ALLUSION
An allusion is an indirect
reference to a person,
place, event or
artistic work.
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Examples of ALLUSION
*“Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo” is a
reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, who is completely in
love with Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”.
*The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of
crimes. – This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology’s
origin myths, “Pandora’s box”.
*“This place is like a Garden of Eden.” – This is a biblical
allusion to the “garden of God” in the Book of Genesis.
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ANALYSIS
Analysis is a detailed
examination of the elements or
structure of something, typically
as a basis for discussion or
interpretation.
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Examples of ANALYSIS
Example #1: (Robin Hood)
The use of a monarchy or kingdom setting in Robin Hood allowed the author to
portray the abuses of power that often occur among the wealthiest members of a
community.
Example #2: (Snow White)
The use of certain plot elements in Snow White, such as the poisoned apple and
resulting slumber, help readers understand that being too trusting can lead to
dire consequences.
Example #3: (Cinderella)
The author of Cinderella paired lazy female characters with a hard–working
female protagonist to show that hard work leads to love and happiness.
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ANNOTATION
Annotating a text, or marking
the pages with notes, is an
excellent, if not essential, way
to make the most out of the
reading you do.
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Examples of ANNOTATION
Annotating text includes the following components:
(a) writing brief summaries in the text margins in the students' own words;
(b) enumerating multiple ideas (e.g., cause-and-effect relations,
characteristics);
(c) noting examples in the margins;
(d) putting information on graphics and charts if appropriate;
(e) marking possible test questions;
(f) noting confusing ideas with a question mark in the margins; and
(g) selectively underlining key words or phrases
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ASSERTION
When someone makes a
statement investing strong
belief in it, as if it is true
(though it may not be), it is
called making an assertion.
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Example of ASSERTION
From George Orwell’s Animal Farm:
In, Animal Farm, pigs make use of assertion as a tool for making
propaganda in the entire novel in order to weaken the position of other
animals from having contradiction with their rules and leadership. In
chapter seven, Squealer informs other animals that they need not to
sing the original anthem of the Old Major, Beasts of England — a
song they used to inspire the revolution in chapter one. Squealer
asserts, saying, “It’s no longer needed, comrade…In Beasts of
England we expressed our longing for a better society in days to come.
However, that society as now been established. Clearly this song has
no longer any purpose.”
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CHARACTERIZATION
Characterization is a literary
device that is used step by
step in literature to highlight
and explain the details about a
character in a story.
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DIRECT CHARACTERIZATION
Direct characterization takes a
direct approach towards building the
character. It uses another character,
narrator or the protagonist himself
to tell the readers or audience about
the subject.
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Examples of
DIRECT CHARACTERIZATION
1. Karen is bright, energetic, and helpful.
Here, the writer uses adjectives to describe who Karen is
as a character.
2. Joe was motivated by money. He had no use for love or
family.
The sentence above directly states the character of Joe
by telling us what motivates him: money.
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Example of
INDIRECT CHARACTERIZATION
If a mother calmly tells her son it's time for bed and he
responds by saying, 'No, I don't have to do what you say!
I'm staying up all night!' then we can infer that this young
boy is angry, obstinate and may have authority issues.
The author is not telling us directly what kind of
personality the little boy has; instead, we must decide this
based on the author’s use of speech.
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DICTION
Diction can be defined as style
of speaking or writing
determined by the choice of
words by a speaker or a
writer.
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CONNOTATION
A connotation is a meaning
that is implied by a word
apart from the thing which
it describes explicitly.
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Examples of CONNOTATION




A “dog” connotes shamelessness or an ugly face.
A “dove” implies peace or gentility.
“Home” suggests family, comfort and security.
“Politician” has a negative connotation of wickedness and
insincerity while “statesperson” connotes sincerity.
 “Pushy” refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating.
 “Mom and Dad” when used in place of mother and father
connotes loving parents.
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DENOTATION
A denotation is generally
defined as literal or dictionary
meanings of a word in contrast
to its connotative or associated
meanings.
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Example of DENOTATION
If you search for the meaning of the
word “dove” in a dictionary, you will see
that its meaning is “a type of pigeon, a
wild and domesticated bird having a
heavy body and short legs.”
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GENERLIZATION
A generalization is a general
statement or concept
obtained by inference from
specific cases.
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Examples of GENERLIZATION
 Cats are nicer than dogs.
 Dogs are smarter than cats.
 Only a fool would believe what that
commercial says.
 Learning to drive isn’t difficult.
 College is the only way a person can be
properly educated.
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IMAGERY
Imagery means to use
figurative language to represent
object, actions and ideas in such
a way that it appeals to the
physical senses.
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Examples of IMAGERY
 It was dark and dim in the forest. – The words
“dark” and “dim” are visual images.
 The children were screaming and shouting in the
fields. – “Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to
our sense of hearing or auditory sense.
 He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. –
“whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell
or olfactory sense.
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INFERENCE
Inference is a literary device
used commonly in literature and
in daily life where logical
deductions are made based on
premises assumed to be true.
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Example of INFERENCE
Sheldon Cooper: I took another look at the board, and I
realized you were right.
Raj Koothrappali: So you were wrong.
Sheldon Cooper: I’m not saying that.
Raj Koothrappali: That’s the only logical inference.
Sheldon Cooper: I’m still not saying it.
(Jim Parsons and Kunal Nayyar, “The Pirate Solution.” The Big Bang Theory, 2009)
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JUXTAPOSTION
Juxtapostion is a literary technique in
which two or more ideas, places,
characters and their actions are
placed side by side in a narrative or a
poem for the purpose of developing
comparisons and contrasts.
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Example of JUXTAPOSTION
Juxtaposition is a literary device that William Shakespeare uses most
commonly in his play “Romeo and Juliet”. We notice the juxtaposition of
“light and “darkness” repeatedly. Consider an example from Act I,
Scene V:
“O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!
It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night
Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope’s ear;”
Here, the radiant face of Juliet is juxtaposed with a black African’s dark
skin. Romeo admires Juliet by saying that her face seems brighter than
brightly lit torches in the hall. He says that at night her face glows like a
bright jewel that shines against the dark skin of an African.
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MAIN IDEA
The main idea is the most
important or central thought of
a paragraph or larger section
of text, which tells the reader
what the text is about.
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Examples of MAIN IDEA
Example #1:
It is often said that lightning never strikes twice in the same place, but this isn’t
true. Go ask the forest rangers. Rangers who spend their summers as firefighters will tell you that every thundershower brings several bolts of lightning to
their lookout stations. (Notice that the first sentence tells what the paragraph is
about; the sentences that follow support the idea stated in the first sentence.)
Example #2:
Costs were low that year and the output high. There was a good person for each
job and the market remained firm. There were no losses from fire. All in all it
was the best years in the history of the company. (Note that the first three
sentences give details to explain why it was the best year in the company’s
history.
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MOOD
In literature, mood is a
literary element that evokes
certain feelings or vibes in
readers through words and
descriptions.
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Example of MOOD
Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful
mood in his novel “Pickwick Papers”:
“The river, reflecting the clear blue of the
sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed
noiselessly on.”
The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a
serene and non-violent mood to the readers.
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PARAPHRASE
To paraphrase is to express an
idea or somebody’s message in
our own words by maintaining
the meaning of original
material.
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Examples of PARAPHRASING
• Example #1:
Original: Her life spanned years of incredible change for women.
Paraphrase: Mary lived through an era of liberating reform for
women.
• Example #2:
Original: Giraffes like Acacia leaves and hay, and they can
consume 75 pounds of food a day.
Paraphrase: A giraffe can eat up to 75 pounds of Acacia leaves
and hay everyday.
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POINT OF VIEW
Point of view is the angle of considering
things, which shows us the opinion, or
feelings of the individuals involved in a
situation. In literature, point of view is the
mode of narration that an author employs to
let the readers “hear” and “see” what takes
place in a story, poem, essay etc.
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Example of
FIRST PERSON POINT OF VIEW
Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first person point of view
to express his subjective feelings about the scene of daffodils in
his famous poem “Daffodils”.
“I gazed–and gazed–but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought.”
The use of the pronoun “I” gives a special quality to the feelings
expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has
employed first person point of view to share with us his own
personal emotions.
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Example of
SECOND PERSON POINT OF VIEW
Read the following lines from “Bright Lights, Big City” by Jay
Mclnemey:
“You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at
this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that
the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy.”
The writer illustrates the use of second person point of view by
using the pronoun “you”. This technique may be a little rare but you
can realize that it has its own strength of hooking the reader right
from the start.
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Example of
THIRD PERSON POINT OF VIEW
Have a look at the following lines from “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen:
“When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her
praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired
him.”
“He is just what a young man ought to be,” said she, “sensible, good humoured,
lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good
breeding!”
These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third person point of view. The excerpt
shows the reader two different ways of the use of the third person point of view.
Jane Austen first presents two leading characters Jane and Elizabeth, from the third
person point of view and then shows us that the two characters are talking about
Bingley from their own third person point of view.
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SUMMARY
A summary is a brief
statement or account of
the main points of
something.
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Example of SUMMARY
Summary of Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”:
It's the story of a young prince of Denmark who
discovers that his uncle and his mother have killed his
father, the former king. He plots to get revenge, but
in his obsession with revenge he drives his
sweetheart to madness and suicide, kills her innocent
father, and in the final scene poisons and is poisoned
by her brother in a duel, causes his mother's death,
and kills the guilty king, his uncle.
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SYNTAX
Syntax is a set of rules in a
language. It dictates how words
from different parts of speech
are put together in order to
convey a complete thought.
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Example of SYNTAX
In casual conversations, we can simply say, “I
cannot go out” to convey our inability to go out. P
J Kavanagh’s in his poem Beyond Decoration does
not rely on merely stating a prosaic “I cannot go
out”. Rather, he shifts the syntax and says “Go
out I cannot”, which lays a much stronger
emphasis on the inability to go out conveyed by the
word “cannot”.
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THEME
Theme is defined as a main
idea or an underlying meaning
of a literary work that may be
stated directly or indirectly.
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Examples of THEME
• Love and Friendship – as seen
in works such as “Romeo and
Juliet” or “Frog and Toad are
Friends”
• War – as seen in works like
“The Iliad and Odyssey”
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Tone
Tone, in written composition, is an
attitude of a writer toward a subject
or an audience. Tone is generally
conveyed through the choice of words
or the viewpoint of a writer on a
particular subject.
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Example of Tone
*Example #1:
Father: “We are going on a vacation.”
Son: “That’s great!!!”
– The tone of son’s response is very cheerful.
*Example #2:
Father: “We can’t go on vacation this summer.”
Son: “Oh, great! Just what I expected.”
– The son’s tone is sarcastic in the given
response.
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Allusion
Analysis
“Don’t act like a Romeo in front
of her.” – “Romeo” is a
reference to Shakespeare’s
Romeo, who is completely in
love with Juliet, in “Romeo and
Juliet”.
The use of certain plot elements in
Snow White, such as the poisoned
apple and resulting slumber, help
readers understand that being too
trusting can lead to dire
consequences.
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Annotation
writing brief summaries in the text margins in
the students' own words; enumerating multiple
ideas (e.g., cause-and-effect relations,
characteristics); noting examples in the
margins; putting information on graphics and
charts if appropriate; marking possible test
questions; noting confusing ideas with a
question mark in the margins; and selectively
underlining key words or phrases
Assertion
In chapter seven of the novel Animal Farm Squealer
informs other animals that they need not to sing the
original anthem of the Old Major, Beasts of England
— a song they used to inspire the revolution in
chapter one. Squealer asserts, saying, “It’s no
longer needed, comrade…In Beasts of England we
expressed our longing for a better society in days
to come. However, that society as now been
established. Clearly this song has no longer any
purpose.”
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Direct
Characterization
Karen is bright,
energetic, and
helpful.
Indirect
Characterization
If a mother calmly tells her son it's
time for bed and he responds by
saying, 'No, I don't have to do what
you say! I'm staying up all night!'
then we can infer that this young
boy is angry, obstinate and may
have authority issues.
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Connotation
 A “dove” implies peace
or gentility.
 “Home” suggests
family, comfort and
security.
Denotation
If you search for the meaning of
the word “dove” in a dictionary,
you will see that its meaning is
“a type of pigeon, a wild and
domesticated bird having a
heavy body and short legs.”
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Generalization
 Cats are nicer than dogs.
 Dogs are smarter than cats.
 Only a fool would believe what that
commercial says.
 Learning to drive isn’t difficult.
 College is the only way a person
can be properly educated.
Imagery

The children were screaming and
shouting in the fields. – “Screaming”
and “shouting” appeal to our sense of
hearing or auditory sense.

He whiffed the aroma of brewed
coffee. – “whiff” and “aroma” evoke
our sense of smell or olfactory sense.
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Inference
Sheldon Cooper: I took another
look at the board, and I realized
you were right.
Raj Koothrappali: So you were
wrong.
Romeo and Juliet: Act I, Scene V:
“O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!
Juxtapostion
It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night
Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope’s ear;”
Romeo admires Juliet by saying that her face seems
brighter than brightly lit torches in the hall. He says
that at night her face glows like a bright jewel that
shines against the dark skin of an African.
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Main
Idea
Mood
It is often said that lightning never strikes twice
in the same place, but this isn’t true. Go ask the
forest rangers. Rangers who spend their
summers as fire-fighters will tell you that every
thundershower brings several bolts of lightning
to their lookout stations.
(Notice that the first sentence tells what the
paragraph is about. The sentences that follow
support the idea stated in the first sentence.)
“The river, reflecting the
clear blue of the sky,
glistened and sparkled as it
flowed noiselessly on.”
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Original: Giraffes like Acacia leaves
Paraphrase
First Person
Point of View
and hay, and they can consume 75
pounds of food a day.
Another Way: A giraffe can eat up to
75 pounds of Acacia leaves and hay
everyday.
“I gazed–and gazed–but little
thought
What wealth the show to me had
brought.”
The use of the pronoun “I” gives
a special quality to the feelings
expressed in these lines.
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Second
Person
Point of View
“You are not the kind of guy who
would be at a place like this at this
time of the morning. But here you
are, and you cannot say that the
terrain is entirely unfamiliar,
although the details are fuzzy.”
The writer uses the pronoun
“you”.
“When Jane and Elizabeth were alone,
Third Person
Point of View
the former, who had been cautious in
her praise of Mr. Bingley before,
expressed to her sister how very much
she admired him.”
The writer is talking from an “all
knowing” perspective and uses pronouns
such as “her” and “she” to tell about
the action in this story.
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Summary
Hamlet is the story of a young prince of
Denmark who discovers that his uncle and his
mother have killed his father, the former
king. He plots to get revenge, but in his
obsession with revenge he drives his
sweetheart to madness and suicide, kills her
innocent father, and in the final scene
poisons and is poisoned by her brother in a
duel, causes his mother's death, and kills the
guilty king, his uncle.
Syntax
In casual conversations, we can simply say,
“I cannot go out” to convey our inability to
go out. P J Kavanagh’s in his poem Beyond
Decoration does not rely on merely stating
“I cannot go out”. Rather, he says “Go out
I cannot”, which lays a much stronger
emphasis on the inability to go out
conveyed by the word “cannot”.
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Theme
Tone
*Love and Friendship – as
seen in works such as
“Romeo and Juliet” or “Frog
and Toad are Friends”
or
*War – as seen in works like
“The Iliad and Odyssey”
*Example #1:
Father: “We are going on a vacation.”
Son: “That’s great!!!”
– The son’s response is very cheerful.
*Example #2:
Father: “We can’t go on vacation this
summer.”
Son: “Oh, great! Just what I expected.”
– The son’s response is sarcastic.
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