From Success to Progress:
The Professionalization and Legitimization of
Advertising Practioners, 1820-1920
Pamela Walker Laird t
Boston University
Between1890and 1920,Americanadvertisingagentsadaptedto their
rapidlychanging
business
andculturalenvironments
by changingtheir clients,
their services,and their rhetoric. The professionalization
that accompanied
thesechanges
reflectedthefundamentalbusiness
developments
of the period.
In makingthistransition,advertising
practitioners
beganbothto broadentheir
rangeof functionsand to arguefor a newbasisof professional
legitimation.
In thisperiod,advertising
professionals
aggressively
absorbedgreatercontrol
over their clients'advertising,
claimingthat only they had the expertiseto
directthe campaigns
that were beingconductedon ever increasingscales.
Furthermore,admenandtheiradvocates
beganto arguefor the legitimacyof
the emergingprofession
asa necessary
contributorto nationalprogress,
both
material and cultural. This paper will explain this aggressivecase of
professional
specialization,
includingthe advertisingspecialists'
expanding
senseof their importancein the nation'sbusiness
and culturallife.
The Role of Advertising in the New Business Environment
The beginnings
of the modernization
of advertising
practicescan be
tracedto the profoundchanges
thatAmericanbusiness
institutions
underwent
between1890and 1910. Before1890,continuous-process
technologies
had
been increasinglyapplied to produceexpandingvarietiesof goods [8].
Between 1890 and 1910, the concentrationof industrial assetsinto fewer,
larger farms also dominateddevelopmentsin businessorganizationand
practices.As the sizesof firmsandtheirindustrialcapacitygrew,theybegan
to explore and to exploit national and internationalmarkets in order to
maximize their turnover,or throughput,and therefore the efficient and
profitableuseof theirtechnologies.
Controllingbusiness
conditions,
including
markets,wasa major consideration
in the business
strategiesof thisperiod[7,
8,26, 30].
•Thispaper
summarizes
oneconclusion
of mydissertation,
•TheBusiness
of Progress:
The
Transformationof AmericanAdvertising,1870-1920."
BUSINESS AND ECONOMIC HISTORY, Second
Series,
VolumeTwenty-one,
1992.
Copyright(c) 1992by the Business
HistoryConference.ISSN 08494825.
307
308
How could industriesusingcontinuous-process
machinerygenerate
consumerdemandand, hence,prices,volume,and profit? Well-promoted,
trademarked
products
werethekey,andmanyindustrialists
hadalreadycome
to appreciate
andto exploittheirtrademarks
asmeansof controlling
markets
before 1890. As a memory hook for advertisingappeals,well-advertised
trademarks
helpto replacethetraditionalpushof salesforcesandmiddlemen
withthemodernpullof specific
demandfromtheconsuming
population
and
assuring
that consumers
would"acceptno substitute."
For their part, advertisingpractitionersinitially distrustedthe
concentration
of industry. Indeed,the threat of the trustsforcedadmento
rethinkthe role of theirservices
in the newbusiness
environment.Theyoften
expressedthe fear that mergerswould destroythe traditionalforms of
competition,
leavingindustrialists
with no incentiveto advertise[2, 43]. By
1899,however,somewritersreprovedthosewhohadshown"theirlackof faith
in advertising
as a necessary
elementin business
building."To the contrary,
while"trustsmaytemporarily
decrease
theamountexpended
for advertising,
ß.. if thereis anyreal valuein advertising
it is certainthatin the longrun the
amountannuallyexpended
for it will growwith the years"[10]. One analyst
explainedthat despitethe contentionsof "someeconomists,
most trust
promotersand all Socialists,"
competitionwas not the "prime causeof
advertising."Instead, advertisingwas "a necessarydevicein the modern
systemof distributing
goods,a systemby whichsellingcanbe donewithfar
lessexpensethan in any other way." The nature and operationof modern
industryinformedanother'sopinion:
What the automaticmachineis to manufacturing
goods,that the
advertisement
is to sellingthem,andasthemachinethrivesbest
whereproduction
ismosthighlyorganized
andcarriedononthe
larger scale,so advertising
will be mostextensively
employed
wheredistribution
is mosthighlydeveloped
.... The trustwill
have no more incentivefor abandoningthe modern selling
machinethan throwingout the mostimprovedmachinery.
Moreover,advertising
provided
the"motivepowerbywhichmodernsellingin
any branchis kept up with the procession"
of production.Additionally,
competition
couldalwaysreemergeshoulda trustfail to advertise
adequately
to maintainits hegemony[1, 16].
Theexample
of RoyalBakingPowderwasoneof manycitedearlyand
often as evidenceof successfully
achievingproductdifferentiationof "a
commoncommercial
productthathasnothingsecretin its composition
or in
the mannerof its compounding."Consumerdemandfor Royal Baking
Powderwassuchthatgrocers
couldnotrefuseto carrythisbrand,evenunder
whattheycalled"irksome
conditions."
Royal'sexpenditures
onadvertising
had
yieldedthisresult,andthereforeadvertising
waslessof an expense
thanan
investment[6; 35, p. 69].
3O9
Specialization
By 1920the advertising
profession
hadachieved
itsmodernform,yet,
aslate as1900,it wasnot at all clearwhatpathits evolutionwouldtake [35,
pp. 142-152].Prior to 1890,advertising
practitioners
had operatedmainlyas
spacebrokersfor businesspeoplewho only wantedhelp in placingtheir
messages
in newspapers
and journals. However,to succeedby 1900, an
advertising
agencyhadto takeon newresponsibilities,
especially
copywriting,
graphics,andplanningadvertising
programs.
Within the nineteenth-century
owner-manager
systemof operation,
founders,partners,officers,and their kin had performedmostmanagerial
functions,includingmakingadvertising
decisions.However,the shift away
from entrepreneurialcapitalism,first to financialcapitalismand then to
managerialcapitalism,distancedownershipfrom increasinglyspecialized
managerialcontrols[8, pp.6-10,36-46,490-500;15,pp. 1-37,73-89;41;42,pp.
161-172;45]. Furthermore,asthe costsof nationaladvertising
increased,the
marginsfor error spiraledup, as did concernsfor achievingeffectiveness.
Therefore manufacturers,farstownersthen managers,increasinglysought
specialists,
delegating
advertising
decisions
eitherto in-housespecialists
or to
outsideadvertising
professionals.
"Egoists"
andtheir "superficial
Knowledge"
had to be replacedwith "experts"
in all phasesof business
[3, 9].
Rivaltiesbetweenadvertising
specialists
as well astheirjoint interests
in convincingever more advertisersto rely on professionalassistance
motivateda rapid evolutionof advertisingstrategies,includingprimitive
marketresearchand changes
in the stylesof the advertisements
themselves.
The wide experimentation
and innovationin pursuitof effectivemarketing
duringthistake-offperiodbefore1920produceda truly remarkablearrayof
marketing successes
[39]. While most recent analystsof marketing
developmentsexpressthe sentimentthat these successes
in promoting
consumption
havenot beenunmixedblessings,
the tradeliteraturewasthen,
and generallyremains,unambiguously
self-congratulatory
in its assessments
[18, 31, 33].
Raising Standards and ChangingClients
Competition,the innovationsthat resulted,and a variety of other
pressures
to professionalize
advertising
practicesalsofostereda wide-ranging
literatureof legitimation.Admenwrotenot onlyto encourage
their peersto
raisetheirprofessional
standards
andto convince
theirbusiness
audiences
that
thosestandards
werealreadyadequate,
but alsoto influencethepressandthe
generalpublic. Swindles,
scams,and nuisances
of variouskinds,including
patentmedicinepromotions,darkenedthe field'sreputationthroughoutthe
Progressive
Era.
As the onlyoccupation
entirelyidentifiedwith advertising,
the agents'
reputationsas a whole suffereddisrepute. As a result, during their
transformation,
leadersoftenwroteto distancethemselves
fromthe practices
that taintedthe advertising
profession.More importantly,the field'sleaders
graduallychangedtheir clientele,seekingout the advertisers
of the coming
310
age,the nationalbrandmanufacturers,
ratherthan the advertisers
of the past
age [4; 19, pp. 111-114]. The Truth-in-Advertising
movementof the 1910s
explicitlyattemptedto forestallregulationby internal policingof assorted
advertising
frauds.
To replace myriad small accountsand patent medicineaccounts,
leadingagencies
soughtthe large-scale
manufacturing
corporations
thatwere
comingto dominatethe nationalmarketplace. In order to attract these
clients,agenciesexpandedand centralizedservicesto meet suchadvertisers'
increasingneeds,to includefull planningand creativefunctionsby 1920. As
Daniel M. Lord, Chicago'sleadingagent,declaredin 1903,"the conditions
surroundingthe business[had] changed"sincehis first yearsin it, and the
profession'sadaptationshad finally earned it a respectedposition. The
modernadvertising
agency,he declared,
is not only a conduit through which businesspassesfrom
advertiserto newspaper,
but is a developerof business,and
throughtheir agency,throughtheir work, a manufactureris
enablednot only to increasehis trade and his profit, but not
infrequently
adoptnewmethodsandmoresatisfactory
methods
for developinghis business.
The benefitsof the agencycame"notonlysofar assavingmoney,but in more
efficientwork, in choiceof media and more efficientcopy." Agencieswere
developinga client-centeredemphasison honestyand service,and Lord
concluded that
as time goeson the honestadvertisingman is boundto be of
moreinfluence,fill a biggerspacein the business
worldandbe
a factorto reckonwithin all successful
manufacturing
business,
or any line that is seekinggeneralpublicity
....
In short,he
standsas a leader in the developmentof businessto the
advertiser,to the publisher,and last--tohis own profit [28].
Once advertisingspecialistsbegan preparing advertisementson a
routine basis, their legitimation literature added effective copywriting
strategiesto effectiveand efficient placementof advertisements
as their
contributions.Favorablecomparisons
with the past abounded,such as,
"Advertisements
are no longerthe regulationmustyaffairsthey usedto be.
They are amongthe most artisticand attractivefeaturesof the popular
newspaper"
[32]. By 1893advertising's
advocates
predictedthat shortlythe
widening
interestin howadvertisements
werepreparedwould"makethestyle
almostmore importantthan the thingsaid. This may reverse,possibly,the
order of nature,but it doesnot allowanymore than the properstressupon
the primevalueof makingan impression"
[5]. Advisorsbeganto insistthat
onlyprofessional
copywriters
couldpreparegoodadvertisements.
In 1891,for
example,a lead article in Printers' Ink was entitled "Hints on Preparing
Advertisements,"
but fully half of the "Hints"suggested
hiringa professional
copywriter.As firms grew, anotherexplainedin 1893,their ownerscould
311
spendlesstimein advertising
andwerenotlikelyto developthe "popularway
of writing"as successfully
as professionals.The new advertisingmethods,
somesaid,"coaxedalong"success
by amusingreaders[36].
The pleasuresthat the new advertisements
affordedtheir audiences
were less important,however,than their effectson the successes
of the
advertisers
who patronizedthe field. As Daniel M. Lord, declared,
I canrememberwhenthe advertising
agentwaslookeduponas
somethingto be enduredbecausehe couldnot be cured,and I
tell you,gentlemen,no time in the historyof business
hasthe
advertising
man stoodso highin the estimationof the business
world as he standstoday....
He fills a placebroaderand
bigger than ever before, and as time goes on the honest
advertising
man is boundto be of more influence[28].
Successand Legitimation
Efficientlyand effectivelycreatingand placingadvertisements
have
neverbeenendsin themselves.
Before1899,theysupported
thepractitioners'
fundamentalclaimsto legitimacy,namelyservingclients'successes.
N.W.
Ayer & Sonled the fieldin manyinnovations
in servingclientsby applyingits
slogan,"Make advertisingpaythe advertiser."Until the end of the century,
advertising
practitioners
measured
thefield'scontributions
solelybyindividual
firms' successes
through enhancedprofits. Advertisingmen had never
doubtedthe efficacyof advertisements
assellingdevices,
whoevercreatedthe
messages.Advertisershad only to use it to succeed. From the field's
begit•tings,advocates
like the earlyleaderGeorgeRowelldeclared,
The importanceof advertising
is undisputed
and universally
admitted.The extentto whichit is carriedprovesbeyonddoubt
its usefulness,
and advantages.The manwho advertises
onceis
sure to do so again,. . . It opensthe most direct road to
success
and offersequalinducements
to all parties[38].
As an articlein the NewYorkTimesconcluded,
"apotof printer'sink is better
than the greatestgold mine"[20].
The Panicof 1893and its ensuingdepression
had a profoundimpact
on advertising's
rhetoric. As might be expected,advertising's
advocates
encouraged
businessmen
to work their individualways out of dull times
throughaggressive
advertising.
Butin addition,theseverity
of thedepression
compelledadvertising
practitioners
to developmoreeffectivetechniques
and
strongerargumentsabout advertising's
potentialfor generatingdemand.
Throughout
the"dulltimes"theadvertising
presspushed
itscase,insisting
that
advertising"createstrade."
312
ProgressTowards Progress
By the last years of the depression,advocateshad begun crediting
advertising
withwhateverprosperity
existed,extending
their perceptionof its
impactbeyondindividualsuccesses.
J. Walter ThompsonCompanyjoinedthis
trend in 1897by addressing
a broadlylegitimatingstatementto "Intelligent
Business Men."
Advertising
formstodaysoimportanta partof the prosperity
of
the individual,of the corporation,evenof the nation,that here
at the end of this progressive
nineteenthcenturyit has,by the
subtlemagicof brains,art andprinter'sink,beendevelopedinto
a veritablescience[21, p. 5].
In 1899,the agencydeclared,
The merchantwho does not believe in advertisingdoes not
believein banks,insuranceor other modern institutions.He is
a relicof the lostages.Vigorousadvertisements
leadthewilling
customersand drag the unwilling....
This agencykeepson
hand moderntools and equipmentin the shapeof ideasand
experience that will prove of value even to the veteran
advertiser. Keep up with the procession... [22, p. 9].
The title andcontentof SelfCultureMagazineincorporatedmanyof the
Victorianera'sstrategies
for bothindividualandcollective
progress.In it, in
1899 Oscar Herzberg, the managingeditor of Printers' Ink, wrote "The
Century'sAchievements
in Business."He announced,
"More radicalchanges
havebeen made in the conductof businessduringthe centurynow drawing
to a closethan in all the eraspreceding."Herzbergglorifiedadvertisingas
"indeed,one of the great developments
of the century. It hasrevolutionized
business
and madeit possibleto accomplish
in a few yearswhat otherwise
would have taken generationsto compass"
[17].
At last,in Herzberg'sanalysis,we can find an explicitarticulationof
advertising's
roles in businessand industrialprogressand, importantly,in
overallmaterialprogress.
2 Industrialinnovators
couldnowintroducetheir
productsto "the entire public almostliterally at a bound." Herzberg also
expoundedon the expansionof trade that advertisingmade possible,
21thoroughly
surveyed
Printers'
Inkonthisandother
issues,
working
through
itonapage
by pagebasisfrom its first issuein 1888through1900,intermittentlyfrom 1901through1906,
and then thoroughlyagainfor 1907. I examinedProfitableAdvertisingfor its first ten years,
1891-1900,as well as for 1908 and intermittentlyin between. JudiciousAdvertisingwas more
difficultto locatein full runs,and hence,my surveyof it is not exhaustivefor any set of years.
I havealsoexaminedall of the materialthat predates1920in the archivesof N.W. Ayer & Son,
J.WalterThompsonCompany,and the AdvertisingCollectionof the Collectionof Business
Americanaat the National Museumof AmericanHistop/.
313
benefitingboth sellerandbuyerby developing
marketsfor the "hundreds
of
improvements
and articlesby whichlife canbe made more pleasant"[17].
Appropriating Progressfrom Industry
Driving advertisingspecialiststo improveon their communications
abilitieswere the advertisers'needsfor high volumesof transactions.To
promotesuchlevelsof consumption,
the admenhadto learnto persuadetheir
audiences
onbehalfof theirclients.Onceadvertising
specialists
accepted
this
roleandthencameto competeasmarketingandcommunication
experts,they
developedan awareness
of the marketplacethat advertisers,
particularlythe
industrialists,
had formerlylacked. In Language
for Men of Affairs,James
MelvinLee admonished
advertisers
that,"it isnotby hisowntaste,but by the
tasteof the fish,that the anglerdetermineshis choiceof bait." Only market
researchcouldprovidethatbait, andhe explainedits importancein sections
entitled "Investigating
the Basisof Appeal" and "Studyingthe Consumer's
Taste"[27].
Despitethe growingnumberof marketingsuccesses
throughmodern
advertising
methods,
advertisers
oftenchallenged
thespecialists
theyhadhired
or commissioned
to prepare their advertisements.A client'sopposition
sometimes resulted from "his instinctive distrust of unfamiliar
ideas and
methods"[19, pp. 372-382]. Whateverits source,this resistance
made the
specialistsfeel that their rightful authority in marketing matters was
continually
challenged,
and their literaturetookan aggressive
stanceagainst
their patrons [37; 13, pp. 517-519]. As the J. Walter ThompsonCompany
expressed
the properorder of things,modernadvertising
servicescouldbe
mosthelpful"tothe Manufacturerwhoknowshowto co-operateloyallyand
whole-heartedly
with his Advertising
Agency"[24]. (emphasis
in original)
Someanalystscomplained,
About half the labor of expertadvertising
creatorsis wastedin
trying to convincetheir clientsthat they really know their
business,
andin arguingthemout of theirwrongpositions.The
labor is all wasted,and it impairsthe goodagent'spowerto be
obligedto strugglewith his customerin order that he maybe
allowed to serve his customer as well as he can. This condition
doesnot prevailin anyotherprofession.It shouldnot prevail
in advertising.A manwhowishesto advertiseshouldstudythe
scienceof advertising,or resign himselfinto the hands of
someonewhomhe hasreasonto believedoesknowhisbusiness,
andis honest[14, p. 243].
Nonetheless,
advertisers
wereservedbestby advertisements
thatpleasedthem
less than they pleasedconsumers,
thereforethe advertisingprofessionals'
growinginfluencetestifiedto the effectiveness
of the marketingcampaigns
theycreatedduringthistransitionperiod.
In the nineteenthcentury,the heroes of progress,for those who
accepted
the prevalentbourgeois
ethos,werethe inventorsandentrepreneurs
314
whoseindustriesgeneratedprosperity.Accordingly,in 1849,when the first
American advertisingagent, Volney B. Palmer, touted his "Systematic
Advertising,"
he claimedthatit wouldbenefitsocietyby reducingthe numbers
of peopleengagedin marketing.This wouldliberate"a greatproportionof
the agents and servitorsof Commerce, to be engagedthenceforthin
ProductiveLabor" [34]. By the twentiethcentury,however,the productive
capacities
of industryandagriculture
hadfueledyearsof intensedebateson
thepoliticaleconomyof markets,especially
tariffsandinternationalexpansion.
Theseissues
appeared
tojustifytheadvertising
men'sdevaluation
industry
and
production."It is easyenoughto produce,"
somedeclared,"butmarketingis
a vastlydifferentmatter"[11; 40; 44, pp. 23-24].
Accordingto the advertisingliterature,marketinghad becomethe
challenge of twentieth-centurycapitalism. With so much already
accomplished,
further developments
in the technologyof productionwere
taken for grantedby this particulargroup of businessmen. As many
proponentsof advertisingexplainedit, advertisingwas the only way to
optimizemarketingoperationsand to generatethe profit that they knew
"accruesfrom largevolumeand quickturn-over"[12, p. 8].
Thus, the advertisingprofessiondid not just take on a mantle of
progress,it aggressively
appropriatedit from industry. The assaulton
production
oftenbecameintense.Someadvertising
practitioners
did not,in
fact, think muchof producers
or productionrelativeto the importanceof
advertising
in buildingbusiness
success.
After all, saidone,"Thefactorymay
burn to ashes
.... The membersof the firm may die.... But the goodof
advertisingneverchanges..." [13, pp. 273-300,520-521,654]. J. Walter
Thompsonlearnedfrom the Panicsof 1893and 1907that "a manufacturing
plantwithoutbusiness
is not an asset,but a liability,"andadvertising
wasthe
onlymeansof generatingadequatebusiness
for industry[23, p. 18].
Conclusion
In 1920, a speakerat the annual conventionof the Associated
AdvertisingClubstold an audienceof colleagues
that they"hadsomespecial
justification"
for their "faithandpride"in their profession.
You trace your ancestryback to the very beginningof the
universe;your charteris containedin the first spokenwordsin
the book of Genesis:"Let there be light,"it was commanded.
Yours is the professionof enlightenment.A promoter of
commerce?Yes. An instrumentof distribution?Assuredly.
But youthinktoo meanlyof advertising
if youconfineit to these
terms. It is an agencyof civilization... [25].
At the time he spoketheseglowingphrasesaboutadvertising,
JosephFrench
Johnsonwas Dean of the New York UniversitySchoolof Commerceand
President of the Alexander Hamilton Institute.
He had not invented these
accolades
nor wasit likelythathisspeechintroducedthemto hisaudience.
315
Roland Marchandrefersto advertising
agentsas elitist"apostles
of
modernity"between 1920 and 1940. Throughouthis careful argument,
Marchanddemonstrates
thatthe "adcreatorsof that era proudlyproclaimed
themselves
missionaries
of modernity"
because
theybelievedthattheyguided
and improvedthe nation'sdesiresand consumption
[29, pp. xxi, 1-24].
Certainly,in 1920Johnsonalreadyequatedprogress
with consumption
when
he declaredthat "thequalityof a people'scivilization
dependsentirelyupon
the qualityof their wants"and that peoplewhosewantsdo not increaseare
"makingno progress."Advertisingcontributes
to progress,
according
to this
view,because
it "gives
birthto newwantsandsocreatesaneconomic
demand
for more goods,thustendingto increasethe demandfor . . . labor.... "
Large scaleproductionand low pricesalsodependon advertising.Thus,
Johnson admonished his audience to
keepthe faith... [andproclaim]thegoodgospelof advertising
notmerelyasan economic
force,but asthe prophetof progress,
and the moulderof publicopinion,whichis the strengthof
democracy
andthe hopeof our civilization
[25].
Anyone in 1890 who had braved suchclaimsfor advertising's
impact on
civilizationwouldhavebeen considered
a visionary,and, indeed,no one is
knownto havecommittedsuchideasto publicrecord.
By 1890,advertising
practitioners
hadbegunto changethe characterof
the advertisements
they placedin the media to justifytheir work, mixing
serviceto their patronswith assertionof their own territoriality. Thus,the
traditionalstyles,practices,and rhetoric of nineteenth-century
advertising
passedfrom the sceneby 1920,not just becausetheylackedappealto the
consumer,
but becauseof the militancywith whichadvertising
practitioners
professionalized
andtookchargeof thisarenafor culturalpolitics.
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42. A•fred L. Thimm• Business
•de•l•giesin theRef•rm-Pr•gressive
Era•1880-•9• 4 (University'
AL, 1976).
43. L.J. Vance,"TradeCombinations
andAdvertising,'Printers'Ink, 12 (19 January1898),63.
44. RichardJ. Walsh,SellingForces(Philadelphia,1913).
45. OlivierZunz,MakingAmericaCorporate,
1870-1920(Chicago,1990).