University of Manchester
MATHEMATICAL FORMULA TABLES
Version 2.1
November 2004
Other than this front cover these tables are identical to
the UMIST, version 2.0 tables.
1
CONTENTS
page
Greek Alphabet
3
Indices and Logarithms
3
Trigonometric Identities
4
Complex Numbers
6
Hyperbolic Identities
6
Series
7
Derivatives
9
Integrals
11
Laplace Transforms
13
Z Transforms
16
Fourier Series and Transforms
17
Numerical Formulae
19
Vector Formulae
23
Mechanics
25
Algebraic Structures
27
Statistical Distributions
29
F - Distribution
29
Normal Distribution
31
t - Distribution
32
χ2 (Chi-squared) - Distribution
33
Physical and Astronomical constants
34
2
GREEK ALPHABET
Aα
alpha
Nν
nu
Bβ
beta
Ξξ
xi
Γγ
gamma
Oo
omicron
∆δ
delta
Ππ
pi
E ², ε
epsilon
Pρ
rho
Zζ
zeta
Σσ
sigma
Hη
eta
Tτ
tau
Θ θ, ϑ theta
Υυ
upsilon
Iι
iota
Φ φ, ϕ
phi
Kκ
kappa
Xχ
chi
Λλ
lambda
Ψψ
psi
Mµ
mu
Ωω
omega
INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
am × an = am+n
(am )n = amn
log(AB) = log A + log B
log(A/B) = log A − log B
log(An ) = n log A
logc a
logb a =
logc b
3
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
tan A = sin A/ cos A
sec A = 1/ cos A
cosec A = 1/ sin A
cot A = cos A/ sin A = 1/ tan A
sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A
cosec 2 A = 1 + cot2 A
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
tan(A ± B) =
tan A ± tan B
1 ∓ tan A tan B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
= 2 cos2 A − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 A
tan 2A =
2 tan A
1 − tan2 A
sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
tan 3A =
3 tan A − tan3 A
1 − 3 tan2 A
cos A−B
sin A + sin B = 2 sin A+B
2
2
4
sin A−B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos A+B
2
2
cos A−B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos A+B
2
2
cos A − cos B = −2 sin A+B
sin A−B
2
2
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)
2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
−2 sin A sin B = cos(A + B) − cos(A − B)
a sin x + b cos x = R sin(x + φ), where R =
If t = tan
cos x =
1
2
1
x
2
√
a2 + b2 and cos φ = a/R, sin φ = b/R.
1 − t2
2t
, cos x =
.
then sin x =
1 + t2
1 + t2
(eix + e−ix ) ;
eix = cos x + i sin x ;
sin x =
1
2i
(eix − e−ix )
e−ix = cos x − i sin x
5
COMPLEX NUMBERS
i=
√
−1
Note:- ‘j’ often used rather than ‘i’.
Exponential Notation
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
De Moivre’s theorem
[r(cos θ + i sin θ)]n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)
nth roots of complex numbers
If z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) then
z 1/n =
√
n
rei(θ+2kπ)/n ,
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES
cosh x = (ex + e−x ) /2
sinh x = (ex − e−x ) /2
tanh x = sinh x/ cosh x
sechx = 1/ cosh x
cosechx = 1/ sinh x
coth x = cosh x/ sinh x = 1/ tanh x
cosh ix = cos x
sinh ix = i sin x
cos ix = cosh x
sin ix = i sinh x
cosh2 A − sinh2 A = 1
sech2 A = 1 − tanh2 A
cosech 2 A = coth2 A − 1
6
SERIES
Powers of Natural Numbers
n
X
n
n
X
X
1
1
1
2
k = n(n + 1) ;
k = n(n + 1)(2n + 1);
k 3 = n2 (n + 1)2
2
6
4
k=1
k=1
k=1
Arithmetic
Sn =
n−1
X
(a + kd) =
k=0
n
{2a + (n − 1)d}
2
Geometric (convergent for −1 < r < 1)
Sn =
n−1
X
ark =
k=0
a(1 − rn )
a
, S∞ =
1−r
1−r
Binomial (convergent for |x| < 1)
à !
à !
n 2
n r
(1 + x) = 1 + nx +
x + ... +
x + ...
2
r
n
where
à !
n
n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − r + 1)
=
r!
r
Maclaurin series
f (x) = f (0) + xf 0 (0) +
where Rk+1 =
x2 00
xk
f (0) + ... + f (k) (0) + Rk+1
2!
k!
xk+1 (k+1)
f
(θx), 0 < θ < 1
(k + 1)!
Taylor series
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf 0 (a) +
where Rk+1 =
h2 00
hk
f (a) + ... + f (k) (a) + Rk+1
2!
k!
hk+1 (k+1)
f
(a + θh) , 0 < θ < 1.
(k + 1)!
OR
f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x − x0 )f 0 (x0 ) +
where Rk+1 =
(x − x0 )2 00
(x − x0 )k (k)
f (x0 ) + ... +
f (x0 ) + Rk+1
2!
k!
(x − x0 )k+1 (k+1)
f
(x0 + (x − x0 )θ), 0 < θ < 1
(k + 1)!
7
Special Power Series
xr
x2 x3
+
+ ... +
+ ...
2!
3!
r!
ex = 1 + x +
(all x)
sin x = x −
x3 x5 x7
(−1)r x2r+1
+
−
+ ... +
+ ...
3!
5!
7!
(2r + 1)!
(all x)
cos x = 1 −
x2 x4 x6
(−1)r x2r
+
−
+ ... +
+ ...
2!
4!
6!
(2r)!
(all x)
tan x = x +
x3 2x5 17x7
+
+
+ ...
3
15
315
(|x| < π2 )
1 x3 1.3 x5 1.3.5 x7
+
+
+
2 3
2.4 5
2.4.6 7
sin−1 x = x +
... +
tan−1 x = x −
1.3.5....(2n − 1) x2n+1
+ ...
2.4.6....(2n) 2n + 1
x3 x5 x7
x2n+1
+
−
+ ... + (−1)n
+ ...
3
5
7
2n + 1
`n(1 + x) = x −
x2 x3 x4
xn
+
−
+ ... + (−1)n+1 + ...
2
3
4
n
(|x| < 1)
(|x| < 1)
(−1 < x ≤ 1)
sinh x = x +
x3 x5 x7
x2n+1
+
+
+ ... +
+ ...
3!
5!
7!
(2n + 1)!
(all x)
cosh x = 1 +
x2 x4 x6
x2n
+
+
+ ... +
+ ...
2!
4!
6!
(2n)!
(all x)
tanh x = x −
x3 2x5 17x7
+
−
+ ...
3
15
315
(|x| < π2 )
sinh−1 x = x −
1 x3 1.3 x5 1.3.5 x7
+
−
+
2 3
2.4 5
2.4.6 7
... + (−1)n
tanh−1 x = x +
1.3.5...(2n − 1) x2n+1
+ ...
2.4.6...2n 2n + 1
x3 x5 x7
x2n+1
+
+
+ ...
+ ...
3
5
7
2n + 1
8
(|x| < 1)
(|x| < 1)
DERIVATIVES
function
derivative
xn
nxn−1
ex
ex
ax (a > 0)
ax `na
`nx
1
x
loga x
1
x`na
sin x
cos x
cos x
− sin x
tan x
sec2 x
cosec x
− cosec x cot x
sec x
sec x tan x
sin−1 x
− cosec 2 x
1
√
1 − x2
cos−1 x
−√
cot x
1
1 − x2
sinh x
1
1 + x2
cosh x
cosh x
sinh x
tanh x
sech 2 x
cosech x
− cosech x coth x
tan−1 x
sech x
− sech x tanh x
sinh−1 x
− cosech2 x
1
√
1 + x2
cosh−1 x(x > 1)
√
tanh−1 x(|x| < 1)
1
1 − x2
coth−1 x(|x| > 1)
−
coth x
9
1
x2 − 1
x2
1
−1
Product Rule
d
dv
du
(u(x) v(x)) = u(x) + v(x)
dx
dx
dx
Quotient Rule
d
dx
Ã
u(x)
v(x)
!
=
dv
v(x) du
− u(x) dx
dx
[v(x)]2
Chain Rule
d
(f (g(x))) = f 0 (g(x)) × g 0 (x)
dx
Leibnitz’s theorem
à !
dn
n(n − 1) (n−2) (2)
n (n−r) (r)
f
.g +...+f.g (n)
(f.g) = f (n) .g +nf (n−1) .g (1) +
f
.g +...+
n
dx
2!
r
10
INTEGRALS
function
dg(x)
f (x)
dx
xn (n 6= −1)
integral
e
ex
sin x
− cos x
1
x
x
cos x
f (x)g(x) −
xn+1
n+1
Z
df (x)
g(x)dx
dx
`n|x|
Note:- `n|x| + K = `n|x/x0 |
sin x
tan x
`n| sec x|
cosec x
−`n| cosec x + cot x|
sec x
¯
¯
or
`n| sec x + tan x| = `n ¯tan
³
π
4
+
cot x
1
2
a + x2
`n| sin x|
1
x
tan−1
a
a
1
a2 − x 2
1 a+x
`n
2a a − x
or
1
x
tanh−1
a
a
1
− a2
1 x−a
`n
2a x + a
or
−
x2
1
− x2
sin−1
x
a
a2
√
1
2
a + x2
sinh−1
x
a
or
`n x +
1
x2 − a2
sinh x
cosh−1
x
a
or
`n|x +
cosh x
cosh x
sinh x
tanh x
`n cosh x
cosech x
−`n |cosech x + coth x|
sech x
coth x
¯
x
2
´¯
¯
¯
(|x| < a)
1
x
coth−1
a
a
√
√
¯
`n ¯¯tan x2 ¯¯
(|x| > a)
(a > |x|)
2 tan−1 ex
`n| sinh x|
11
³
´
√
x2 + a 2
√
x2 − a2 |
or
(|x| > a)
¯
¯
`n ¯¯tanh x2 ¯¯
Double integral
where
Z Z
f (x, y) dx dy =
Z Z
¯
¯
∂(x, y) ¯¯
J=
= ¯¯
∂(r, s)
¯
12
g(r, s) J dr ds
∂x
∂r
∂y
∂r
∂x
∂s
∂y
∂s
¯
¯
¯
¯
¯
¯
¯
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
function
R
f˜(s) = 0∞ e−st f (t)dt
transform
1
s
n!
n+1
s
1
s−a
ω
s2 + ω 2
s
s2 + ω 2
ω
2
s − ω2
s
s2 − ω 2
1
tn
eat
sin ωt
cos ωt
sinh ωt
cosh ωt
t sin ωt
2ωs
(s2 + ω 2 )2
t cos ωt
s2 − ω 2
(s2 + ω 2 )2
Ha (t) = H(t − a)
e−as
s
δ(t)
1
eat tn
n!
(s − a)n+1
eat sin ωt
ω
(s − a)2 + ω 2
eat cos ωt
s−a
(s − a)2 + ω 2
eat sinh ωt
ω
(s − a)2 − ω 2
eat cosh ωt
s−a
(s − a)2 − ω 2
13
Let f˜(s) = L {f (t)} then
n
o
= f˜(s − a),
)
=
L eat f (t)
L {tf (t)} = −
(
f (t)
L
t
Z
d ˜
(f (s)),
ds
∞
f˜(x)dx if this exists.
x=s
Derivatives and integrals
Let y = y(t) and let ỹ = L {y(t)} then
(
)
dy
L
= sỹ − y0 ,
dt
)
(
d2 y
= s2 ỹ − sy0 − y00 ,
L
dt2
½Z t
¾
1
L
ỹ
y(τ )dτ
=
s
τ =0
where y0 and y00 are the values of y and dy/dt respectively at t = 0.
Time delay
Let
then


 0
t<a
g(t) = Ha (t)f (t − a) = 
 f (t − a)
t>a
L {g(t)} = e−as f˜(s).
Scale change
µ ¶
s
1
.
L {f (kt)} = f˜
k
k
Periodic functions
Let f (t) be of period T then
L {f (t)} =
Z T
1
e−st f (t)dt.
1 − e−sT t=0
14
Convolution
Let
then
f (t) ∗ g(t) =
Rt
x=0
f (x)g(t − x)dx =
L {f (t) ∗ g(t)} = f˜(s)g̃(s).
Rt
x=0
f (t − x)g(x)dx
RLC circuit
For a simple RLC circuit with initial charge q0 and initial current i0 ,
µ
¶
1
1 e
i − Li0 +
Ẽ = r + Ls +
q0 .
Cs
Cs
Limiting values
initial value theorem
lim f (t) = s→∞
lim sf˜(s),
t→0+
final value theorem
lim f (t) =
Z
t→∞
∞
0
f (t)dt =
provided these limits exist.
15
lim sf˜(s),
s→0+
lim f˜(s)
s→0+
Z TRANSFORMS
Z {f (t)} = f˜(z) =
∞
X
f (kT )z −k
k=0
function
transform
δt,nT
e−at
z −n (n ≥ 0)
z
z − e−aT
te−at
T ze−aT
(z − e−aT )2
t2 e−at
T 2 ze−aT (z + e−aT )
(z − e−aT )3
sinh at
cosh at
z2
z sinh aT
− 2z cosh aT + 1
z2
z(z − cosh aT )
− 2z cosh aT + 1
e−at sin ωt
ze−aT sin ωT
z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT
e−at cos ωt
z(z − e−aT cos ωT )
z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT
te−at sin ωt
T ze−aT (z 2 − e−2aT ) sin ωT
(z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT )2
te−at cos ωt
T ze−aT (z 2 cos ωT − 2ze−aT + e−2aT cos ωT )
(z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT )2
Shift Theorem
P
n−k
f (kT ) (n > 0)
Z {f (t + nT )} = z n f˜(z) − n−1
k=0 z
Initial value theorem
f (0) = limz→∞ f˜(z)
16
Final value theorem
h
f (∞) = lim (z − 1)f˜(z)
z→1
i
provided f (∞) exists.
Inverse Formula
1 Z π ikθ ˜ iθ
f (kT ) =
e f (e )dθ
2π −π
FOURIER SERIES AND TRANSFORMS
Fourier series
∞
X
1
{an cos nωt + bn sin nωt}
f (t) = a0 +
2
n=1
where
2 Z t0 +T
f (t) cos nωt dt
T t0
2 Z t0 +T
=
f (t) sin nωt dt
T t0
an =
bn
17
(period T = 2π/ω)
Half range Fourier series
sine series
4 Z T /2
an = 0, bn =
f (t) sin nωt dt
T 0
cosine series
4 Z T /2
bn = 0, an =
f (t) cos nωt dt
T 0
Finite Fourier transforms
sine transform
f˜s (n) =
f (t) =
4 Z T /2
f (t) sin nωt dt
T 0
∞
X
f˜s (n) sin nωt
n=1
cosine transform
4 Z T /2
f (t) cos nωt dt
T 0
∞
X
1˜
fc (0) +
f˜c (n) cos nωt
f (t) =
2
n=1
f˜c (n) =
Fourier integral
µ
¶
1 Z ∞ iωt Z ∞
1
f (u)e−iωu du dω
lim f (t) + lim f (t) =
e
t&0
2 t%0
2π −∞
−∞
Fourier integral transform
1 Z ∞ −iωu
f˜(ω) = F {f (t)} = √
e
f (u) du
2π −∞
o
n
1 Z ∞ iωt ˜
−1 ˜
e f (ω) dω
f (t) = F
f (ω) = √
2π −∞
18
NUMERICAL FORMULAE
Iteration
Newton Raphson method for refining an approximate root x0 of f (x) = 0
xn+1 = xn −
Particular case to find
√
Secant Method
xn+1
f (xn )
f 0 (xn )
N use xn+1 =
1
2
Ã
³
xn +
f (xn ) − f (xn−1 )
= xn − f (xn )/
xn − xn−1
N
xn
´
.
!
Interpolation
∆fn = fn+1 − fn , δfn = fn+ 1 − fn− 1
2
2
´
1³
∇fn = fn − fn−1 , µfn =
fn+ 1 + fn− 1
2
2
2
Gregory Newton Formula
à !
p r
p(p − 1) 2
fp = f0 + p∆f0 +
∆ f0 + ... +
∆ f0
2!
r
where p =
x − x0
h
Lagrange’s Formula for n points
y=
n
X
yi `i (x)
i=1
where
`i (x) =
Πnj=1,j6=i (x − xj )
Πnj=1,j6=i (xi − xj )
19
Numerical differentiation
Derivatives at a tabular point
1
1
hf00 = µ δf0 − µ δ 3 f0 + µ δ 5 f0 − ...
6
30
1
1
h2 f000 = δ 2 f0 − δ 4 f0 + δ 6 f0 − ...
12
90
1
1
1
1
hf00 = ∆f0 − ∆2 f0 + ∆3 f0 − ∆4 f0 + ∆5 f0 − ...
2
3
4
5
11
5
h2 f000 = ∆2 f0 − ∆3 f0 + ∆4 f0 − ∆5 f0 + ...
12
6
Numerical Integration
Z
Trapezium Rule
where
fi = f (x0 + ih), E = −
x0 +h
x0
f (x)dx '
h
(f0 + f1 ) + E
2
h3 00
f (a), x0 < a < x0 + h
12
Composite Trapezium Rule
Z
x0 +nh
x0
f (x)dx '
h
h2
h4 000
{f0 + 2f1 + 2f2 + ...2fn−1 + fn } − (fn0 − f00 ) +
(f − f0000 )...
2
12
720 n
where f00 = f 0 (x0 ), fn0 = f 0 (x0 + nh), etc
Z
Simpson’s Rule
x0 +2h
x0
f (x)dx '
h5 (4)
E = − f (a)
90
where
h
(f0 +4f1 +f2 )+E
3
x0 < a < x0 + 2h.
Composite Simpson’s Rule (n even)
Z
x0 +nh
x0
f (x)dx '
where
h
(f0 + 4f1 + 2f2 + 4f3 + 2f4 + ... + 2fn−2 + 4fn−1 + fn ) + E
3
E=−
20
nh5 (4)
f (a).
180
x0 < a < x0 + nh
Gauss order 1. (Midpoint)
Z
1
−1
f (x)dx = 2f (0) + E
2 00
E = f (a).
3
where
Gauss order 2.
Z
!
Ã
1
f (x)dx = f − √ + f
−1
3
1
where
E=
Ã
−1<a<1
!
1
√ +E
3
1 0v
f (a).
135
−1<a<1
Differential Equations
To solve y 0 = f (x, y) given initial condition y0 at x0 , xn = x0 + nh.
Euler’s forward method
yn+1 = yn + hf (xn , yn )
n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Euler’s backward method
yn+1 = yn + hf (xn+1 , yn+1 )
n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Heun’s method (Runge Kutta order 2)
h
yn+1 = yn + (f (xn , yn ) + f (xn + h, yn + hf (xn , yn ))).
2
Runge Kutta order 4.
h
yn+1 = yn + (K1 + 2K2 + 2K3 + K4 )
6
where
K1 = f (xn , yn )
Ã
!
h
hK1
K2 = f xn + , y n +
2
2
Ã
!
h
hK2
K3 = f xn + , y n +
2
2
K4 = f (xn + h, yn + hK3 )
21
Chebyshev Polynomials
h
Tn (x) = cos n(cos−1 x)
To (x) = 1
Un−1 (x) =
i
T1 (x) = x
Tn0 (x)
sin [n(cos−1 x)]
√
=
n
1 − x2
Tm (Tn (x)) = Tmn (x).
Tn+1 (x) = 2xTn (x) − Tn−1 (x)
Z
Un+1 (x) = 2xUn (x) − Un−1 (x)
(
)
1 Tn+1 (x) Tn−1 (x)
Tn (x)dx =
−
+ constant,
2
n+1
n−1
where
and
R
1
f (x) = a0 T0 (x) + a1 T1 (x)...aj Tj (x) + ...
2
2Zπ
f (cos θ) cos jθdθ
aj =
π 0
f (x)dx = constant +A1 T1 (x) + A2 T2 (x) + ...Aj Tj (x) + ...
where Aj = (aj−1 − aj+1 )/2j
j≥1
22
n≥2
j≥0
VECTOR FORMULAE
Scalar product a.b = ab cos θ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
¯
¯
¯ i
¯
¯
Vector product a × b = ab sin θ n̂ = ¯¯ a1
¯
¯
¯ b1
j
¯
¯
k ¯¯
¯
a2 a3 ¯¯
¯
¯
b2 b3 ¯
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k
Triple products
¯
¯
¯ a1
¯
¯
[a, b, c] = (a × b).c = a.(b × c) = ¯¯ b1
¯
¯
¯ c1
a × (b × c) = (a.c)b − (a.b)c
Vector Calculus
∇ ≡
Ã
∂ ∂ ∂
, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
¯
¯
a2 a3 ¯¯
¯
b2 b3 ¯¯
!
grad φ ≡ ∇φ, div A ≡ ∇.A, curl A ≡ ∇ × A
div grad φ ≡ ∇.(∇ φ) ≡ ∇2 φ (for scalars only)
div curl A = 0
curl grad φ ≡ 0
∇2 A = grad div A − curl curl A
∇(αβ) = α ∇β + β ∇α
div (αA) = α div A + A.(∇α)
curl (αA) = α curl A − A × (∇α)
div (A × B) = B. curl A − A. curl B
curl (A × B) = A div B − B div A + (B.∇ )A − (A.∇ )B
23
¯
¯
c2 c3 ¯
grad (A.B) = A × curl B + B × curl A + (A.∇ )B + (B.∇ )A
Integral Theorems
Divergence theorem
Z
Stokes’ theorem
Z
surface
surface
A.dS =
Z
div A dV
volume
( curl A).dS =
I
contour
A.dr
Green’s theorems
Z
Z
volume
volume
n
(ψ∇
2
φ − φ∇
2
ψ)dV
o
2
ψ∇ φ + (∇φ)(∇ψ) dV
=
Z
=
Z
surface
surface
!
Ã
∂ψ
∂φ
−φ
|dS|
ψ
∂n
∂n
ψ
∂φ
|dS|
∂n
where
dS = n̂|dS|
Green’s theorem in the plane
I
(P dx + Qdy) =
Z Z Ã
24
∂Q ∂P
−
∂x
∂y
!
dx dy
MECHANICS
Kinematics
Motion constant acceleration
v = u + f t,
1
1
s = ut + f t2 = (u + v)t
2
2
v2 = u2 + 2f .s
General solution of
d2 x
dt2
= −ω 2 x is
x = a cos ωt + b sin ωt = R sin(ωt + φ)
where R =
√
a2 + b2 and cos φ = a/R, sin φ = b/R.
In polar coordinates the velocity is (ṙ, r θ̇) = ṙer + rθ̇eθ
h
i
and the acceleration is
r̈ − rθ̇2 , rθ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ = (r̈ − r θ̇2 )er + (rθ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇)eθ .
Centres of mass
The following results are for uniform bodies:
1
r
2
3
r
8
3
h
4
from vertex
arc, radius r and angle 2θ
(r sin θ)/θ
from centre
sector, radius r and angle 2θ
( 23 r sin θ)/θ
from centre
hemispherical shell, radius r
hemisphere, radius r
right circular cone, height h
from centre
from centre
Moments of inertia
i. The moment of inertia of a body of mass m about an axis = I + mh2 , where I
is the moment of inertial about the parallel axis through the mass-centre and h
is the distance between the axes.
ii. If I1 and I2 are the moments of inertia of a lamina about two perpendicular
axes through a point 0 in its plane, then its moment of inertia about the axis
through 0 perpendicular to its plane is I1 + I2 .
25
iii. The following moments of inertia are for uniform bodies about the axes stated:
rod, length `, through mid-point, perpendicular to rod
1
m`2
12
2
hoop, radius r, through centre, perpendicular to hoop
mr
disc, radius r, through centre, perpendicular to disc
1
mr2
2
2
mr2
5
sphere, radius r, diameter
Work done
W =
Z
tB
tA
26
F.
dr
dt.
dt
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
A group G is a set of elements {a, b, c, . . .} — with a binary operation ∗ such that
i. a ∗ b is in G for all a, b in G
ii. a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for all a, b, c in G
iii. G contains an element e, called the identity element, such that e ∗ a = a = a ∗ e
for all a in G
iv. given any a in G, there exists in G an element a−1 , called the element inverse
to a, such that a−1 ∗ a = e = a ∗ a−1 .
A commutative (or Abelian) group is one for which a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b, in G.
A field F is a set of elements {a, b, c, . . .} — with two binary operations + and . such
that
i. F is a commutative group with respect to + with identity 0
ii. the non-zero elements of F form a commutative group with respect to . with
identity 1
iii. a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c for all a, b, c, in F .
A vector space V over a field F is a set of elements {a, b, c, . . .} — with a binary
operation + such that
i. they form a commutative group under +;
and, for all λ, µ in F and all a, b, in V ,
ii. λa is defined and is in V
iii. λ(a + b) = λa + λb
27
iv. (λ + µ)a = λa + µa
v. (λ.µ)a = λ(µa)
vi. if 1 is an element of F such that 1.λ = λ for all λ in F , then 1a = a.
An equivalence relation R between the elements {a, b, c, . . .} — of a set C is a relation
such that, for all a, b, c in C
i. aRa (R is reflextive)
ii. aRb ⇒ bRa (R is symmetric)
iii. (aRb and bRc) ⇒ aRc (R is transitive).
28
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Name
Probability distribution /
Parameters
Mean
Variance
np
np(1 − p)
λ
λ
µ
σ2
1
λ
1
λ2
density function
Binomial
n, p
³ ´
n
r
P (X = r) =
pr (1 − p)n−r ,
r = 0, 1, 2, ..., n
Poisson
λ
P (X = n) =
e−λ λn
,
n!
n = 0, 1, 2, ......
Normal
µ, σ
f (x) =
√1
σ 2π
exp{− 12
³
´
x−µ 2
},
σ
−∞ < x < ∞
f (x) = λe−λx ,
λ
Exponential
x > 0,
λ>0
THE F -DISTRIBUTION
The function tabulated on the next page is the inverse cumulative distribution
function of Fisher’s F -distribution having ν1 and ν2 degrees of freedom. It is defined
by
P =
Γ
Γ
³
³
1
ν
2 1
1
ν
2 1
´
+ 21 ν2
Γ
³
´
1
ν
2 2
1
´ ν12
ν1
1
ν22
ν2
Z
x
0
1
1
u 2 ν1 −1 (ν2 + ν1 u)− 2 (ν1 +ν2 ) du.
If X has an F -distribution with ν1 and ν2 degrees of freedom then P r.(X ≤ x) = P .
The table lists values of x for P = 0.95, P = 0.975 and P = 0.99, the upper number
in each set being the value for P = 0.95.
29
ν2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
20
25
50
100
ν1 : 1 ν 1 : 2
161
648
4052
18.51
38.51
98.50
10.13
17.44
34.12
7.71
12.22
21.20
6.61
10.01
16.26
5.99
8.81
13.75
5.59
8.07
12.25
5.32
7.57
11.26
5.12
7.21
10.56
4.96
6.94
10.04
4.75
6.55
9.33
4.54
6.20
8.68
4.35
5.87
8.10
4.24
5.69
7.77
4.03
5.34
7.17
3.94
5.18
6.90
199
799
5000
19.00
39.00
99.00
9.55
16.04
30.82
6.94
10.65
18.00
5.79
8.43
13.27
5.14
7.26
10.92
4.74
6.54
9.55
4.46
6.06
8.65
4.26
5.71
8.02
4.10
5.46
7.56
3.89
5.10
6.93
3.68
4.77
6.36
3.49
4.46
5.85
3.39
4.29
5.57
3.18
3.97
5.06
3.09
3.83
4.82
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
20
25
50
100
216
864
5403
19.16
39.17
99.17
9.28
15.44
29.46
6.59
9.98
16.69
5.41
7.76
12.06
4.76
6.60
9.78
4.35
5.89
8.45
4.07
5.42
7.59
3.86
5.08
6.99
3.71
4.83
6.55
3.49
4.47
5.95
3.29
4.15
5.42
3.10
3.86
4.94
2.99
3.69
4.68
2.79
3.39
4.20
2.70
3.25
3.98
225
900
5625
19.25
39.25
99.25
9.12
15.10
28.71
6.39
9.60
15.98
5.19
7.39
11.39
4.53
6.23
9.15
4.12
5.52
7.85
3.84
5.05
7.01
3.63
4.72
6.42
3.48
4.47
5.99
3.26
4.12
5.41
3.06
3.80
4.89
2.87
3.51
4.43
2.76
3.35
4.18
2.56
3.05
3.72
2.46
2.92
3.51
230
922
5764
19.30
39.30
99.30
9.01
14.88
28.24
6.26
9.36
15.52
5.05
7.15
10.97
4.39
5.99
8.75
3.97
5.29
7.46
3.69
4.82
6.63
3.48
4.48
6.06
3.33
4.24
5.64
3.11
3.89
5.06
2.90
3.58
4.56
2.71
3.29
4.10
2.60
3.13
3.85
2.40
2.83
3.41
2.31
2.70
3.21
234
937
5859
19.33
39.33
99.33
8.94
14.73
27.91
6.16
9.20
15.21
4.95
6.98
10.67
4.28
5.82
8.47
3.87
5.12
7.19
3.58
4.65
6.37
3.37
4.32
5.80
3.22
4.07
5.39
3.00
3.73
4.82
2.79
3.41
4.32
2.60
3.13
3.87
2.49
2.97
3.63
2.29
2.67
3.19
2.19
2.54
2.99
237
948
5928
19.35
39.36
99.36
8.89
14.62
27.67
6.09
9.07
14.98
4.88
6.85
10.46
4.21
5.70
8.26
3.79
4.99
6.99
3.50
4.53
6.18
3.29
4.20
5.61
3.14
3.95
5.20
2.91
3.61
4.64
2.71
3.29
4.14
2.51
3.01
3.70
2.40
2.85
3.46
2.20
2.55
3.02
2.10
2.42
2.82
239
957
5981
19.37
39.37
99.37
8.85
14.54
27.49
6.04
8.98
14.80
4.82
6.76
10.29
4.15
5.60
8.10
3.73
4.90
6.84
3.44
4.43
6.03
3.23
4.10
5.47
3.07
3.85
5.06
2.85
3.51
4.50
2.64
3.20
4.00
2.45
2.91
3.56
2.34
2.75
3.32
2.13
2.46
2.89
2.03
2.32
2.69
241
963
6022
19.38
39.39
99.39
8.81
14.47
27.35
6.00
8.90
14.66
4.77
6.68
10.16
4.10
5.52
7.98
3.68
4.82
6.72
3.39
4.36
5.91
3.18
4.03
5.35
3.02
3.78
4.94
2.80
3.44
4.39
2.59
3.12
3.89
2.39
2.84
3.46
2.28
2.68
3.22
2.07
2.38
2.78
1.97
2.24
2.59
242
969
6056
19.40
39.40
99.40
8.79
14.42
27.23
5.96
8.84
14.55
4.74
6.62
10.05
4.06
5.46
7.87
3.64
4.76
6.62
3.35
4.30
5.81
3.14
3.96
5.26
2.98
3.72
4.85
2.75
3.37
4.30
2.54
3.06
3.80
2.35
2.77
3.37
2.24
2.61
3.13
2.03
2.32
2.70
1.93
2.18
2.50
244
977
6106
19.41
39.41
99.42
8.74
14.34
27.05
5.91
8.75
14.37
4.68
6.52
9.89
4.00
5.37
7.72
3.57
4.67
6.47
3.28
4.20
5.67
3.07
3.87
5.11
2.91
3.62
4.71
2.69
3.28
4.16
2.48
2.96
3.67
2.28
2.68
3.23
2.16
2.51
2.99
1.95
2.22
2.56
1.85
2.08
2.37
246
985
6157
19.43
39.43
99.43
8.70
14.25
26.87
5.86
8.66
14.20
4.62
6.43
9.72
3.94
5.27
7.56
3.51
4.57
6.31
3.22
4.10
5.52
3.01
3.77
4.96
2.85
3.52
4.56
2.62
3.18
4.01
2.40
2.86
3.52
2.20
2.57
3.09
2.09
2.41
2.85
1.87
2.11
2.42
1.77
1.97
2.22
248
993
6209
19.45
39.45
99.45
8.66
14.17
26.69
5.80
8.56
14.02
4.56
6.33
9.55
3.87
5.17
7.40
3.44
4.47
6.16
3.15
4.00
5.36
2.94
3.67
4.81
2.77
3.42
4.41
2.54
3.07
3.86
2.33
2.76
3.37
2.12
2.46
2.94
2.01
2.30
2.70
1.78
1.99
2.27
1.68
1.85
2.07
249
998
6240
19.46
39.46
99.46
8.63
14.12
26.58
5.77
8.50
13.91
4.52
6.27
9.45
3.83
5.11
7.30
3.40
4.40
6.06
3.11
3.94
5.26
2.89
3.60
4.71
2.73
3.35
4.31
2.50
3.01
3.76
2.28
2.69
3.28
2.07
2.40
2.84
1.96
2.23
2.60
1.73
1.92
2.17
1.62
1.77
1.97
252
1008
6303
19.48
39.48
99.48
8.58
14.01
26.35
5.70
8.38
13.69
4.44
6.14
9.24
3.75
4.98
7.09
3.32
4.28
5.86
3.02
3.81
5.07
2.80
3.47
4.52
2.64
3.22
4.12
2.40
2.87
3.57
2.18
2.55
3.08
1.97
2.25
2.64
1.84
2.08
2.40
1.60
1.75
1.95
1.48
1.59
1.74
253
1013
6334
19.49
39.49
99.49
8.55
13.96
26.24
5.66
8.32
13.58
4.41
6.08
9.13
3.71
4.92
6.99
3.27
4.21
5.75
2.97
3.74
4.96
2.76
3.40
4.41
2.59
3.15
4.01
2.35
2.80
3.47
2.12
2.47
2.98
1.91
2.17
2.54
1.78
2.00
2.29
1.52
1.66
1.82
1.39
1.48
1.60
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
20
25
50
100
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
The function tabulated is the cumulative distribution function of a standard N (0, 1)
random variable, namely
1 Z x − 1 t2
Φ(x) = √
e 2 dt.
2π −∞
If X is distributed N (0, 1) then Φ(x) = P r.(X ≤ x).
x
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5000
0.5398
0.5793
0.6179
0.6554
0.5040
0.5438
0.5832
0.6217
0.6591
0.5080
0.5478
0.5871
0.6255
0.6628
0.5120
0.5517
0.5910
0.6293
0.6664
0.5160
0.5557
0.5948
0.6331
0.6700
0.5199
0.5596
0.5987
0.6368
0.6736
0.5239
0.5636
0.6026
0.6406
0.6772
0.5279
0.5675
0.6064
0.6443
0.6808
0.5319
0.5714
0.6103
0.6480
0.6844
0.5359
0.5753
0.6141
0.6517
0.6879
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6915
0.7257
0.7580
0.7881
0.8159
0.6950
0.7291
0.7611
0.7910
0.8186
0.6985
0.7324
0.7642
0.7939
0.8212
0.7019
0.7357
0.7673
0.7967
0.8238
0.7054
0.7389
0.7704
0.7995
0.8264
0.7088
0.7422
0.7734
0.8023
0.8289
0.7123
0.7454
0.7764
0.8051
0.8315
0.7157
0.7486
0.7794
0.8078
0.8340
0.7190
0.7517
0.7823
0.8106
0.8365
0.7224
0.7549
0.7852
0.8133
0.8389
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.8413
0.8643
0.8849
0.9032
0.9192
0.8438
0.8665
0.8869
0.9049
0.9207
0.8461
0.8686
0.8888
0.9066
0.9222
0.8485
0.8708
0.8907
0.9082
0.9236
0.8508
0.8729
0.8925
0.9099
0.9251
0.8531
0.8749
0.8944
0.9115
0.9265
0.8554
0.8770
0.8962
0.9131
0.9279
0.8577
0.8790
0.8980
0.9147
0.9292
0.8599
0.8810
0.8997
0.9162
0.9306
0.8621
0.8830
0.9015
0.9177
0.9319
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0.9332
0.9452
0.9554
0.9641
0.9713
0.9345
0.9463
0.9564
0.9649
0.9719
0.9357
0.9474
0.9573
0.9656
0.9726
0.9370
0.9484
0.9582
0.9664
0.9732
0.9382
0.9495
0.9591
0.9671
0.9738
0.9394
0.9505
0.9599
0.9678
0.9744
0.9406
0.9515
0.9608
0.9686
0.9750
0.9418
0.9525
0.9616
0.9693
0.9756
0.9429
0.9535
0.9625
0.9699
0.9761
0.9441
0.9545
0.9633
0.9706
0.9767
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
0.9773
0.9821
0.9861
0.9893
0.9918
0.9778
0.9826
0.9864
0.9896
0.9920
0.9783
0.9830
0.9868
0.9898
0.9922
0.9788
0.9834
0.9871
0.9901
0.9925
0.9793
0.9838
0.9875
0.9904
0.9927
0.9798
0.9842
0.9878
0.9906
0.9929
0.9803
0.9846
0.9881
0.9909
0.9931
0.9808
0.9850
0.9884
0.9911
0.9932
0.9812
0.9854
0.9887
0.9913
0.9934
0.9817
0.9857
0.9890
0.9916
0.9936
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
0.9938
0.9953
0.9965
0.9974
0.9981
0.9940
0.9955
0.9966
0.9975
0.9982
0.9941
0.9956
0.9967
0.9976
0.9982
0.9943
0.9957
0.9968
0.9977
0.9983
0.9945
0.9959
0.9969
0.9977
0.9984
0.9946
0.9960
0.9970
0.9978
0.9984
0.9948
0.9961
0.9971
0.9979
0.9985
0.9949
0.9962
0.9972
0.9979
0.9985
0.9951
0.9963
0.9973
0.9980
0.9986
0.9952
0.9964
0.9974
0.9981
0.9986
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
0.9987
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9987
0.9991
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9987
0.9991
0.9994
0.9995
0.9997
0.9988
0.9991
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9988
0.9992
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9989
0.9992
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9989
0.9992
0.9994
0.9996
0.9997
0.9989
0.9992
0.9995
0.9996
0.9997
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9996
0.9997
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9998
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
0.9998
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
31
THE t-DISTRIBUTION
The function tabulated is the inverse cumulative distribution function of Student’s
t-distribution having ν degrees of freedom. It is defined by
1
1 Γ( 21 ν + 21 ) Z x
P =√
(1 + t2 /ν)− 2 (ν+1) dt.
1
νπ Γ( 2 ν)
−∞
If X has Student’s t-distribution with ν degrees of freedom then P r.(X ≤ x) = P .
ν
P=0.90
P=0.95
0.975
0.990
0.995
0.999
0.9995
1
2
3
4
5
3.078
1.886
1.638
1.533
1.476
6.314
2.920
2.353
2.132
2.015
12.706
4.303
3.182
2.776
2.571
31.821
6.965
4.541
3.747
3.365
63.657
9.925
5.841
4.604
4.032
318.302
22.327
10.215
7.173
5.894
636.619
31.598
12.941
8.610
6.859
6
7
8
9
10
1.440
1.415
1.397
1.383
1.372
1.943
1.895
1.860
1.833
1.812
2.447
2.365
2.306
2.262
2.228
3.143
2.998
2.896
2.821
2.764
3.707
3.499
3.355
3.250
3.169
5.208
4.785
4.501
4.297
4.144
5.959
5.405
5.041
4.781
4.587
11
12
13
14
15
1.363
1.356
1.350
1.345
1.341
1.796
1.782
1.771
1.761
1.753
2.201
2.179
2.160
2.145
2.131
2.718
2.681
2.650
2.624
2.602
3.106
3.055
3.012
2.977
2.947
4.025
3.930
3.852
3.787
3.733
4.437
4.318
4.221
4.140
4.073
16
17
18
19
20
1.337
1.333
1.330
1.328
1.325
1.746
1.740
1.734
1.729
1.725
2.120
2.110
2.101
2.093
2.086
2.583
2.567
2.552
2.539
2.528
2.921
2.898
2.878
2.861
2.845
3.686
3.646
3.611
3.579
3.552
4.015
3.965
3.922
3.883
3.850
24
30
40
50
60
1.318
1.310
1.303
1.299
1.296
1.711
1.697
1.684
1.676
1.671
2.064
2.042
2.021
2.009
2.000
2.492
2.457
2.423
2.403
2.390
2.797
2.750
2.704
2.678
2.660
3.467
3.385
3.307
3.261
3.232
3.745
3.646
3.551
3.496
3.460
80
100
200
∞
1.292
1.290
1.286
1.282
1.664
1.660
1.653
1.645
1.990
1.984
1.972
1.960
2.374
2.364
2.345
2.326
2.639
2.626
2.601
2.576
3.195
3.174
3.131
3.090
3.416
3.391
3.340
3.291
32
THE χ2 (CHI-SQUARED) DISTRIBUTION
The function tabulated is the inverse cumulative distribution function of a Chisquared distribution having ν degrees of freedom. It is defined by
Z x
1
1
1
³
´
P =
u 2 ν−1 e− 2 u du.
1
ν/2
2 Γ 2ν 0
If X has an χ2 distribution with ν degrees of freedom then P r.(X ≤ x) = P . For
√
√
ν > 100, 2X is approximately normally distributed with mean 2ν − 1 and unit
variance.
ν
P = 0.005
P = 0.01
0.025
0.05
0.950
0.975
0.990
0.995
0.999
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
0.04 393
0.010003
0.07172
0.2070
0.4117
0.6757
0.9893
1.344
1.735
2.156
0.03 157
0.02010
0.1148
0.2971
0.5543
0.8721
1.239
1.646
2.088
2.558
0.03 982
0.05064
0.2158
0.4844
0.8312
1.237
1.690
2.180
2.700
3.247
0.00393
0.1026
0.3518
0.7107
1.145
1.635
2.167
2.733
3.325
3.940
3.841
5.991
7.815
9.488
11.070
12.592
14.067
15.507
16.919
18.307
5.024
7.378
9.348
11.143
12.832
14.449
16.013
17.535
19.023
20.483
6.635
9.210
11.345
13.277
15.086
16.812
18.475
20.090
21.666
23.209
7.879
10.597
12.838
14.860
16.750
18.548
20.278
21.955
23.589
25.188
10.828
13.816
16.266
18.467
20.515
22.458
24.322
26.124
27.877
29.588
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
2.603
3.074
3.565
4.075
4.601
5.142
5.697
6.265
6.844
7.434
3.053
3.571
4.107
4.660
5.229
5.812
6.408
7.015
7.633
8.260
3.816
4.404
5.009
5.629
6.262
6.908
7.564
8.231
8.907
9.591
4.575
5.226
5.892
6.571
7.261
7.962
8.672
9.390
10.117
10.851
19.675
21.026
22.362
23.685
24.996
26.296
27.587
28.869
30.144
31.410
21.920
23.337
24.736
26.119
27.488
28.845
30.191
31.526
32.852
34.170
24.725
26.217
27.688
29.141
30.578
32.000
33.409
34.805
36.191
37.566
26.757
28.300
29.819
31.319
32.801
34.267
35.718
37.156
38.582
39.997
31.264
32.909
34.528
36.123
37.697
39.252
40.790
42.312
43.820
45.315
21.0
22.0
23.0
24.0
25.0
26.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
8.034
8.643
9.260
9.886
10.520
11.160
11.808
12.461
13.121
13.787
8.897
9.542
10.196
10.856
11.524
12.198
12.879
13.565
14.256
14.953
10.283
10.982
11.689
12.401
13.120
13.844
14.573
15.308
16.047
16.791
11.591
12.338
13.091
13.848
14.611
15.379
16.151
16.928
17.708
18.493
32.671
33.924
35.172
36.415
37.652
38.885
40.113
41.337
42.557
43.773
35.479
36.781
38.076
39.364
40.646
41.923
43.195
44.461
45.722
46.979
38.932
40.289
41.638
42.980
44.314
45.642
46.963
48.278
49.588
50.892
41.401
42.796
44.181
45.559
46.928
48.290
49.645
50.993
52.336
53.672
46.797
48.268
49.728
51.179
52.620
54.052
55.476
56.892
58.301
59.703
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
20.707
27.991
35.534
43.275
51.172
59.196
67.328
22.164
29.707
37.485
45.442
53.540
61.754
70.065
24.433
32.357
40.482
48.758
57.153
65.647
74.222
26.509
34.764
43.188
51.739
60.391
69.126
77.929
55.758
67.505
79.082
90.531
101.879
113.145
124.342
59.342
71.420
83.298
95.023
106.629
118.136
129.561
63.691
76.154
88.379
100.425
112.329
124.116
135.807
66.766
79.490
91.952
104.215
116.321
128.299
140.169
73.402
86.661
99.607
112.317
124.839
137.208
149.449
33
PHYSICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL CONSTANTS
2.998 × 108 m s−1
c
Speed of light in vacuo
e
Elementary charge
mn
Neutron rest mass
mp
Proton rest mass
me
Electron rest mass
h
Planck’s constant
h̄
Dirac’s constant (= h/2π)
k
Boltzmann’s constant
G
Gravitational constant
σ
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
c1
First Radiation Constant (= 2πhc2 )
c2
Second Radiation Constant (= hc/k) 1.439 × 10−2 m K
εo
1.602 × 10−19 C
1.675 × 10−27 kg
1.673 × 10−27 kg
9.110 × 10−31 kg
µo
Permeability of free scpae
NA
Avogadro constant
R
Gas constant
a0
Bohr radius
µB
Bohr magneton
α
Fine structure constant (= 1/137.0)
M¯
Solar Mass
R¯
Solar radius
L¯
Solar luminosity
M⊕
Earth Mass
R⊕
Mean earth radius
1 pc
Parsec
6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
5.670 × 10−8 J m−2 K−4 s−1
3.742 × 10−16 J m2 s−1
8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2
4π × 10−7 H m−1
6.022 ×1023 mol−1
8.314 J K−1 mol−1
5.292 ×10−11 m
9.274 ×10−24 J T−1
7.297 ×10−3
1.989 ×1030 kg
6.96 ×108 m
3.827 ×1026 J s−1
5.976 ×1024 kg
6.371 ×106 m
9.461 ×1015 m
1 light year
Astronomical Unit
1.055 × 10−34 J s
1.381 × 10−23 J K−1
Permittivity of free space
1 AU
6.626 × 10−34 J s
1.496 ×1011 m
3.086 ×1016 m
3.156 ×107 s
1 year
ENERGY CONVERSION : 1 joule (J) = 6.2415 × 1018 electronvolts (eV)
34