The Industrial Revolution
Chapter 5
(1750-1914)
The Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was neither
sudden nor swift.
Production shifted from hand tools to
machines.
Power such as steam and electricity replaced
human and animal power.
Beginnings of the Industrial
Revolution in Britain
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The French Revolution
disrupted the political and
economic life of France.
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This was one reason that
Britain emerged as the
leader of the Industrial
Revolution.
The Agricultural Revolution
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One key to the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution in Britain was a revolution in
agriculture that greatly increased the amount and
variety of food produced.
Since the Middle Ages, farmers had planted the
same crop in a given field year after year. Every
3rd year they left the field fallow to prevent the
soil from wearing out.
In the 1730s, Charles Townshend (1675-1738)
discovered that fields did not have to be left to
fallow if farmers would rotate the crops they
planted in a field.
The Agricultural Revolution
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Jethro Tull (1674-1741):
developed a seed drill
that planted the seeds in
straight rows.
The seed drill reduced the
amount of seed used in
planting.
It also allowed farmers to
weed around the straight
rows of growing crops.
Seed Drill
The Agricultural Revolution
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During the 1700s, iron plows
replaced less efficient,
wooden plows.
Iron Plow
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In the 1800s, mechanical
reapers and threshers began
to replace hand methods of
harvesting crops.
Changes in the Textile Industry
Mechanical Inventions
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John Kay (1704-1780):
invented the flying shuttle
which replaced the hand-held
shuttle used in weaving.
The Flying Shuttle
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James Hargreaves (17201778): developed a way to
speed up spinning where a
person could spin several
threads at once.
Monument to John Kay
Lancashire, UK
Spinning Jenny
Changes in the Textile Industry
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Richard Arkwright: devised a machine
that could hold up to 100 spindles. He
used water power to turn it thus the
machine was called the water frame.
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Samuel Crompton: developed the
spinning mule – the production of
cotton thread was increased.
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Edward Cartwright: built a loom
where the weaving was powered by
water. A worker could produce 200
times more cloth in a day than before.
Changes in the Textile Industry
Eli Whitney (1765-1825) gave the British cotton
industry a further boost.
† Before cotton fibres could be spun into cloth, workers
had to remove sticky seeds, an extremely slow
process.
Whitney invented the cotton gin – a
machine that tore the fibres from the seeds
thus speeding up the process of cleaning
cotton fibres. This increased raw cotton
production and made it cheaper.
By the 1830s, Britain was importing 280
million pounds of raw cotton/year and had
become the cotton manufacturing center of
Cotton Gin
the world.
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The Factory System
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The factory system brought workers and machines
together in one place to manufacture goods.
Everyone worked a set number of hours each day
and workers were paid daily or weekly wages.
Development of the Steam Engine
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In 1698, Thomas Savery constructed a
steam driven pump to remove water from
flooded coal mines.
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In the early 1700s, Thomas Newcomen
developed a safer steam-powered pump
but it broke down frequently and
required a lot of coal to fuel it.
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James Watt improved Newcomen’s engine.
His version got four times more power
from the same amount of coal.
Thomas Newcomen’s Steam Engine
Development of the Iron & Coal
Industries
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Producing and operating the new machines,
including the steam engine, required large
quantities of iron and coal.
Fortunately Britain had extensive deposits
of both.
During the Industrial Revolution, the iron
and coal industries benefited from improved
production techniques.
Development of the Iron & Coal
Industries
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Abraham Darby: developed a way to use coke
(coal with the gases burned off) in place of
charcoal.
Henry Cort: developed a puddling process in
which molten iron was stirred with a long rod to
allow impurities to burn off. Iron produced in
this manner was stronger than iron produced in
other ways and less likely to crack under
pressure. Cort also developed a technique to
run molten iron through rollers to produce
sheets of iron.
Bessemer Process
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In the 1850s, Henry Bessemer (1813-1898)
developed a procedure that blasts cold air
through heated iron to remove impurities.
The result was stronger, more workable
steel.
Advances in Transportation and
Communication
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In the 1700s, the need for rapid, inexpensive transportation
led to a boom in canal building in Britain.
In 1759, the Duke of Bridgewater (1736-1803) built a canal
to connect his coal mines and his factories.
John McAdam (1756-1836)
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The Scottish engineer invented a road surface
made of crushed stone. This surface made roads
usable in all weather.
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The need for good transportation led to the
development of the railroad industry. For years,
mine carts had been pulled along iron rails by
workers or donkeys. In 1829, George Stephenson
(1781-1848), a mining engineer, developed the
Rocket, the first steam-powered locomotive.
George Stephenson’s “Rocket”
The Rocket could barrel
along iron rails at 36 miles
(58 km) per hour, an
astounding speed at the time.
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Between 1840 and 1850,
the British built over 5,000
miles (8,000km) of railway
tracks. As steel rails
replaced iron rails, trains
reached speeds of 60 miles
(96km) an hour.
An American engineer,
Robert Fulton (1765-1815),
developed a way to use
steam power for ships. In
1807, Fulton successfully
tested the Clermont, a
paddle-wheeled
steamship, on the Hudson
River.
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In 1837, Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872), an
American, devised the telegraph, which sent
messages by electrical impulses.
Why Britain Led the Industrial
Revolution
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The Agricultural Revolution came increased food
production, freeing many labourers to work in industry.
Britain had plentiful iron and coal resources, and it
developed an excellent transportation system to speed the
flow of goods.
British merchants had made huge profits from the
international trade in tobacco, sugar, tea, and slaves.
British entrepreneurs had the financial resources to invest
in industries such as textiles, mines, railroads, and
shipbuilding. Britain also had a large colonial empire that
supplied raw materials to its factories.
The British government lifted restrictions on trade, giving
manufacturers and merchants opportunities to make large
profits. It encouraged road and canal building schemes
and maintained a strong navy to protect British merchant
ships all over the world.
Section Review
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Patterns of Civilization
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P. 416 – #3,4 & 6
The Spread of Industrialization
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In the early 1800s, Joseph
Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)
developed the first power loom
that could be used to weave
complex patterns. The
Jacquard loom had a punched
card system that controlled the
intricate patterns. Textiles
produced on Jacquard looms
commanded high prices among
the fashion-conscious upper
classes in Europe.
Advances in Science and Technology
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In 1800, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an
Italian physicist, used his knowledge of
electricity to build one of the first electric
batteries.
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The work of Michael Faraday (1791-1867), an
English scientist, led to the construction of the first
electric generators, which eventually replaced
steam engines in many factories.
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In 1866, the first underwater
telegraph cable across the
Atlantic Ocean was
successfully installed. In
1877, Alexander Graham
Bell (1847-1922) invented
the telephone.
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By the end of the century,
Italian physicist Guglielmo
Marconi (1874-1937) had
developed a way to send
electric signals without wire
or cable. His invention was
called the wireless in England
and the radio in America.
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Thomas Alva Edison
(1847-1931) produced a
stunning array of inventions
in his New Jersey
workshop. Among
Edison’s inventions were
the phonograph and the
incandescent light bulb.
He also designed an
electric generating plant
that provided power to light
the streets of New York
City.
A Revolution in Transportation
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Perhaps the most
significant advance
was the development
of the internal
combustion engine.
The internal
combustion engine
had a number of
advantages over the
steam engine. For
example, it could be
started and stopped
more easily.
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In 1886, the German
scientist Gottlieb
Daimler (1834-1900)
devised an internal
combustion engine
that was fueled by
gasoline and could
power a small vehicle.
Daimler used his
engine to build one of
the first automobiles.
The first motorcycle was invented by Daimler.
Daimler and the first small vehicle.
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A few years later, another German engineer, Rudolf
Diesel (1858-1913), developed an internal combustion
engine that could power larger vehicles such as
trucks, ships, and locomotives. This diesel engine,
as it became known, used petroleum oil for fuel.
Section Review
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Patterns of Civilization
† P. 421 # 2 & 4
Effects of Industrialization
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The beginning of the Industrial Revolution was
marked by a population explosion that was to have
far-reaching effects. The population in Europe grew
from 140 million people to 463 million.
The Agricultural Revolution improved the diets
of many people, so the people were healthier.
Medical discoveries and public sanitation reduced
the numbers of deaths caused by disease.
Furthermore, in the 1800s, European nations
fought no major wars.
Problems of Growing Cities
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Until the 1800s, cities, which were often located
along land or water trade routes, served mainly as
marketplaces. But the Industrial Revolution changed
the nature of cities.
Cities seemed to spring up almost overnight as
people flocked to mill and factory sites. When
people poured into these fast-growing cities in
search of jobs, living conditions grew worse.
Manchester
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Manchester was the center of the British cotton
industry, and its population had grown to
455,000.
The rapid growth of Manchester brought
severe problems. Thousands of factory
workers crowded into poorly built houses.
The city had an inadequate water system and
almost no sanitation system. Overcrowded
city slums became the breeding grounds for
disease.
In many cities, pigs roaming the streets were
the only “garbage collectors.” Manchester was
not even chartered as a city so it could not tax
citizens to raise money for improving living
conditions.
Working in a Factory
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Most of the new city residents found themselves working in
factories, where working conditions were as miserable as
living conditions outside the factory. The supply of unskilled
workers was large, so wages were very low.
Work days lasted from 12 to 16 hours, or from sunrise to
sunset. Men, women, and children worked six days a week.
There were no paid holidays, vacations, or sick leaves.
Factories were often unhealthy, dangerous places to work.
Fumes from machines combined with poor ventilation made
the air foul. The loud, monotonous noise of machines
assaulted the ear. Lighting was poor, and machines were not
equipped with safety devices, so accidents occurred
frequently. A worker injured on the job received no
compensation.
Changing Roles for Women
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Traditionally, most women had
either helped farm the land or
worked in the home earning money
through the domestic system. Some
women also worked as servants in
the homes of the wealthy.
To help support their families in the
industrial economy, many women
went to work in the factories or the
mines.
Working in a factory added greatly
to a woman’s responsibilities. She
worked outside her home for 12 to
16 hours a day. Yet, she still had to
cook, clean, and sew for her family.
As the standard of living improved many working class families could start
to live on the income of only one person. As a result, a new pattern of family
life emerged. Husbands tended to be the sole wage earners, and women
remained at home.
Section Review
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Patterns of Civilization
† P. 425 - #1 - 3
Demands for Change in Britain
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Because the Industrial Revolution
began in Britain, workers there
were the first to feel its effects.
They suffered from low wages,
dangerous working conditions,
and frequent unemployment.
Initially, the British Parliament
had little sympathy for the
workers.
Parliament investigates
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Eventually, in 1831, Parliament began a series
of investigations of factory and mine
conditions.
What was…?
Mines Act
Ten Hours Act
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The 1842 Mines Act
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No female was to be employed underground.
No boy under 10 years old was to be employed underground.
Ten Hours Act
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Also known as the 1847 Factory Act was a
piece of British legislation which limited
all women and adolescents between 13
and 18 years of age to working 10 hours
in the textile mills.
Rise of Labour Unions
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Early in the Industrial Revolution, factory workers
began forming associations to gain better wages,
hours, and working conditions. These early worker
associations later developed into labour unions.
Labour unions developed first in Britain, and from
the start they were met with strong opposition. The
government saw labour unions as dangerous
organizations. Moreover, employers argued that the
shorter hours and higher wages demanded by unions
would add to the cost of goods, reduce profits, and
hurt business. Parliament passed the Combination
Acts in 1799 and 1800 to outlaw labour unions.
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Slowly, local trade unions formed larger
associations to support both political and
economic goals.
By 1868, over 100,000 workers
belonged to trade unions. In the 1870s,
British unions won the right to strike and
picket peacefully.
The success of the trade unions
encouraged unskilled workers to form
their own unions in the 1880s.
By 1889, London dock workers were
organized well enough to mount a strike
in support of their demands for higher
wages. The London dock strike
effectively shut down one of the world’s
busiest ports. From this point on, the
strike was a common tool of labour
unions.
Gains for Workers
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Gradually, employers came to believe that
workers would be more productive in a safe,
healthy environment. They installed proper
ventilation in factories, equipped machines
with safety devices, and switched to new
electric lighting.
Improving City Life
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In Britain and France, city governments
began programs to provide adequate
water and sewage systems.
Between 1850 and 1870, the city of Paris
was almost completely rebuilt. Narrow,
crooked streets were replaced by straight,
wide boulevards. New and better houses
were constructed, and large parks were
opened for people to spend their leisure
time.
In London, a reform-minded member of
Parliament, Sir Robert Peel (1788-1850),
helped establish the first police in that
city. Londoners referred to members of
the new police force as Bobbies or
Peelers.
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Cities became safer with the
installation of gas, and later
electric, lights that lit the streets
at night.
In the 1890s, many Europeans
cities adopted an American
invention, the electric streetcar.
Electric streetcars were much
cheaper and cleaner than horsedrawn streetcars.
Cities such as London, Boston,
New York, Paris, and Berlin also
built subway systems.
Section Review
Patterns of Civilization
† P. 428 - # 2-5
P. 429 – Character Matching
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