I.
Groups and Organizations
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Sociology is about groups. From the beginning we have been discussing individuals and institutions in terms of groups.
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By saying that sociology is the scientific study of society and people’s interactions within that society – we imply that people are interacting in various groups.
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Groups are what sociology looks at as well as the individual’s behavior within the group.
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Interaction usually involves more than one person, thus we band together to form groups.
A.
Social Groups : Defined as two or more people who identify and interact with one another
1.
Group : A collection of people who take each other’s behavior into account as they interact, and who develop a sense of togetherness or “weness” a.
Collective identities soon emerge and people begin to feel – what
Berger spent time discussing – that the group transcends the individual
– it becomes suis generis as Durkheim called it.
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It becomes a reference point for behavior as an individual and a collective
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Most groups tend to develop their own norms and values, and their own roles and statuses. b.
Group culture and structure are created by the interactions of people in groups over time.
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There are two types of groups:
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Informal : Without a rigid social structure
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Formal : With a rigid social structure
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Well defined roles, statuses, written rules and regulations
2.
Categories, Aggregates, and Crowds
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Other ways of grouping people – but different from the sociological idea of the group a.
A category is a collection of people who have some status in common but do not interact
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A cluster of people who share a social trait such as age, sex, race, etc.
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They do not interact, do not share a culture, are not organized into a social system b.
An aggregate consists of people who are in the same place at the same time but who interact, little if at all, and have no sense of belonging together
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Collection : Two or more people who gather together at a specific place, but without developing a sense of togetherness
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Interactions are superficial

3.
Primary and Secondary Groups a.
A primary group , according to Charles Horton Cooley , is a small social group in which relationships are both personal and enduring
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Characterized by intimate, warm, cooperative, face to face relationships
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People are close, they are concerned with the well-being of others, and they value each other as an end in themselves (ex. family)
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They are usually small groups because it is hard to carry on intimate relationships among large groups
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People in primary groups share many activities, spend a great deal of time together, and feel they know one another well
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Families are primary groups in that they are the first groups we experience in life and because they are of central importance in the socialization process
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Members think of the group as an end in itself rather than as a means to other ends
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They engage each other as unique individuals b.
Secondary groups are large and impersonal social groups devoted to some specific interest or activity
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Characterized by limited participation and by impersonal and formal relationships
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People have specific goals in mind when they join a secondary group
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The purpose is viewed as a means to an end (ex. classroom, work, etc.)
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They may start out impersonal, but they can turn into primary groups
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They are, in most regards, the opposite of primary groups
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They are commonly short tem
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They are goal oriented
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They are typically impersonal c.
Primary groups dominate social life in pre-industrial societies; secondary groups are more common in modern industrial society

4.
Group Leadership
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Group researcher Kurt Lewin came up with the idea of Group
Dynamics to describe this control process
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Group Dynamics : The scientific study of the powerful processes that operate in groups
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Leadership , Cohesiveness , and Conformity are three of the most widely studied areas of groups
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Leadership
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There is usually a leader of a group who directs and guides the group toward some sort of concerted action.
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Thus, a leader : someone, who consistently influences the behavior of group members and the outcomes of a group, emerges.
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Even informal groups like peer groups usually have some type of leader
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Research in this field has shown that leaders in a group usually have certain styles that have an affect on the way things turn out for the group: a.
Instrumental Leadership emphasizes the completion of tasks; expressive leadership emphasizes collective well-being b.
There are three styles of decision making in groups:
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Authoritarian leaders focus on instrumental concerns, make decisions on their own and demand strict compliance from subordinates
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Communication flows from the top down. Behavior is closely monitored, the leader is in sole command, and members are assigned specific roles by the leader to perform.
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Prompt, orderly, and predictable performance
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Could be at the expense of individual initiative and creativity
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Democratic leaders are more expressive and try to include everyone in the decision-making process
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Communication flows from the members to the leader, and from the leader to the members
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The leader delegates authority and responsibility, encourages members to work in groups or on their own
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It promotes group goals and active participation by members in the group
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Laissez-faire leaders downplay their position and power, allowing the group to function more or less on its own
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The leader in this group uses very little authority. Mainly the leader is there to contribute knowledge, skill, and advice
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This forces the members to become leaders – taking leadership responsibilities themselves

5.
Group Cohesiveness a.
Group Cohesiveness : A group consisting of members who are strongly attracted to the group itself.
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The more members interact with one another the more cohesive the group will be.
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There is also an aspect regarding how the group is defined by others – like Cooley discussed, the group will become more cohesive if it is defined in a positive way by outsiders to the group
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Smaller groups tend to be more cohesive as well
6.
Group Conformity
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Pressures enacted on the members by the group to keep all the members in line. It forces us to act the same way following the prescribed values and norms.
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Group norms develop, become internalized, and we follow them, even outside the group
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We conform because we want to, we feel the need to be part of the group: deviance is a scary thing.
a.
Asch's research into group conformity b.
Milgram's research into obedience c.
Janis' research on groupthink : the tendency of group members to conform by adopting a narrow view of some issue
7.
A Reference Group is a social group that serves as a point of reference for people making evaluations or decisions a.
There may be certain groups that are very important to us, yet we don’t necessarily belong to them
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Its values, norms, beliefs, etc. serve as a standard for us, we may model our behavior on it, but we aren’t necessarily members b.
These groups internalize a world view so that we may model our behavior in such a way as to help our career, our status, our image, etc.
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Examples of this can be professional associations, clubs, a certain lifestyle (athletes, musicians, writers, etc.) c.
Stouffer's research into reference group dynamics
8.
An ingroup is a social group commanding a member's esteem and loyalty; an outgroup is a social group toward which one feels competition or opposition

9.
Group Size
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Modern society causes us to act in many different kinds of groups as if they were primary or intimate relationships.
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George Simmel identified two such kinds of groups: a.
A dyad is a social group with two members
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Dyads are typically less stable than larger groups
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Social interaction in a dyad is typically intense
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It is a unique situation because the interaction between the two people constitute one social relationship
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Once one member ceases to interact, the group disappears
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They are usually intimate relations b.
A triad is a social group with three members
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It is comprised of two social relationships
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A dyad plus one other person
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Coalitions are easy to form and shift
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Any two members can form a majority coalition
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Triads are more stable than dyads
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Can be all three cooperative, or two against one

II.
Groups and Organizations (cont.)
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Organizations (large-scale) tended to develop with the rise of industrial society, mass society, urbanization, and larger populations, and legalistic rules.
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We rely on organizations to supply all the goods and services we have
(food, clothes, school, work, etc.)
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An organization is a group with these three characteristics:
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It is deliberately constructed – the organization was created with a specific goal or purpose in mind
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It is highly structured, organized, with well-defined roles and positions (there is a hierarchy of prestige and power in the organization)
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It has rules and regulations. A system of punishment and reward is usually set up around those rules
A.
Formal Organizations
1.
Formal Organizations are large, secondary groups that are organized to achieve goals efficiently a.
Etzioni identifies three types of formal organizations
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Normative organizations or voluntary associations , in which people pursue goals they consider morally worthwhile
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Provide recreation, enjoyment, and satisfaction with others of a common interest
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People are free to come and go as they please (ex. Rotary,
Lions, Young Republicans, etc.)
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Coercive organizations , distinguished by involuntary membership
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Restrain people within well-defined boundaries – take in members and keep them against their will (ex. prisons, mental hospitals, schools)
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Utilitarian organizations , which people join in pursuit of material rewards

2.
Origins of bureaucracy a.
Bureaucracy is an organizational model rationally designed to perform complex tasks efficiently
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Common during the industrial revolution b.
It is important to realize that as society becomes larger, and as more and more people become anonymous, primary, intimate relationships will not work in large-scale organizations.
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Bureaucracy : A type of organization that is based on explicit rules with clear, impersonal, and hierarchical authority structures
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It must strive to treat everyone the same in as an efficient manner as possible c.
Max Weber identified six key characteristics of bureaucracy:
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He used a framework for studying organizations as well as many other sociological phenomena:
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Ideal Type : A composite of characteristics based on many specific examples
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It is a kind of yardstick that an ideal representation of that phenomena would look like (ex. the ideal car) in order to compare the actual phenomena` to
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It identifies essential features of this particular group
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So Weber comes up with the characteristics that would go into the ideal bureaucracy
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Specialization : An elaborate division of labor
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A complex division of labor among its members with each person having specialized duties and responsibilities
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Hierarchy of offices
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A hierarchy of authority with a few people at the top, many people in the middle, and a majority at the bottom
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Those higher up are held responsible for those beneath them in the hierarchical management chain
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Rules and regulations
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There are explicit rules and procedures that govern all aspects of the organization
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Technical competence as the key criterion for hiring and promotion
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People are rewarded and punished based on their performance (nothing else)
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Impersonality
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Formal, written communication
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Extensive written (computerized) records are kept of everything that passes through d.
The informal side of bureaucracy

e.
Problems in bureaucracies
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Consequences
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Although Weber admired the bureaucracy for its efficiency, its ability to deal with large numbers of people, and its democratic-like character, he also detested it for very real negative aspects that can and have developed with the invent of the bureaucracy.
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Thus, he lefts several problems that arise with a bureaucracy that eventually lead to our submission in what he calls the
“ iron cage ” of society.
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As I discuss these, think about these aspects whenever you have had to deal with a bureaucracy (ex. DMV, Admissions and Records, McDonalds, etc.)
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Bureaucratic alienation
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Because a bureaucracy is meant to be impersonal, all people who interact with a bureaucratic organization are treated the same way – often with disinterest and
contempt
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Merton's concept of bureaucratic ritualism signifies a preoccupation with organizational rules and regulations to the point of thwarting an organization's goals
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Members of a bureaucracy often follow rules blindly, this blind devotion can cause inefficiency and interfere with the actual goals of the organization
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Trained Incapacity : A tendency for bureaucrats to mechanically follow rules rather than use their imagination
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Bureaucratic inertia : the tendency of a bureaucratic organization to perpetuate themselves
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The original goals of the organization are replaced by those that serve the personal interest of the bureaucrat
(ex. Congress constantly votes them selves higher salaries while cutting welfare and increasing taxes)
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Michels developed the idea that bureaucracy fosters oligarchy -- the rule of many by the few
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Iron Law of Oligarchy
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(Robert Michels) Every bureaucracy is controlled by an oligarchy : a small clique of people who rule the organization for their own benefit.
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They are able to dominate because they control the organization’s resources, the flow of information, and have the power to fire.

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Parkinson's law states that work expands to fill the time available for its completion
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Even if there is not enough work to do, bureaucrats will find busy work to do, or make work for each other to do just to fill the time.
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The Peter Principle holds that bureaucrats will be promoted to their level of incompetence
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(Lawrence Peter) As we mentioned earlier, competency is rewarded in a bureaucracy, given this, bureaucrats can expect promotions for doing competent work until the are promoted to a position beyond their abilities creating incompetence in the organization
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Demotion is rare so eventually the bureaucracy is filled with incompetence
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Invisible Woman, Ethnic, Lower Class person
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Though technically the American ideal of bureaucracy is supposed to be followed, women are subjected to sexism, different ethnicities are subjected to racism, and different classes are subjected to classism
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This can include condescension , discouragement, and exploitation f.
Bureaucratic functioning
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Depends on the organizational environment, a range of factors external to an organization that affect its operation:
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Technology, politics, economy, population, other organizations

g.
The McDonaldization of society
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As bureaucracy moves into almost all aspects of our life, it becomes increasingly difficult to find a place where rationality and efficiency are not dominating our lives.
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Sociologist George Ritzer calls this the “ McDonaldization of
Society ”
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Every aspect of society (school, hospitals, emotions, etc.) turn into mini-versions of McDonalds. You get your food done way, the same way, no matter where you go.
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You wait in an antiseptically clean (metal and brick and plastic) box for a “friendly” server to take your order. Within minutes you are served plastic food on a plastic plate.
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This was Weber’s biggest fear
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Four principles:
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Efficiency, calcuability, predictability, control through automation
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Rationality, although efficient, can be extremely dehumanizing