People often think that probability theory is applied mostly in games of chance, but in fact probability is also involved in genetics, astronomy, manufacturing, insurance, and many other fields. Public opinion pollsters, for instance, apply probability when they report the results of a survey.
To review the basic vocabulary of probability theory, we will use a 6sided solid cube. One face of the cube has 3 dots, and so on up to 6 dots. This is commonly known as a number cube , a die, or a fair die . The plural of “die” is dice , and we often refer to a pair of dice .
· Experiment: Too the die and see which face lands up, that is, how many dots land face up.
· Outcome: Number of dots on the face that lands up.
· Equally likely : Each number, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, has an equal chance of landing face up. (This is what we mean by a “fair” die.)
· Sampler space : All possible outcomes of an experiment; the set { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } .
· Event: Any subset of the sample space; for example { } .
The probability of an event A is defined as the number of successful outcomes divided by the total number of all possible outcomes. It is written as a fraction:
P(A) = number of successful outcomes total number of possible outcomes
Suppose we want to calculate the probability of getting a 4 in our example of an experiment with a die. There are 6 possible outcomes: { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } . There is only 1 successful outcome, because there is only 1 way to get a 4: the face with 4 dots must land up. Because we have defined the die as “fair,” getting a 4 is just as likely as getting any other number, such as a 1 or a 5.
{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } Therefore, the probability of getting a 4 is :
P(4) = number of successful outcomes
Total number of possible outcomes
=
1
6
EXAMPLE
1. One side of a coin shows a person’s face ; this side is called heads.
The other side is called tails.
When you flip a dime, what is the probability of getting tails?
Answer : There are two possible outcomes, heads or tails: { .
} . There is only one way to get tails. As with dice, we4 assume that a coin is “fair,” so heads and tails are equally likely. Therefore, the probability of tails is:
P(T) = number of successful outcomes = 1
Total number of possible outcomes 2
TRY THESE
1. When you toss a die, what is the probability of getting an even number?
2. When you toss a die, what is the probability of getting a number greater than 1?
When an experiment consists of one event, such as rolling one die or tossing one coin, the outcome is called a simple event. Here are three examples of calculating probability for simple events.
EXAMPLE 1
When we roll a die, what is the probability of getting an odd number? This event will be called event A. What is the probability of getting a number less than 4? This event will be called event B. What is the probability of event A and B.
To determine this, we must look at the sample space: { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } . Event A involves the subset of odd numbers: { 1, 3, 5 } . Event B involves the subset of numbers less than 4: { 1, 2, 3 } . The probability of event A and B is the intersection of these subsets, or { } . Thus:
P(A and B) =
4 2
=
6 3
EXAMPLE 2
Suppose we want to know the probability of A or B: getting an odd number or a number less than 4. This probability is the union of the two subsets, or { 1, 2, 3, 5 } . Thus:
P(A or B) =
4 2
=
6 3
REMEMBER: When we express a union of sets, we must be sure not to repeat an element that appears in both sets. In this case, the 1 and the 3 appear in both sets, but each appears just once in the union.
EXAMPLE 3
When we roll a die, the probability of getting a 2 is
1
6
. What is the probability of not getting a 2?
In rolling a die, the outcome must be either a 2 or not a 2. This is certain.
Therefore, the probability of getting a 2 or not getting a 2 is 1. Therefore, to find the probability of not getting a 2, we subtract the probability of getting a 2 from 1:
P(not 2) = 1
1 5
=
6 6
Another way to find the probability of not getting a 2 is to calculate the probability of all the other possible events. When we roll a die, there are 5 ways not to get a 2:
{ 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 } .
Therefore, the probability of not getting a 2 is
5
6
In an experiment, the sum of the probabilities of all the possible events must be equal 1.
Therefore, a formula for the probability of “ not A” is:
P(not A) = 1 – P(A)
EXAMPLE
A child bank contains 7 quarters (Q) , 5 dimes (D), 12 nickels (N), and 16 pennies (P).
1. Without looking at the contents, the child reaches in and takes out 1 coin. Find the probability that the coin is a: a. dime b. quarter c. penny or a nickel d. quarter or a dime
Answers: The sample space consists of 7 + 5 + 12 + 16 = 40 coins. Therefore, the probability is: a. (D) =
5 1
=
40 8
7 b. (Q) =
40 c. P(P or N) =
16 12 28 7
+ = =
40 40 40 10 d. P(Q or D) =
7 5 12 3
+ = =
40 40 40 10
2. What is the probability that the child will not select a quarter?
7
Answer: P(Q) =
40
. Therefore, P(not Q) = 1
7 33
=
40 40
Another way to calculate this is to sum the probabilities of all the other outcomes:
P(not Q) =
5 12 16 33
+ + =
40 40 40 40
3. What is the probability of selecting a quarter or a dime or a nickel or a penny?
Answer : This probability is the sum of the probabilities of all the possible outcomes. Therefore:
P(Q or D or N or P) =
7 5 12 16 40
+ + + = =
40 40 40 40 40
1
You could simply answer “1” without calculating, since in any experiment the sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes must be 1.
4. Given the set of numbers { 1, 2, 3, 6, 7,11 } , what is the probability of selecting a number that is odd and greater than 6?
Answer: This probability is an intersection of subsets. The sample space consists of 6 numbers. The subset of odd numbers is { 1, 3, 7,11 } . The subset of numbers greater than 6 is { 7,11 } . The intersection of these two subsets is { 7,11 } .
Thus:
P(odd and >6) =
2 1
=
6 3
5. Given the spinner shown, find the probability that in one spin the pointer will land on a 1.
We assume that a spinner (like a die or a coin) is “fair.” Thus there is an equal chance of landing on each sector. We also assume that the sectors are equal size
(unless a problem states otherwise).
Answer : There are 8 sectors on which the pointer can land, so the sample space is 8. Since 3 sectors are marked “1,” there are 3 successful outcomes.
Therefore, the probability is :
P(1) = number of successful outcomes = 3 total number of possible outcomes 8
TRY THESE
Items 1 and 2: A jar contains 25 marbles; 5 red, 7 blue, 2 black, 2 white, and 9 yellow.
Without looking, you take 1 marble.
1. Find the probability of selecting: a. a red marble b. a black marble c. a white or yellow marble d. a red or a blue marble
2. What is the probability of NOT choosing a blue marble?
3. Given the set of numbers { 1, 2, 4, 7, 9,12 } , what is the probability of selecting a number that is even and less than 7?
4. Given the spinner shown, predict how many times the pointer will land on red if the spinner is spun 84 times.
People often talk about “odds.” We say, “What are the odds that it will rain today?” or “The odds of my passing this test are good.”
In the study of probability, odds are expressed in one of two ways. First, we can find the odds in favor of an event : the odds that an event will occur. Second, we can find the odds against an event : the odds that the event will not occur.
Let A stand for an event. The probability of A is :
P(A) = number of successful outcomes total number of possible outcomes
The odds in favor of A are calculated as follows:
Odds of A = probability that A will occur P( A) probability that A will not occur = P(notA)
The odds against A are calculated as:
Odds against A = probability that A will occur P(notA) probability that A will occur = P(A)
REMEMBER: To find P(not A), you can use two methods. The first method is to subtract
P(A) from 1 –P(A). The second method is to find the sum of the probabilities of all the other events, all the events that are not A.
EXAMPLE:
A jar contains 5 candies: 3 red and 2 green. You choose 1 candy without looking. What are the odds in favor of getting a red candy?
There are 3 chances that the event “red” will occur and 2 chances that the event “green” will occur. Therefore the odds in favor of red are:
Odds of red = probability that red will occur = P(red) = 3
Probability that red will not occur = P(not red) = 2
We express this answer by saying that the odds in favor of choosing red are 3 to 2.
EXAMPLE
One of three students –Ann, Bill, and Corywill be chosen at random to lead a group discussion. What are the odds that Ann will be selected? What are the odds against Ann’s being selected.
The probability that Ann will be selected is 1/3, so the probability that she will not be selected is 1 – 1/3 = 2/3.
The odds in favor of selecting Ann are calculated as:
1
( )
3
1 3 3 1
= = · = =
2 3 2 6 2
3
Therefore, the odds in favor of selecting Ann are 1 to 2. We can also say “1 in 2” or “1 out of 2.”
The odds against selecting Ann are:
( )
2
3
2
3
6 2
= = · = =
1 3 3 1
3
We say that the odds against selecting Ann are 2 to 1.
EXAMPLE
1. There are 20 people in a room: 13 males (M) and 7 females (F). What are the odds that 1 person chosen at random will be a male?
Answer : P(M) =
13
20 and P(not M)= 1
13 7
=
20 20
Therefore the odds in favor of choosing a male are:
( ) 13 7 13 20 13
(
= ¸ = · =
) 20 20 20 7 7
2. You enter a contest in which the probability of winning the prize is
2
15
. What are the odds in favor of winning?
Answer : The probability P(not W) of not winning is
13
15
.
Therefore the odds in favor of winning (W) are :
( )
(
2 13 2 15 2
= ¸ = · =
) 15 15 15 13 13
3. Shirts and pants are hanging on a rack in a dark closet. You reach in and take one item at random. In this situation, it has been determined that the odds of choosing a shirt are
2
9
. If you choose 44 items in this way, predict the number of shirts you will get.
Answer : Since 2 + 9 = 11, the given odds imply that out of every 11 items chosen, 2 will shirts. Calculate:
2
11
44
88
· = =
11
8
Therefore, you can predict that you will get 8 shirts.
TRY THESE
1. You choose one number from the numbers 1,2,3,4, and 5. What are the odds in favor of choosing an even number?
2. Students in Mr. McDonnell’s history class are being chosen at random to give oral reports. There are 28 students, of which 15 are girls. What are the odds against a boy’s being the first person chosen to give a report?
3. In one class of 30 students, the odds that a student will go to college outside of the state of Florida is 1 out of 5. Predict how many students will go to college outside of Florida.