together.
4. A detailed consideration of the actual frequency data for each of the 60
questions used has identified some useful pointers. These have been discussed
under the recommendation section below.
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5.2
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is the aim of all educational systems and, indeed, all teachers at all levels, to
seek to improve academic performance with their students. This raises the interesting
question as what is meant by good academic performance. Most tests and examinations
give the rewards for the correct recall or cognition of what has been memorized. A much
more important aim in all education at all levels is to seek understanding in the learners.
Understanding can be described operationally as knowing in such a way that the learner
can apply the knowledge in a novel situation with a reasonable prospect of success.
Indeed, there is absolutely no point whatsoever in knowing anything if it cannot be used
in some way.
It might be argued that seeking to increase academic self-concept might increase
academic performance. However, this implies that there is a cause-and-effect
relationship. This is highly unlikely. The best way to seek greater understanding is to
teach and assess for understanding. Positive academic self-concept will follow as day
follows night. However, there is a deeper point here. If positive academic self-concept
arises in situations where students are successful in examinations, how do we manage to
set tests and examinations so that all succeed and none fail, a point raise strongly by Oraif
(2007)? The recommendations below hint at seeking to achieve this apparently
impossible goal.
There is, of course no evidence from this study about the origin of positive selfconcept. All that is known is that positive academic self-concept relates slightly to
academic performance. This leads to some interesting suggestions:
83
1. Wherever possible, students should be encouraged so that they develop self
confidence in their studies. No matter how poor a student performance may be,
the aim must be to find those features which seem successful and to build on
them. However, students are not stupid: they will quickly detect when supposedly
positive comments from teachers are not really deserved.
2. One of the areas where students lose confidence is when they compare themselves
to their peers who may have performed better. This is difficult to avoid for
students are very self aware in this regard. However, wherever possible,
comparisons between students should be avoided. Competition is natural and,
with examination marks, it is almost impossible to stop students comparing
themselves with each other even when no comparisons are made by the teacher.
3. Students like a challenge provided that the challenge does not prove impossible.
There is a way in which students can be given a challenge and the teacher can
present it in such a way that any failure to achieve everything is not seen in any
way as a failure. Teachers who challenge students with worthwhile tasks and help
them meet these challenges may well enhance both their academic achievement
and academic self-concept.
4. The greatest challenge of all is to enable all students to find some success for
success seems to relate to positive academic self-concept. This is very difficult
with conventional examinations where some ‘pass’ and some ‘fail’. The goal is to
try to develop examinations where it is possible to gain some success in some
parts (and this to be seen as success) rather than a global ‘fail’.
84
5.3
REFLECTIONS AND FUTURE WORK
The study aimed to explore aspects of self-concept in relation to academic
performance. The study depended on questions derived from the SDQIII survey. Looking
at the response patterns from the questions used, many show most student expressing
positive views. In simple terms, the questions are of poor quality, failing to give adequate
discrimination. A future study would seek to develop new questions, which were better
designed for the purpose.
The original survey had 130 questions on an eight-point scale. This is utterly
unrealistic. There are far too many questions, generating almost certain boredom in the
respondents. Indeed, the eight-point scale is also unrealistic, exceeding the average
capacity of working memory and thus making students unable to discriminate between
categories. The reduction to 60 questions on a four point scale much improved the
survey.
The traditional method of data analysis is much criticized and this thesis has
attempted to offer a more insightful way to handler the data. The factor analysis totally
undermines the methods used by the original authors, casting into doubt their claims.
Future research might develop these approaches further. For example, using a revised
survey, it could be applied to different age groups and both genders. The chi-square
statistic then offers a powerful tool to make comparison which might throw up useful
insights. Further comparison might be undertaken at the start of a course and then at the
end, to explore any differences which have arisen.
85
SUMMARY
The major purpose of the study was to find out relationship between self-concept
and academic achievement of female bachelor degree students.
The main objectives of the study were, to explore by measurement the areas of
physical, social and academic self-concept of the students, to obtain a measure of
academic achievement, to relate the areas of physical, social and academic self-concept
of students to their academic achievement, to discuss possible ways to enhance aspects of
the self-concept of students.
The population of the study was comprised of all bachelor degree female students
of 27 graduate and post graduate women colleges located in Islamabad and Rawalpindi.
Sample of the study consisted of 1,500 students. At the first stage of sample selection, 15
colleges were randomly selected, ten from Rawalpindi and five from Islamabad. During
the second stage of sample selection, 1,500 students were randomly chosen from the
selected colleges, with 100 students of 3rd and 4th year from each college, 60 from third
year and 40 from fourth year classes.
A modified version of Self-Description Questionnaire III based upon the
Shavelson’s Model of self-concept (1976) constructed by Marsh (1985) was used to
measure self-concept of college girls. The instrument assessed three components namely
academic self-concept, physical self-concept and social self-concept having 60 items. The
original SDQIII based on 8-point self-rating scale consisted of 136 items, which claimed
13 distinct aspects of self-concept. Instrument was translated into Urdu language; items
were reduced according to the requirement of the study. After pre-testing, 8-point scale
85
86
was converted into 4-point scale to make finer discriminations between unimportant and
important responses by the students.
The validity of the instrument was checked through the comments and opinions of
the experts and the students during the pretest. They judged that the questionnaire was
appeared to measure three dimensions of self-concept through statements that were well
formulated and easy to respond. Test-retest reliability co-efficient was 0.89.
After obtaining scores, the data were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted in the
light of the objectives of the study. Students’ marks obtained in recently held previous
exam were also obtained from college records as an indicator of their academic
achievement. To find the perceived academic self-concept, physical self-concept and
social self-concept of the female college students, data were summarized by using
techniques of mean, standard deviation, standard error of mean, standard error of
standard deviation, mean of population and standard deviation of population. The
relationship between self-concept scores and academic achievement scores was computed
by using pearson product moment correlation. To determine the degree of relationship
between three dimensions of self-concept and academic achievement, technique of
probable error of a coefficient (PEr) was used. Kendall’s Tau-b was used to measure the
internal consistency of the Self-Description Questionnaire III. This approach was
criticized by few authors. To find another approach which avoids the problems, another
alternative factor analysis was employed. In the study, principal components analysis was
used, with varimax rotation. Kendall’s-Tau-b was applied to correlate responses obtained
on each of the 60 items with the academic achievement scores.
87
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APPENDICES
Appendix-I
NAMES AND ENROLLMENT OF RAWALPINDI
AND ISLAMABAD WOMEN COLLEGES
(POPULATION)
S.No.
1
College Names
Govt. Post Graduate College for Women, Satellite
Enrollment
Total
3rd Year
4th Year
2000
1189
3189
1350
1132
2482
Town, Rawalpindi
2
G. VNC Post Graduate College for Women,
Rawalpindi
3
Govt. College for Women, Murree Road, Rawalpindi
201
246
447
4
Govt. Degree College for Women, Muslim Town,
177
157
334
170
150
320
160
123
283
80
50
130
180
180
360
190
101
291
200
200
400
151
100
251
100
90
190
Rawalpindi
5
Govt. Degree College for Women, Zafar-ul-Haq
Road, Rawalpindi
6
Govt. Degree College for Women, Mohan Pura,
Rawalpindi
7
Govt. Degree College for Women, Dhoke Ratta,
Rawalpindi
8
Govt. Degree College for Women, B-Block, Satellite
Town, Rawalpindi
9
Govt. Degree College for Women, F-Block, Satellite
Town, Rawalpindi
10
Govt. Degree College for Women, Dhoke Hassu,
Rawalpindi
11
Govt. Degree College for Women, Dhoke Elahi
Buksh, Rawalpindi
12
Govt. Degree College for Women, Jhanda Chichi,
Rawalpindi
13
Govt. Degree College for Women, Murree
96
83
179
14
Govt. Degree College for Women, Gujar Khan
450
300
750
100
15
Govt. Degree College for Women, Kallar Syedan
201
189
390
16
Govt. Degree College for Women, Kahuta
150
102
252
17
Govt. Degree College for Women, Peshawar Road
95
55
150
18
Govt. Degree College for Women, Dhoke Kala Khan.
51
25
76
19
Govt. Degree College for Women, Wah Cantt.
50
15
65
20
F.G. College for women, F-7/2, Islamabad
651
445
1094
21
F.G. College for women, G-10/4, Islamabad
532
480
1012
22
F.G. Degree college for women Model Town Humak,
145
100
245
Islamabad
23
F.G. Margalla College for women, F-7/4, Islamabad
605
491
1096
24
Islamabad College for Girls, F-6/2
300
250
550
25
F.G. Commerce College for women, F-10/3,Islamabad
100
96
196
26
Islamabad Model College for Girls, F-6/2
70
56
126
27
Islamabad Model College for Girls, F-7/4
90
50
140
G.Total
15,000
101
Appendix-II
COLLEGES SELECTED AS SAMPLE OF THE STUDY
S.No.
Names of Colleges
1
Govt. College for Women, Murree Road, Rawalpindi
2
Govt. Degree College for Women, Muslim Town, Rawalpindi
3
Govt. Degree College for Women, Zafar-ul-Haq Road, Rawalpindi
4
Govt. Degree College for Women, Mohan Pura, Rawalpindi
5
Govt. Degree College for Women, Dhoke Ratta, Rawalpindi
6
Govt. Degree College for Women, B-Block, Satellite Town, Rawalpindi
7
Govt. Degree College for Women, F-Block, Satellite Town, Rawalpindi
8
Govt. Degree College for Women, Dhoke Hassu, Rawalpindi
9
Govt. Degree College for Women, Jhanda Chichi, Rawalpindi
10
Govt. Degree College for Women, Peshawar Road
11
F.G. College for women, F-7/2, Islamabad
12
F.G. College for women, G-10/4, Islamabad
13
F.G. Degree college for women Model Town Humak, Islamabad
14
F.G. Margalla College for women, F-7/4, Islamabad
15
Islamabad College for Girls, F-6/2
102
Appendix-III
PERMISSION LETTER FROM THE AUTHORS OF SDQ-III
From :
Sent :
To :
Subject :
herb marsh <herb.marsh@edstud.ox.ac.uk>
Friday, March 16, 2007 8:54 PM
"asma safdar" <dr_asma_gardezi@hotmail.com>
Re: permission for using SDQIII.....
The SDQIII instrument is available from the UWS SELF website. You have my permission to translate the
instrument for purposes of your own research program. Please realize, however, that there are detailed
protocols about how to translate psychological tests -- involving translation and independent back translation.
HERB
At 15:37 16/03/2007, you wrote:
Dear Sir!
i m asma from Pakistan n doing my PhD. i want to use SDQIII as research instrument in my study. i
want to translate it in our native language so that students can better understand. it would b against the
research ethics that i make these modifications with out ur permission so plzz " i need ur kind permission for
ths purpose". plzz reply me as soon as possible so i may start my research work.
thanx
_________________________________________________________________
Express yourself instantly with MSN Messenger! Download today it's FREE! http://messenger.msn.click-
url.com/go/onm00200471ave/direct/01/
*********************************************************
* Professor Herb Marsh, Education, Oxford University
* 15 Norham Gardens Rd Oxford OX2 6PY UK
* PH:01865 274 041(or +44 1865 274041);FAX:01865 274027
* Email: h.marsh@uws.edu.au; herb.marsh@edstud.ox.ac.uk
* Also see: SELF-concept Research Centre:
* University of Western Sydney, Bankstown
* Penrith South NSW 1797 Australia
* http://self.uws.edu.au/ Fax:+61 2 9772 6432
**********************************************************
103
Appendix-IV
SDQIII INSTRUMENT
PLEASE READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST
This is not a test - there are no right or wrong answers.
This is a chance for you to consider how you think and feel about yourself. This is not a
test – there are no right or wrong answers, and everyone will have different responses.
The purpose of this study is to determine how people describe themselves and what
characteristics are most important to how people feel about themselves.
On the following pages are a series of statements that are more or less true (or more or less
false) descriptions of you. Please use the following eight-point response scale to indicate
how true (or false) each item is as a description of you. Respond to the items as you now
feel even if you felt differently at some other time in your life. In a few instances, an item
may no longer be appropriate to you, though it was at an earlier period of your life (e.g.,
an item about your present relationship with your parents if they are no longer alive). In
such cases, respond to the item as you would have when it was appropriate. Try to avoid
leaving any items blank. After completing all the items, you will be asked to select those
that best describe important aspects – either positive or negative – of how you feel about
yourself. Consider this as you are completing the survey.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Definitely
False
Mostly
More False
More True
Mostly
True
Definitely
False
Than True
Than False
True
False
True
104
Q#
Maths
1
I find many mathematical problems interesting and challenging.
2
I have hesitated to take courses that involve mathematics
3
I have generally done better in mathematics courses than other courses.
4
Mathematics makes me feel inadequate
5
I am quite good at mathematics.
6
I have trouble understanding anything that is based upon mathematics.
7
I have always done well in mathematics classes.
8
I never do well on tests that require mathematical reasoning.
9
At school, my friends always came to me for help in mathematics.
10
I have never been very excited about mathematics
Q#
Verbal
11
I have trouble expressing myself when trying to write something.
12
I can write effectively
13
I have a poor vocabulary.
14
I am an avid reader.
15
I do not do well on tests that require a lot of verbal reasoning ability.
16
Relative to most people, my verbal skills are quite good.
17
I often have to read things several times before I understand them.
18
I am good at expressing myself.
19
In school I had more trouble learning to read than most other students.
20
I have good reading comprehension
105
Q#
Academic
21
I enjoy doing work for most academic subjects.
22
I hate studying for many academic subjects.
23
I like most academic subjects.
24
I have trouble with most academic subjects.
25
I am good at most academic subjects.
26
I am not particularly interested in most academic subjects.
27
I learn quickly in most academic subjects.
28
I hate most academic subjects.
29
I get good marks in most academic subjects.
30
I could never achieve academic honours, even if I worked harder.
Q#
31
Problem Solving
I am never able to think up answers to problems that haven’t already been figured
ut.
32
I am good at combining ideas in ways that others have not tried.
33
I wish I had more imagination and originality.
34
I enjoy working out new ways of solving problems
35
I am not much good at problem solving
36
I have a lot of intellectual curiosity.
37
I am not very original in my ideas thoughts and actions.
38
I am an imaginative person
39
I would have no interest in being an inventor.
40
I can often see better ways of doing routine tasks.
106
Q#
Physical Ability
41
I am a good athlete.
42
I am awkward and poorly coordinated at many sports and physical activities
43
I have good endurance and stamina in sports and physical activities.
44
I hate sports and physical activities
45
I have a high energy level in sports and physical activities.
46
I am not very good at any activities that require physical ability and coordination
47
I like to exercise vigorously at sports and/or physical activities.
48
I am poor at most sports and physical activities.
49
I enjoy sports and physical activities.
50
I am a sedentary type who avoids strenuous activity.
Q#
Physical Appearance
51
I have a physically attractive body.
52
I am ugly
53
I have a good body build
54
There are lots of things about the way I look that I would like to change.
55
My body weight is about right (neither too fat nor too skinny).
56
I dislike the way I look
57
I have nice facial features
58
I wish that I were physically more attractive.
59
Most of my friends are better looking than I am.
60
I am good looking
107
Q#
Same Sex peer Relations
61
I have few friends of the same sex that I can really count on.
62
I am comfortable talking to members of the same sex
63
I don’t get along very well with other members of the same sex.
64
I make friends easily with members of the same sex.
65
Other members of the same sex find me boring.
66
I share lots of activities with members of the same sex.
67
Not many people of the same sex like me.
68
I am popular with other members of the same sex.
69
Most people have more friends of the same sex than I do.
70
I have lots of friends of the same sex
Q#
Opposite Sex Peer Relations
71
I get a lot of attention from members of the opposite sex.
72
I find it difficult to meet members of the opposite sex whom I like.
73
I have lots of friends of the opposite sex.
74
Most of my friends are more comfortable with members of the opposite sex than I am.
75
I am comfortable talking to members of the opposite sex.
76
I am quite shy with members of the opposite sex
77
I make friends easily with members of the opposite sex.
78
I have had lots of feelings of inadequacy about relating to members of the opposite sex.
79
I am comfortable being affectionate with members of the opposite sex.
80
I never seem to have much in common with members of the opposite sex.
108
Q#
Parent Relations
81
I hardly ever saw things the same way as my parents when I was growing up
82
I would like to bring up children of my own (if I have any) like my parents raised me
83
I still have many unresolved conflicts with my parents
84
My parents have usually been unhappy or disappointed with what I do and have done.
85
My values are similar to those of my parents.
86
My parents have never had much respect for me.
87
My parents treated me fairly when I was young.
88
It has often been difficult for me to talk to my parents
89
My parents understand me
90
I like my parents.
Q#
Spiritual Values/Religion
91
My parents are not very spiritual/religious people.
92
I am a spiritual/religious person.
93
Spiritual/religious beliefs have little to do with my life philosophy.
94
Spiritual/religious beliefs make my life better and make me a happier person
95
My spiritual/religious beliefs provide the guidelines by which I conduct my life.
96
Continuous spiritual/religious growth is important to me.
97
I rarely if ever spend time in spiritual meditation or religious prayer.
98
I am a better person as a consequence of my spiritual/religious beliefs
99
I am basically an atheist, and believe that there is no being higher than man
100
I believe that there will be some form of continuation of my spirit or soul after my death
101
Spiritual/religious beliefs have little to do with the type of person I want to be.
102
Few, if any of my friends are very spiritual or religious
109
Q#
Honesty/Trustworthiness
103
I often tell small lies to avoid embarrassing situations.
104
People can always rely on me
105
Being honest is not particularly important to me
106
I nearly always tell the truth
107
I sometimes take things that do not belong to me
108
I never cheat.
109
Being dishonest is often the lesser of two evils.
110
I am a very honest person.
111
I would feel OK about cheating on a test as long as I did not get caught.
112
I value integrity above all other virtues
113
I am not a very reliable person.
114
I have never stolen anything of consequence
Q#
Emotional Stability
115
I am usually pretty calm and relaxed.
116
I worry a lot
117
I am happy most of the time.
118
I am anxious much of the time
119
I hardly ever feel depressed
120
I tend to be highly-strung, tense, and restless
121
I do not spend a lot of time worrying about things
122
I am often depressed
123
I am inclined towards being an optimist
124
I tend to be a very nervous person
110
Q#
General Esteem
125
Overall, I have a lot of respect for myself.
126
Overall, I lack self-confidence
127
Overall, I am pretty accepting of myself.
128
Overall, I don`t have much respect for myself.
129
Overall, I have a lot of self-confidence.
130
Overall, I have a very good self-concept.
131
Overall, nothing that I do is very important.
132
Overall, I have pretty positive feeling about myself.
133
Overall, I have a very poor self-concept. 107
134
Overall, I have pretty negative feelings about myself.
135
Overall, I do lots of things that are important.
136
Overall, I am not very accepting of myself
111
Appendix-V
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
Appendix-VI
RAW SCORES
ASC= Academic Self-Concept Scores
PSC= Physical Self-Concept Scores
SSC= Social Self-Concept Scores
AA= Academic Achievement Scores
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
ASC
PSC
SSC ASC+PSC PSC+SSC ASC+SSC
AA
60
63
69
123
132
129
58
58
64
67
122
131
125
67
64
66
75
130
141
139
57
68
68
58
136
126
126
51
49
51
68
100
119
117
59
48
49
61
97
110
109
52
46
39
50
85
89
96
51
50
58
57
108
115
107
54
61
53
75
114
128
136
70
41
54
68
95
122
109
58
72
59
77
131
136
149
68
79
77
75
156
152
154
65
42
55
65
97
120
107
60
72
73
71
145
144
143
60
71
72
72
143
144
143
52
50
44
62
94
106
112
58
44
48
63
92
111
107
56
62
56
73
118
129
135
50
48
50
63
98
113
111
57
57
58
65
115
123
122
50
61
68
68
129
136
129
51
67
65
57
132
122
124
60
61
54
60
115
114
121
61
64
66
74
130
140
138
58
62
56
74
118
130
136
57
62
68
74
130
142
136
56
56
46
74
102
120
130
46
46
63
72
109
135
118
46
65
55
70
120
125
135
57
59
73
73
132
146
132
56
62
49
71
111
120
133
48
70
53
70
123
123
140
65
55
52
58
107
110
113
54
61
65
60
126
125
121
60
60
56
71
116
127
131
53
65
61
60
126
121
125
58
119
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
54
65
80
119
145
134
54
56
48
67
104
115
123
49
59
48
68
107
116
127
63
65
36
64
101
100
129
46
54
53
65
107
118
119
58
59
50
74
109
124
133
60
47
48
68
95
116
115
59
58
56
66
114
122
124
58
65
70
73
135
143
138
52
58
69
76
127
145
134
54
66
73
72
139
145
138
49
64
62
72
126
134
136
54
58
64
65
122
129
123
53
58
66
72
124
138
130
55
62
48
64
110
112
126
58
62
58
71
120
129
133
53
58
48
53
106
101
111
53
70
73
72
143
145
142
62
55
64
69
119
133
124
49
51
64
53
115
117
104
52
62
48
69
110
117
131
67
60
49
62
109
111
122
58
60
59
69
119
128
129
49
57
50
65
107
115
122
57
66
59
73
125
132
139
53
62
60
72
122
132
134
55
72
61
75
133
136
147
53
63
58
69
121
127
132
50
63
57
43
120
100
106
56
57
62
73
119
135
130
62
63
69
67
132
136
130
55
68
74
64
142
138
132
52
48
58
63
106
121
111
48
67
59
65
126
124
132
58
56
55
70
111
125
126
53
59
50
53
109
103
112
53
76
65
65
141
130
141
55
59
61
68
120
129
127
53
68
49
53
117
102
121
58
59
45
70
104
115
129
61
63
47
61
110
108
124
68
51
56
65
107
121
116
48
59
42
55
101
97
114
53
59
70
64
129
134
123
58
70
71
71
141
142
141
53
63
73
76
136
149
139
60
56
53
60
109
113
116
48
120
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
58
62
61
120
123
119
49
59
52
63
111
115
122
65
51
49
60
100
109
111
55
52
68
68
120
136
120
50
49
49
59
98
108
108
49
60
69
65
129
134
125
55
72
64
69
136
133
141
63
57
47
62
104
109
119
56
55
63
64
118
127
119
51
51
54
67
105
121
118
50
68
70
74
138
144
142
54
53
60
75
113
135
128
61
56
60
59
116
119
115
59
58
53
69
111
122
127
54
57
69
66
126
135
123
48
62
64
70
126
134
132
60
59
62
65
121
127
124
49
59
60
72
119
132
131
47
54
59
71
113
130
125
45
56
63
74
119
137
130
43
72
72
70
144
142
142
53
60
66
71
126
137
131
54
61
56
66
117
122
127
56
55
55
75
110
130
130
53
60
62
64
122
126
124
61
57
71
74
128
145
131
51
55
70
74
125
144
129
65
52
71
74
123
145
126
52
49
47
62
96
109
111
51
51
59
70
110
129
121
61
59
53
63
112
116
122
47
67
70
73
137
143
140
46
60
61
69
121
130
129
54
57
56
77
113
133
134
58
60
58
75
118
133
135
57
65
61
69
126
130
134
45
65
55
68
120
123
133
52
71
72
73
143
145
144
50
51
57
57
108
114
108
46
63
60
75
123
135
138
45
49
58
71
107
129
120
58
71
59
66
130
125
137
51
62
62
72
124
134
134
46
69
58
66
127
124
135
65
55
63
64
118
127
119
43
44
55
67
99
122
111
45
52
58
55
110
113
107
52
121
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
51
59
56
110
115
107
47
66
68
76
134
144
142
60
67
50
53
117
103
120
67
64
52
71
116
123
135
58
58
72
62
130
134
120
58
55
56
60
111
116
115
37
62
75
68
137
143
130
51
58
68
71
126
139
129
51
61
68
75
129
143
136
54
48
60
73
108
133
121
41
54
58
73
112
131
127
54
45
62
73
107
135
118
40
62
59
47
121
106
109
44
62
59
70
121
129
132
50
61
65
69
126
134
130
45
48
42
36
90
78
84
41
70
73
71
143
144
141
44
55
56
62
111
118
117
45
58
55
62
113
117
120
66
55
58
60
113
118
115
49
54
52
70
106
122
124
54
61
65
65
126
130
126
53
62
66
65
128
131
127
51
62
66
65
128
131
127
51
65
62
69
127
131
134
40
64
62
52
126
114
116
45
63
55
67
118
122
130
51
70
70
66
140
136
136
41
70
71
72
141
143
142
44
70
71
72
141
143
142
49
67
65
68
132
133
135
56
70
54
62
124
116
132
40
67
59
54
126
113
121
71
49
47
67
96
114
116
44
55
55
70
110
125
125
49
63
54
63
117
117
126
46
64
56
66
120
122
130
52
74
56
73
130
129
147
61
64
55
68
119
123
132
54
71
74
74
145
148
145
45
71
75
75
146
150
146
45
53
73
61
126
134
114
43
67
67
72
134
139
139
49
67
67
72
134
139
139
55
53
56
71
109
127
124
54
53
59
55
112
114
108
40
73
65
72
138
137
145
45
122
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
54
74
62
128
136
116
43
71
66
72
137
138
143
56
66
60
73
126
133
139
57
57
52
75
109
127
132
47
60
51
67
111
118
127
47
62
62
72
124
134
134
54
74
66
72
140
138
146
53
74
64
69
138
133
143
55
64
80
76
144
156
140
45
48
62
65
110
127
113
50
63
46
65
109
111
128
59
64
47
65
111
112
129
54
61
69
64
130
133
125
50
46
60
62
106
122
108
53
63
65
62
128
127
125
51
60
63
70
123
133
130
46
70
70
70
140
140
140
49
68
58
57
126
115
125
70
53
50
50
103
100
103
61
52
51
50
103
101
102
61
62
59
69
121
128
131
50
55
60
64
115
124
119
53
70
63
74
133
137
144
54
63
71
59
134
130
122
60
63
62
69
125
131
132
42
56
46
57
102
103
113
68
57
55
70
112
125
127
61
57
56
70
113
126
127
60
56
66
73
122
139
129
49
49
51
63
100
114
112
51
48
41
58
89
99
106
57
75
67
72
142
139
147
50
72
48
72
120
120
144
56
71
47
75
118
122
146
64
47
53
40
100
93
87
48
61
60
52
121
112
113
54
56
55
55
111
110
111
53
65
62
72
127
134
137
59
64
65
65
129
130
129
54
61
60
61
121
121
122
46
64
64
60
128
124
124
48
62
62
76
124
138
138
48
68
70
78
138
148
146
44
56
65
75
121
140
131
54
53
69
71
122
140
124
45
69
67
72
136
139
141
62
65
63
71
128
134
136
59
123
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
56
39
44
95
83
100
54
55
58
73
113
131
128
48
63
74
66
137
140
129
52
63
72
70
135
142
133
48
66
63
58
129
121
124
49
64
53
69
117
122
133
45
54
68
64
122
132
118
48
64
56
64
120
120
128
56
67
62
73
129
135
140
44
63
63
73
126
136
136
48
71
61
62
132
123
133
63
67
69
77
136
146
144
55
59
64
65
123
129
124
59
62
68
77
130
145
139
46
56
44
68
100
112
124
47
58
62
65
120
127
123
49
63
62
70
125
132
133
56
54
54
64
108
118
118
45
65
56
59
121
115
124
54
68
68
77
136
145
145
55
61
45
56
106
101
117
53
55
62
68
117
130
123
45
65
70
78
135
148
143
59
57
66
70
123
136
127
55
60
59
69
119
128
129
57
70
78
79
148
157
149
60
56
54
39
110
93
95
55
40
43
56
83
99
96
56
49
41
64
90
105
113
49
54
62
68
116
130
122
46
56
40
43
96
83
99
46
46
39
58
85
97
104
56
57
58
64
115
122
121
56
61
55
74
116
129
135
46
62
70
72
132
142
134
46
64
56
62
120
118
126
50
49
57
56
106
113
105
48
65
56
76
121
132
141
51
56
61
55
117
116
111
56
53
60
61
113
121
114
41
47
58
58
105
116
105
50
59
49
68
108
117
127
59
60
47
67
107
114
127
63
61
48
69
109
117
130
56
50
56
61
106
117
111
45
52
54
67
106
121
119
54
61
47
56
108
103
117
51
124
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
55
55
68
110
123
123
49
58
69
76
127
145
134
44
64
60
62
124
122
126
56
61
68
64
129
132
125
57
51
59
64
110
123
115
43
56
50
71
106
121
127
45
61
54
58
115
112
119
50
63
65
70
128
135
133
52
57
65
73
122
138
130
49
60
74
76
134
150
136
43
59
46
69
105
115
128
50
59
74
58
133
132
117
50
61
63
64
124
127
125
52
60
52
76
112
128
136
55
65
64
67
129
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