Torts&CAN&
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Intentional&Torts&
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Cook$v$Lewis:!Lewis!accidentally!shot!while!hunting!by!Cook.!If!a!plaintiff!establishes!
harm,!the!defendant!must!prove!both!lack!of!intent!and!negligence.!Affirmed!by!Goshen'v'
Larin.'
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Directness$
Bettel$v$Yim:!Yim,!the!store!owner,!shakes!Bettel!for!lighting!matches!and!unintentionally!
breaks!Bettel’s!nose.!A!wrongdoer!is!liable!for!all!consequences,!not!just!reasonably!
foreseeable!consequences!of!an!intentional!tort.!!
Hoffman'v'Monsanto:!where!trespass!of!nonCorganic!seeds!caused!by!the!wind!not!
sufficiently!direct.!!
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Intent$
Garratt$v$Dailey:!Child!pulls!a!chair!out!behind!a!person.!The!courts!can!construct!intent!
where!the!defendant!was!substantially!certain!of!the!physical!consequences!of!their!act.!
Carnes$v$Thompson:!The!defendant!intentionally!aims!to!hit!another,!but!hits!the!
defendant!instead.!The!harmed!party!can!benefit!from!transferred!intent.!!!
Baseley$v$Clarkson:!The!defendant!thought!the!property!line!was!a!foot!further!than!it!
actually!was,!cuts!B’s!grass.!Mistaken!belief!doesn’t!compromise!intent.!Aff’d!in!Costello'v'
Calgary.!
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Volition$
Smith$v$Stone:$Stone!is!carried!on!to!Smith’s!land,!trespassing.!A!person!without!bodily!
control!is!not!liable!for!an!intentional!tort!–!volition!is!required.!!!
Gilbert$v$Stone:!Stone!threatened!with!injury!unless!he!trespassed.!A!person!is!still!acting!
voluntarily!when!under!duress.!!
Lawson$v$Wellesley$Hospital:!Mentally!ill!with!no!appreciation!of!the!quality!or!
consequences!of!their!acts!don’t!have!volition.!!!
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Assault$and$Battery$
Mainland$Sawmill$v$USW$Local$I3567:!Union!employees!threaten!nonCunion!employees!
with!banging!sticks!and!verbal!threats.!Assault!requires!apprehension!of!imminent!contact!
of!an!offensive!or!harmful!nature.!Threatening!someone!out!of!reach!or!at!a!future!time!is!
not!assault.!See!Freitas'v'Defraga!for!no!fear!needed.!!
Warman$v$Grosvenor:$The!defendant!posts!online!threats,!including!“day!of!reckoning!is!
coming”,!and!“I!have!a!gun”.!Frightening!or!threatening!someone!is!not!assault!unless!
event!feared!is!imminent.!Defendant!must!have!the!ability!to!cause!the!harm.$
MK$v$MH:$$Victim!was!sexually!assaulted!by!father!as!a!child,!and!realized!it!as!an!adult!in!
therapy.!(Typically!2!year)!limitation!of!action!applies!from!the!moment!of!reasonable!
discovery.!BC!Limitation!Act!has!no!limitation!period!for!sexual!assault.!!
$
Intentional$Infliction$of$Mental$Suffering$
Wilkinson$v$Downton:!Defendant!tells!plaintiff!her!husband!is!gravely!injured.!Suffers!
breakdown!including!vomiting.!Extreme,!flagrant,!or!outrageous!acts!calculated!to!
produce!harm!and!caused!recognizable!physical!or!psychopathological!harm!is!intentional!
infliction!of!mental!suffering.!!“Calculated!to!produce!harm”!is!imputed.$
*Piresferreria$v$Ayotte:$Ayotte!lashes!out!at!P!in!the!workplace.!‘Calculated!to!produce!
harm’!includes!in!Ontario!reckless!disregard!for!emotional!wellbeing.''Prinzo:!‘calculated’!
includes!intent!or!substantial!certainty!of!harm.!Purdy'v'Woznesensky:!‘calculated’!
includes!reasonable!person!foreseeability!of!harm.!!
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Bhadauria$v$Seneca$College:!ShortClived!tort!of!discrimination.!Statute!occupied!the!field.!
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False$Imprisonment$
Bird$v$Jones:!Bird!is!prevented!from!crossing!a!bridge,!has!to!take!another!one.!False!
imprisonment!occurs!only!when!there!is!a!boundary!on!movement!and!no!reasonable!
means!of!escape.!
Chaytor$et$al$v$London,$New$York,$and$Paris$Association$of$Fashion:!Chaytor!enters!
defendant!store!for!priceCchecking,!detained!by!police.!Psychological!compulsion!can!
restrict!reasonable!means!of!escape,!there!can!be!restraint!of!freedom!without!touching!
someone.!
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Jones$v$Tsige:!Defendant!bank!employee!looks!at!plaintiff’s!bank!records.!Tort!of!invasion!
of!privacy!if!one!intentionally!intrudes!on!the!seclusion!or!privative!affairs,!and!is!highly!
offensive!to!reasonable!person.!Not!recognized!in!BC:!Demcak'v'Vo.!See!BC!Privacy!Act.!
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Defenses&
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Consent$
O’Brien$v$Cunard:!Irish!immigrant!vaccinated!on!ship!without!her!consent.!Objective!
standard:!would!a!reasonable!person!in!the!position!of!the!plaintiff!consent?!!!
NonUMarine$Underwriters,$Lloyds$of$of$London$v$Scalera:!Scalera!has!sexual!relationship!
with!plaintiff!insurer’s!client.!Later!claims!nonCconsent.!The!plaintiff!must!show!that!the!
act!occurred,!not!necessarily!harmful!or!offensive.!The!defendant!has!the!burden!of!proof!
for!consent.!!
Norberg$v$Wynrib:!!Wynrib!provides!Norberg!with!painkillers!in!exchange!for!sex.!
Accused!of!sexual!assault!and!battery.!Consent!to!(sexual!battery)!isn’t!a!defense!in!a!
relationship!of!power!(inequality!and!exploitation.)!Failure!to!resist!or!protest!is!a!sign!of!
consent.!Consent!cannot!be!elicited!under!duress!or!the!influence!of!drugs,!or!procured!
deceitfully.!!!
Agar$v$Canning:!Canning!hits!Agar!in!a!hockey!match,!Agar!retaliates,!Canning!hits!Agar!
in!the!face.!While!there!is!implied!or!waivered!consent!to!reasonable!harm!in!sporting!
contexts,!it!can!be!vitiated!by!definite!resolve!to!injure!another.!See!Colby'v'Schmidt!for!
unusual!acts!overriding!consent!in!sporting!context.!
Charland$v$Cloverdale$Minor$Baseball$Association:!Fathers!fight!after!a!baseball!game.!
Consent!is!vitiated!by!an!excessive!or!unnecessary!act.!!!
Malette$v$Schulman$Malette,!a!Jehova’s!Witness,!has!a!blood!transfusion!denial!card.!
Sues!doctor!for!assault!and!battery!for!administering!a!transfusion.!!Patients!have!the!
right!to!deny!bodily!contact.!In!emergency!medical!situations,!plaintiff!incapacitated!with!
no!agent!and!reasonable!person!would!consent,!consent!not!needed.!!
Johnston$v$Wellesley$Hospital:!Johnston’s!mother!sues!Wellesley!Hospital!for!inserting!
an!IUD.!!Defense!claims!consent.!!Consent!for!the!young!is!based!on!capacity!and!ability.!!
MM$v$KK:!Plaintiff!sues!foster!father!for!childhood!sexual!assault.!The!consent!of!a!minor!
isn’t!valid!in!sexual!contexts.!!
Re$Superintendent$for$Child$and$Family$Services$and$Dawson$et$al:!The!superintendent!
takes!a!mentally!disabled!child!from!his!family.!Would!the!mentally!ill!person!consent!if!
they!could!make!sound!judgment?!!
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Self$Defence$
Cockroft$v$Smith:!Cockroft!touches!Smith,!Smith!bites!off!finger.!SelfCdefence!can!be!
claimed!if!it!is!proportionate!and!there!is!no!gap!in!time.!Mann'v'Balaban:!the!defendant!
must!establish!that!the!selfCdefence!was!justified.!!
Citizen’s$Arrest$and$Self$Defence$Act:!Belief!of!imminent!force!on!reasonable!grounds.!
Act!in!response!to!threat.!Act!is!reasonable!in!the!circumstances.!See!Gambriell'v'
Caparelli!for!mistaken!but!reasonable!belief!grounds!for!selfCdefence.!See!Hurley'v'Moore!
for!provocation!reducing!damages!but!not!warranting!selfCdefence.!!
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$
Necessity$
Dwyer$v$Staunton:!Staunton!drives!car!over!Dwyer’s!land!after!road!blocked!by!
snowstorm.!Sues!for!trespass.!Necessity!is!a!defence!when!no!other!option!and!no!
unnecessary!damage.!PublicCinterest!context.!
Vincent$v$Lake$Erie$Transportation$Co:!Lake!Erie!Transport!ties!their!ship!to!Vincent’s!
dock!because!it!couldn’t!escape!a!storm.!Damages!dock.!Necessity!requires!no!reasonable!
alternative,!where!a!prudent!person!would!have!done!the!same.!The!defendant!is!still!
responsible!for!damages!if!sacrificing!another’s!property!to!save!theirs.!
Southwark$London$Borough$Council$v$Williams$and$Anderson:!Homeless!defendant!
trespasses!for!need!of!shelter.!Necessity!requires!an!immediate,!unpredictable!need.!See!R'
v'Latimer!for!necessity!requires:!imminent!peril,!absence!of!a!legal!alternative,!and!
proportionality.!
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Negligence&
In!order!for!a!negligence!claim!to!be!successful,!the!plaintiff!must!show!on!a!balance!of!
probabilities!that!they!were!owed!a!duty!of!care,!the!standard!of!care!was!breached,!
their!harm!was!caused!by!that!breach!and!that!damage!ensued.!The!defendant!can!then!
raise!a!defence!or!argue!that!the!harm!was!too!remote.!!
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Negligence&
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!!!!!Objective!severe!risk?!(Donoghue,!Bolton)!
!!!!!Objective!likely!risk?!(Donoghue,!Bolton)!
Material&risk?!(if!very!severe,!material.!See!Paris!v!Stepney)!
!!!!!Cost!to!mitigate?!(Bolton,!Ryan)!
Disabled!plaintiff?!Higher!standard.!(Carroll!v!Chicken!Palace)!
Defendant!a!police!officer?!Lower!standard?!(Priestman)!
Social!utility!of!act.!Lower!standard!(Watt)!
Following!customary!practice?!Only!evidence.!(Waldick)!
Against!customary!practices?!Only!evidence.!(Brown)!
Breaching!a!statute?!Only!evidence.!(Sask!Wheat!Pool)!
Compliance!with!relevant!statute?!Only!evidence.!(Ryan!v!Victoria)!
Defendant!a!child?!Reasonable!child!of!that!age.!(Heisler)!
Defendant!mentally!handicapped?!Not!liable.!(Fiala)!
Defendant!automatistic?!Not!liable.!(Slattery)!
Defendant!a!doctor?!Doctor!of!average!skill,!knowledge,!judgment.!
(Challand)!!
Doctor!didn’t!disclose!risks,!accounting!for!circumstances?!(Reibl)!
Defendant!a!lawyer?!Reasonably!competent?!(Brenner)!
Duty&of&Care&Exists?&
1.&Was&harm&to&the&type&of&victim&reasonably&foreseeable&by&the&
type&of&tortfeasor?&
&&&&&Was!the!kind!of!plaintiff!reasonably!foreseeable?!(Hay!v!Young)&
2.&Is&there&a&preFexisting&duty&of&care&between&these&kinds&of&
people?&If&yes,&skip&to&4.&(Anns/Cooper)&
!!!!!Analogous!duty!of!care!category?!
!!!!!Physical!harm!of!persons!or!property?!
!!!!!Pure!economic!loss?!(Premakumaran)!
!!!!!Product!manufacturer?!(Stephenson,!Mustapha)!
!!!!!Relationship!of!care!and!control?!Teacher/pupil,!doctor/patient,!
employer/employee,!carrier/passenger,!prison/inmate,!
landlord/tenant?!(Desormeaux)!
!!!!!Inviter!and!intoxicated!invitee?!(Jordan!House)!
!!!!!Not!a!social!host?!(Desormeaux)!
!!!!!Defendant!created!a!hazard?!Duty!to!those!injured.!(Oke)!
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!!!!!Defendant!undertook!to!help!or!rescue!another.!Duty!to!follow!
through!without!gross!negligence.!(Zelenko/Horsley/Samaritan!Act)!
2.A'Negligent'misrepresentation?'If'so,'go'to'Remoteness.!
Special!relationship:!Defendant!should!have!foreseen!reliance!by!the!
Plaintiff?!(Hercules)!
Plaintiff’s!reliance!was!reasonable!in!the!circumstances.!(Hercules)!
Untrue,!inaccurate,!or!misleading!representation?!(Cognos)!
Defendant!failed!to!meet!standard!of!care?!(Cognos)!
Defendant!reasonably!relied!on!the!misrepresentation/causation.!
(Cognos)!
Plaintiff!suffered!damages/detrimental!reliance.!(Cognos)!
!!!!!Representation!was!not!nonCspecific!and!nonCpersonal?!
(Premakumaran)!
2.B'Negligent'undertaking'of'a'service?'Full'Anns/Cooper'required.'!
!!!!!Is!there!an!undertaking?!(BDC)!
!!!!!Did!the!defendant!know!of!potential!harm?!(BDC)!
2.C'Defective'Products!
!!!!!The!product!is!dangerous,!not!shoddy.!(Standard!of!Care)!
(Winnipeg!Condo)!
!!!!!Proximity:!reasonable!to!rely!on!safety!of!product?!
!!!!!Proximity:!reasonable!to!assume!someone!would!be!hurt!by!
defective!construction?!
!!!!!Policy:!purchasing!a!warranty!shouldn’t!be!required!
!!!!!Policy:!the!buyer!need!not!beware!
!!!!!The!plaintiff!was!a!resident!or!a!purchaser!
!!!!!The!building!was!within!its!useful!life!
!!!!!Damages!are!for!the!reasonable!costs!of!repairing!the!defects.!
2.D'Relational'Economic'Loss!
!!!!!Exclusionary!rule.!(La!Forest,!Norsk)!
!!!!!Does!the!plaintiff!have!shared!proprietary!interests,!general!
averaging!case,!or!in!a!joint!venture!with!the!harmed!party?!(Norsk)!!
!!!!!Joint!venture!involves!contribution,!mutual!control,!expectation!
and!rights!to!profits.!
!!!!!Does!it!fit!within!one!of!the!other!economic!loss!categories?!(Bow!
Valley!Husky)!
!!!!If!not,!complete!a!full!Anns/Kamloops!analysis:!sufficiently!close!
relationship!such!that!defendant!could!reasonably!contemplate!harm!
to!the!plaintiff.!Any!considerations!which!limit!the!duty.!!
2.E'Public'authority'liability?'If'so,'skip'to'4.'
!!!!!Defendant!municipality!failing!to!comply!with!bylaws?!(Kamloops)!!
!!!!!Statute!imposes!a!duty!of!care?!(Cooper,!Fullowka)!
Operational,!not!policy:!discretionary!decisions!grounded!in!social,!
political,!economic!considerations.!(Just,!Imperial!Tobacco)!
!!!!!Legislative!regime!directed!to!reasonably!contained!and!defined!
group?!(Fullowka)!
!!!!!Proximity!of!actual!interactions!between!regulator!and!affected!
class?!(Fullowka)!
!!!!!Statutory!duties!relate!to!the!class!of!parties!who!may!be!harmed?!
(Fullowka)!
!!!!!If!plaintiff!not!directly!regulated.!Is!relationship!with!plaintiff!more!
contained!and!defined!than!the!regulator!and!the!public!affected!by!
the!regulation?!(Taylor)!
!!!!!Would!recognizing!a!duty!conflict!with!a!duty!to!the!public?!
(Cooper,!Taylor)!
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!!!!!Misfeasance!in!public!office!or!breach!of!the!Charter?!
3.&Is&there&proximity&between&the&act&of&the&tortfeasor&and&the&
harm&to&the&plaintiff?&(Anns/Cooper)&
!!!!!Just!and!fair!to!impose!a!duty?!
Consider!reasonable!expectations,!representations,!reliance,!
undertaking,!or!property!interests?!(Hill,!Fullowka)!
!!!!!Policy!considerations!of!factual!relationship?!
!!!!!Close!and!direct!relationship,!physical!propinquity,!causal!
connection,!assumed/imposed!responsibilities?!
!!!!!Conflict!between!statutory!and!other!duties?!(Cooper)!
4.&Are&there&residual&and&overriding&policy&concerns?&
(Anns/Cooper)&
!!!!!Does!this!impose!unwanted!obligations?!
!!!!!Does!it!create!an!unwanted!impacts!on!the!legal!system?!(Dobson)!
!!!!!Is!a!preCexisting!remedy!already!available?!(Hill)!
!!!!!Does!it!impose!indeterminate!liability?!Can!the!scope!be!limited?!
!!!!!Does!it!impose!liability!to!an!indeterminate!class?!Can!the!class!be!
limited?!!
!!!!!Does!it!impose!liability!for!an!indeterminate!period!of!time?!Can!
the!damages!be!limited?!
Defendant&caused&the&harm?&
But!for!the!act!of!the!defendant,!would!the!plaintiff!have!been!
harmed?!(Kauffman)!
!!!!!Was!it!a!material!and!necessary!cause?!(Athey)!
!!!!!Does!it!require!a!robust,!pragmatic!approach,!weighing!evidence!
according!to!the!power!to!prove!each!side!has?!(Snell)!
!!!!!Are!there!multiple!independent!sufficient!causes?!Then!apply!
material!contribution!to!risk!test.!(Clements)!!
Damages?&If&so,&then&prima&facie&negligence?&
Was&the&harm&too&remote?&
Was!the!kind!of!harm!a!reasonably!foreseeable!consequence!of!the!
defendant’s!act!(Wagon!Mound!1,!Hughes)!
!!!!!Was!the!harm!a!real!risk?!(Wagon!Mound!2)!A!material!risk?!
(Culligan)!
!!!!!Thin!skull/extent!of!the!harm!doesn’t!matter!as!long!as!the!kind!of!
harm!is!reasonably!foreseeable.!(Leech!Brain)!
!!!!!Did!the!plaintiff!have!an!eggshell!personality?!Still!reasonably!
foreseeable.!(Marconato)!
!!!!!Was!the!plaintiff’s!reaction!unreasonable?!If!yes,!too!remote.!
(Culligan)!
!!!!!Was!the!plaintiff’s!pure!mental!suffering!a!recognizable!psychiatric!
injury?!Were!they!in!danger!or!a!direct!witness.!If!not,!too!remote.!
(Devji)!
Was!there!a!novus!actus!interveniens?!
!!!!!Were!the!subsequent!injuries!reasonably!foreseeable?!(Wieland)!!
!!!!!Was!the!plaintiff!acting!negligently?!If!yes,!too!remote.!!(McKew)!
!!!!!Was!there!intervening!actionable!negligent!medical!treatment?!
(Mercer)!
!!!!!Were!the!intervening!wrongful!acts!reasonably!unforeseeable?!If!
yes,!to!remote.!!(Harris)!
!!!!!Was!there!unreasonable!intervening!activity!by!a!third!party?!
(Bradford)!
!!!!!Defendant!only!liable!for!injuries!that!flow!from!their!negligence.!
(Dudek)!
Defences&to&Negligence&
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A.!Contributory!Negligence!
!!!!!Defendant!owes!duty!of!care!to!himself.!
!!!!!Positive!duty!to!wear!a!seatbelt!(Yuan),!or!buckle!up!kids.!(Galaske)!
B.!Voluntary!assumption!of!risk!
!!!!!Evidence!the!plaintiff!waived!their!rights!and!consented!to!lack!of!
reasonable!care!(Hampley).!
C.!Illegality!
!!!!!Harm!caused!while!participating!in!illegal!activity!(Hall)!
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Standard$of$Care$
The!standard!of!care!is!to!prevent!all!material!risks,!taking!into!account!their!severity!and!
likelihood!(Bolton).!Deviance!from!a!customary!practice!or!breach!of!a!relevant!statute!is!
only!evidence!that!the!standard!was!breached,!and!is!not!determinative!(Waldick,!Brown,!
Sask!Wheat!Pool,!Gorris).!The!standard!is!objective,!but!modified!for!children,!
professionals,!police,!and!the!disabled!(Heisler,!Challand,!Brenner,!Priestman,!and!Carroll)!
$
Donoghue$v$Stevenson:!Plaintiff!drinks!ginger!beer!manufactured!by!the!defendant!
which!contained!a!dead!snail.!Must!take!reasonable!care!to!avoid!acts!or!omissions!which!
you!can!reasonably!foresee!would!be!likely!to!injure!a!person!contemplated!to!be!closely!
and!directly!affected.!
Bolton$v$Stone:!Bolton!hit!by!stray!cricket!ball,!six!occurrences!over!past!30!years.!The!
standard!of!care!is!for!a!reasonable!person!to!prevent!all!material!risk:!severity!and!
likelihood.!Balance!risk!with!cost!to!mitigate.!See!Paris'v'Stepney'Borough'Council!where!
oneCeyed!mechanic!is!blinded!constitutes!a!severe!but!unlikely!material!risk.!
Priestman$v$Colangelo$and$Smythson:!Police!officer!in!car!chase!shoots,!ricochets!off!
tire,!hits!driver!in!head,!crashes!car!into!bystander.!Police!officers!must!meet!a!lower!
standard!of!care.!A!public!good!outweighs!the!negligence.!Statute:!RCMP!are!immune!
from!intentional!torts,!BC!Police!are!immune!from!gross!negligence!or!willful!misconduct.!!
Watt$v$Hertfordshire$County$Council:!Emergency!responders!transport!jack!without!
special!equipment,!and!crushes!a!workman!when!the!van!comes!to!a!stop.!!In!rare!
occasions,!the!social!utility!of!the!act!can!reduce!the!standard!of!care.!
Vaughan$v$Menlove:!Dumb!Menlove’s!hayrick!caught!on!fire!and!burned!Vaughan’s!two!
adjacent!cottages.!The!objective!standard!of!care!is!based!on!what!a!reasonable!or!
prudent!person!ought!to!have!done.!See!Blyth'v'Birmingham'Waterworks!for!
reasonable!expectations!of!weather!defendant!vitiating!liability!from!frozen!fireC
plug!manufacturer.!
Carroll$and$Carroll$v$Chicken$Palace:!Blind!plaintiff!falls!down!stairs.!The!objective!
standard!is!modified!for!a!plaintiff!with!disability!to!reasonable!person!with!same!
disability.!Affirmed!in!Haley'v'London'Electric'Board!where!blind!walker!falls!in!
construction,!Ryall'v'Alsa'Road'Construction!where!blind!walker!contributory!negligent.!!
Waldick$v$Malcom:!Defendant!doesn’t!salt!driveway,!claims!it!is!custom.!Existence!of!
standard!practices!isn’t!sufficient!to!permit!a!breach!of!a!duty!of!care.!See!Warren'v'
Camrose!for!expert!consensus!or!professional!practice!is!evidence!of!the!standard!of!care!
but!not!sufficient.!
Brown$v$Rolls$Royce:!Plaintiff!contracts!dermatitis!from!working!for!defendant,!who!fails!
to!provide!industry!standard!cream.!Deviance!from!standard!practices!isn’t!sufficient!to!
prove!a!breach!of!a!duty!of!care.!!
R$v$Saskatchewan$Wheat$Pool:!Pool!delivers!infested!wheat!to!Canada!Wheat!Board,!
violating!a!statutory!duty.!Breach!of!a!statute!provides!evidence!of!negligence,!not!a!
separate!cause!of!action.!
Gorris$v$Scott:!Gorris’s!sheep!wash!overboard!Scott’s!ship!which!wasn’t!compliant!with!
contagious!diseased!animals!act.!Statutory!breach!provides!evidence!only!if!the!objective!
of!statute!is!reasonably!connected!to!the!harm!suffered!by!the!plaintiff.!!!
Ryan$v$Victoria:!Ryan!gets!his!motorcycle!wheel!stuck!in!a!railway!gap!which!complied!
with!statutory!standards.!Compliance!with!a!statute!provides!evidence!of!nonCnegligence.!!
Objective!standard:!likelihood!of!the!foreseeable!harm,!gravity!of!the!harm,!and!burden!of!
cost.!!
Heisler$v$Moke:!Child!puts!pressure!on!injured!leg!when!told!not!to,!and!not!found!
contributorily!negligent.!What!does!a!reasonable!child!of!that!age!be!expected!to!do!and!
foresee?!See!Ryan'v'Hickson!for!objective!standard!when!child!engages!in!adult!activity.!
See!McEllistrum'v'Etches!for!no!liability!for!children!under!a!tender!age.!!
Fiala$v$Cechmanek:!Mentally!disabled!MacDonald!has!bipolar!episode,!strangles!
Cechmanek!who!crashes!into!Fiala.!Defendant’s!proof!of!mental!disability!causing!no!
understanding!or!appreciation!of!duty!of!care,!or!no!control!over!actions!vitiates!
negligence!liability.!
Slattery$v$Haley:!Defendant!has!heart!attack!and!loses!consciousness!while!driving.!
Negligent!act!must!be!a!conscious!act!of!the!defendant’s!volition.!!!
Challand$v$Bell:!Challand!breaks!arm,!Dr.!Bell!determines!it’s!clean!and!resets.!Challand!
later!develops!gangrene.!Doctors!held!to!the!standard!of!a!fair,!reasonable,!and!
competent!doctor,!but!permits!errors!in!judgment.!Doesn’t!differentiate!based!on!
experience.!See!Wilson'v'Swanson!for!test!for!medical!negligence:!doctor!has!average!skill,!
knowledge,!and!judgment!as!other!doctors!in!the!same!class!of!doctor!as!the!defendant.!
See!ter'Neuzen'v'Korn!for!customary!practice!can!establish!standard!of!care!for!doctors!
and!doctors!not!liable!for!rare!or!undiscovered!consequences.!
Reibl$v$Hughes:!Occlusion!in!Reibl’s!brain!requires!surgery!by!Dr.!Hughes.!Reibl!suffers!
stroke!and!is!half!paralyzed.!Claims!no!consent!and!damages!for!lost!pension.!Duty!to!
disclose!all!material!risks!and!all!risks!with!serious!consequences!of!a!medical!procedure.!
Modified!objective!test:!what!would!a!reasonable!person!do!in!the!plaintiff’s!
circumstances?!
Brenner$v$Gregory:!Plaintiff!purchases!land,!defendant!lawyer!fails!to!complete!survey!of!
property!to!notice!some!land!is!municipal!land.!Standard!of!care!for!a!lawyer!is!that!of!a!
reasonably!competent!and!diligent!lawyer!in!that!practice!area.!Merely!unreasonable!
errors,!not!solely!egregious.!
!
$
Proof$of$Negligence$
Wakelin$v$The$London$&$SW$RY$Co:!Wakelin!hit!by!defendant’s!train.!Plaintiff!has!onus!of!
proof!for!negligence.!Standard!of!review!for!findings!of!fact!and!law!is!palpable!and!
overriding!error,!for!law!it!is!correctness.!
Fontaine$v$Insurance$Corporation$of$BC:!Fontaine’s!husband!found!inexplicably!dead!in!
vehicle.!Res!ipsa!loquitur,!the!act!speaks!for!itself!isn’t!applicable.!Instead,!can!rely!on!
circumstantial!evidence!to!infer!negligence.!
Leaman$v$Rea:!Both!cars!claim!the!other!was!in!their!lane,!see!each!other!last!minute,!
only!one!party!negligent.!The!principle!of!compensation!requires!liability!to!be!split!
evenly!when!it!cannot!be!apportioned.!See!Wotta'v'Haliburton'Oil'Well'Cementing!for!if!
only!one!cause!possible,!liability!is!apportioned.!!
!
!
!
Duty$of$Care$
The!analytical!structure!for!determining!whether!or!not!the!defendant!owed!a!duty!of!
care!to!the!plaintiff!is!set!out!in!Cooper!and!Anns.!First,!the!type!of!plaintiff!harmed!must!
be!reasonably!foreseeable!(Hay).!Next,!if!the!relationship!falls!into!a!preCexisting!or!
analogous!category,!then!a!duty!of!care!is!owed!(Cooper,!Childs).!Otherwise,!proximity!
between!the!act!of!the!defendant!and!the!harm!to!the!plaintiff!establishes!a!prima!facie!
duty!of!care!which!the!defendant!can!rebut!for!residual!and!overriding!policy!concerns!
associated!with!recognizing!a!duty!between!these!classes!of!people!(Cooper).!$
$
Donoghue$v$Stevenson:!See!facts!in!Standard!of!Care.!A!duty!is!owed!to!persons!so!
closely!and!directly!affected!by!actions!that!the!actor!ought!reasonably!to!have!
contemplated!them.!See!Anns'v'Merton'London'Borough'Council!for!two!stage!test!of!
reasonable!foreseeability!of!damage!and!policy!considerations!that!limit!the!scope!of!the!
duty.!
Cooper$v$Hobart:$Registrar!of!Mortgage!Brokers!catches!broker’s!irregularities,!doesn’t!
suspend!license!or!notify!investors!until!a!year!after.!No!duty!owed!to!investors!since!not!
sufficiently!proximate:!would!conflict!with!duty!to!the!public.!Residual!policy!concerns!of!
conflict!with!quasiCjudicial,!policyCmaker!duties,!indeterminate!liability,!and!burden!on!
taxpayer.!!
!
Anns/Cooper!Analysis!
1.!Was!the!kind!of!harm!to!that!type!of!person!reasonably!foreseeable?!(Hay!v!Young)!
2.!Is!the!relationship!in!a!preCexisting!category!where!a!duty!of!care!is!recognized?!Is!
there!an!analogous!duty!of!care?!(physical!harm!of!persons!or!property)!
3.!Is!there!proximity!between!the!act!of!the!defendant!and!the!harm!to!the!plaintiff?!
!
a.!just!and!fair!to!impose!a!duty?!
b.!consider!expectations,!representations,!reliance,!undertakings,!or!property!
interests!
!
c.!policy!considerations!respecting!the!factual!relationship!
d.!close!and!direct!relationship,!physical!propinquity,!causal!connection,!or!
assumed/imposed!responsibilities!
e.!conflict!between!statutory!and!private/other!duties.!!
f.!This!is!not!a!closed!list.!
This!establishes!a!prima&facie!duty!of!care,!which!the!defendant!can!rebut.!!
4.!Residual!and!overriding!policy!concerns!to!not!recognize!a!duty!of!care.!Not!specific!to!
the!parties!at!bar!(Cooper):!
!
a.!plaintiff!can!raise!positive!concerns!
!
b.!does!it!make!any!unwanted!obligations!
!
c.!unwanted!impacts!on!legal!system!
!
d.!preCexisting!legal!remedy!available!(Hill)!
!
e.!indeterminate!liability!to!indeterminate!class!for!indeterminate!period!of!time!
!
f.!factors!that!limit!the!scope!of!the!duty!
!
g.!factors!that!limit!the!class!of!persons!to!whom!the!duty!is!owed!
!
h.!factors!that!limit!damages!for!a!breach.!
!
Mustapha$v$Culligan$of$Canada:!Mustapha!sees!water!bottle!with!a!dead!bug!in!it,!
suffers!nervous!shock.!Product!liability:!a!manufacturer!owes!a!duty!of!care!to!consumers!
of!their!good.!
Premakumaran$v$Canada:!Plaintiff!accountant!is!lead!to!believe!Canada!had!a!high!level!
of!job!opportunity!for!him.!Sues!for!negligent!misstatement.!Negligent!misrepresentation!
already!a!preCexisting!category.!
R$v$Imperial$Tobacco:!Government!misrepresented!the!health!attributes!of!lowCtar!
cigarettes!to!the!public.!Government!does!not!owe!a!duty!to!specific!industries!for!
negligent!misrepresentation.!The!preCexisting!duty!of!care!category!must!account!for!the!
kinds!of!relationships!at!issue.!!
Hill$v$HamiltonUWentworth$Regional$Police$Services$Board:!Aboriginal!man!is!suspected!
of!10!robberies,!sues!police!for!negligent!investigation!as!the!robberies!continued!after!
he!was!arrested!and!evidence!showed!the!robbers!were!Hispanic.!1.!Reasonable!
foreseeability!of!harm!of!imprisonment.!2.!Property!interests!of!the!accused:!
imprisonment,!reputation.!Public!interests!of!avoiding!wrongful!convictions!or!
institutionalized!racism!support!finding!a!duty!of!care.!Current!remedies!insufficient.!3.!
Police!discretion,!quasiCjudicial!role,!and!chilling!effect!aren’t!sufficient!residual!policy!
concerns.!!
Dobson$(Litigation$Guardian$of)$v$Dobson:!Mother!negligently!crashes!car,!harming!her!
unborn!child.!A!mother!does!not!owe!a!duty!of!care!to!her!unborn!child.!Impacts!of!
litigation!and!indeterminate!liability!are!factors.!Court!rejects!wrongful!life!approach.!
Hay$(or$Bourhill)$v$Young:!Woman!witnesses!bicycle!and!car!crash,!sees!blood,!was!a!
bundle!of!nerves,!suffers!a!wrenched!back!and!stillbirth.!Sues!dead!cyclist.!Both!the!harm!
and!the!plaintiff!must!be!reasonably!foreseeable.!A!plaintiff!cannot!build!on!the!harm!to!
another.!See!also!Palsgraf'v'Long'Island'Railway!for!not!reasonably!foreseeable!where!
defendant!pushes!person,!fireworks!fall,!rattle!tracks,!tip!over!scale!at!end!of!tracks!and!
harm!victim.!!
Jordan$House$v$Menow$and$Honsberger:!Menow!was!a!frequent!bar!drunk,!who!was!
knowingly!served!to!intoxication!and!knowingly!ejected!onto!the!street!with!no!way!
home.!Hit!by!Honsberger’s!car!while!wearing!dark!clothing!on!a!highway.!Licensed!bars!in!
an!inviter/invitee!relationship!with!patrons!have!a!duty!to!act!positively!to!protect!them!
from!harm!caused!by!known!intoxication.!See!Stewart'v'Pettie!for!knowledge!of!
intoxication!required.!See!Crocker'v'Sundance'Northwest'Resorts!for!holding!yourself!out!
for!dangerous!tubing!competitions!requires!reasonable!steps!to!prevent!drunk!
participation.!Inviters!to!risk!have!a!duty!to!act!positively.!
Childs$v$Desormeaux:!Desormeaux!goes!to!social!party,!drinks,!drives,!crashes!paralyzes!
Childs.!Seeks!to!find!host!liable!for!negligence,!fails!on!Anns/Cooper!test!for!lack!of!
foreseeability.!Social!hosts!do!not!owe!a!duty!of!care!to!persons!injured!by!their!guests.!!
Relationships!of!control!or!supervision!may!impose!positive!duties.!If!known!and!
voluntarily!entered!into.!Eg.!teacher/pupil,!employer/employee,!carrier/passenger,!
prison/inmate,!landlord/tenant,!hospital/patient.!!!
Oke$v$Weide$Transport$and$Carra:!Carra!nonCnegligently!hits!and!bends!pole!in!middle!
of!roadway,!which!Oke!is!later!impaled!by.!Encouraged!by!garage!attendant!to!not!report!
to!authorities.!A!person!who!has!participated!in!the!creation!of!a!hazard!(negligently!or!
accidentally)!has!a!duty!toward!others!who!may!be!injured!by!it.!
Zelenko$v$Gimbel$Bros!Zelenko!falls!ill!at!defendant’s!store,!put!in!backroom!for!6!hours.!
If!one!person!undertakes!to!help!another,!and!that!person!relies!on!that!help,!they!have!a!
duty!to!followCthrough!nonCnegligently.!Aff’d!in!Canada!in!R'v'NordTDeutsche!where!
government!deemed!to!have!a!duty!to!maintain!pilot!range!lights!it!undertook!to!install.!
Horsley$v$MacLaren:!Matthews!falls!into!water,!MacLaren!negligently!tries!to!back!the!
boat!up!to!rescue!them.!Horsley!attempts!to!rescue,!and!dies!with!Matthews.!A!person!
undertaking!to!rescue!a!person!must!do!so!nonCnegligently,!and!a!person!creating!a!
dangerous!situation!owes!a!duty!to!rescuers.!See!BC'Good'Samaritan'Act!for!rescuers!
only!liable!for!gross!negligence.!!
$
$
Public$Authority$Liability$
Only!operational,!not!policy!matters!of!public!authorities!are!liable!for!negligence!(Just,!
Imperial!Tobacco).!In!the!proximity!part!of!the!duty!of!care!analysis,!the!court!looks!to!
see!if!the!plaintiff!is!a!member!of!a!relatively!contained!and!defined!class!of!people!which!
the!legislation!is!directed!toward!and!the!actual!interactions!between!the!two!parties!
(Fullowka).$
$
Kamloops$v$Neilsen:!Kamloops!fails!to!enforce!its!bylaws!relating!to!building!inspections,!
found!negligent.!Municipalities!may!be!liable!for!failure!to!enforce!bylaws.!Overturned!by!
BC!Local!Government!Act.!
R$v$Saskatchewan$Wheat$Pool:!Recall:!Breach!of!statute!provides!evidence!of!
negligence,!not!a!separate!cause!of!action.!!
Cooper$v$Hobart:!Recall:!BC!Mortgage!Act!created!a!statutory!duty!to!the!public,!not!to!
investors.!A!statute!can!be!the!basis!of!a!duty!of!care.!!!!
Just$v$BC:!Boulder!falls!off!cliff!onto!car,!killing!Just’s!daughter.!Sues!government!for!
failing!to!maintain!roadway.!Roadside!workers!negligent!for!failing!to!enact!policy.!
Policy/operational!distinction!for!determining!public!authority!liability.!!
R$v$Imperial$Tobacco:!Court!refuses!UK!“discretion”!approach!and!exempts!government!
policy!matters!from!tort!liability:!discretionary!policy!or!administrative!decisions!grounded!
in!social,!political,!or!economic!considerations,!so!long!as!rational!and!in!good!faith.!
Fullowka$v$Pinkertons$of$Canada:!Fullowka!killed!after!striking!miner!evades!security!
and!set!an!explosive.!Argues!that!Mining!Act!created!a!duty!between!mining!inspector!
and!miners.!Duty!to!miners!found,!but!government!sought!legal!advice!which!meets!
standard!of!care.!Public!authority!proximity!factors:!Is!the!group!to!which!the!legislative!
regime!is!directed!reasonably!contained!and!defined?!What!is!the!nature!of!the!actual!
interactions!between!the!regulator!and!affected!class?!Do!the!statutory!duties!relate!to!
the!class!of!parties!who!may!be!harmed?!!
Taylor$v$Canada$AG:!Taylor!gets!TMJ!implants,!which!permanently!screws!up!her!jaw.!
Alleges!that!Health!Canada!represented!their!safety!to!the!public.!Knowledge!of!danger,!
knowledge!of!misstatement,!and!inaction!relevant!factors.!Where!the!regulated!party!is!
not!the!plaintiff.!Proximity:!is!the!relationship!between!the!regulator!and!the!plaintiff!
more!direct!and!confined!than!the!relationship!between!the!regulator!and!the!public!
affected!by!regulation?!What!is!the!nature!of!the!duty!imposed!by!the!legislative!scheme,!
and!would!it!conflict!with!a!duty!to!the!public?!!
Recall$Heaslip'Estate'v'Ontario$where!a!boy!hits!a!tree!tobogganing.!Air!ambulance!busy!
with!nonClife!threatening!patient,!against!the!Air!Ambulance!Act,!and!the!boy!dies.!
Deemed!operational.!
Odhavji$Estate$v$Woodhouse:!Police!officers!and!Chief!of!Police!fail!to!cooperate!with!
investigation!into!fatal!shooting!of!Odhavji.!Test!for!misfeasance!in!public!office:!engaged!
in!deliberate!and!unlawful!conduct!in!the!exercise!of!public!functions,!and!awareness!
that!the!conduct!is!unlawful!and!likely!to!injure.!!!
Vancouver$v$Ward:!Ward!mistakenly!arrested/detained!for!planning!to!pie!the!Prime!
Minister.!A!person!can!recover!damages!for!breach!of!the!Charter.!!
!
Causation$
Courts!take!a!robust!and!pragmatic!common!sense!approach!to!determining!causation,!
and!require!the!plaintiff!to!demonstrate!that!but!for!the!negligence!of!the!defendant,!the!
plaintiff!wouldn’t!have!been!harmed!(Snell,!Kauffman).!!
$
Kauffman$v$TTC:!Two!boys!fighting!on!an!escalator!push!over!a!man!who!knocks!over!
Kauffman.!Causation:!but!for!the!negligence!of!the!defendant,!would!the!plaintiff!have!
been!harmed?!
Athey$v$Leonati:!Athey!suffers!a!disc!herniation!after!two!motor!vehicle!injuries,!and!
suffers!from!a!preCexisting!condition.!Reaffirms!the!but!for!test.!Presence!of!nonCtortious!
causes!doesn’t!reduce!liability.!A!material!contribution!to!an!indivisible!injury!(eg!25%)!
and!a!necessary!cause!is!sufficient!to!prove!causation.!
Snell$v$Farrell:!Doctor!continues!to!perform!cataract!surgery!after!noticing!eye!bleeding.!
Snell!goes!blind!in!one!eye.!Rejects!McGhee'v'National'Coal'Board'approach'to!causation!
of!material!increase!to!risk!of!injury.!Causation!need!not!be!determined!by!scientific!
precision,!but!instead!a!robust!and!pragmatic!approach!answered!by!ordinary!common!
sense.!Weigh!evidence!according!to!the!power!each!side!has!to!prove!it.!
$
Walker$Estate$v$York$Finch$General$Hospital:!Robert!knowingly!donates!HIV!infected!
blood,!Red!Cross!doesn’t!ask!about!sexual!practices,!Walker!dies.!But!for!test!breaks!
down!because!Robert’s!actions!depended!on!Red!Cross!asking!proper!questions,!so!
applied!the!material!contribution!to!risk!of!harm!test!of!causation.!
Cook$v$Lewis:!Cook!and!Akenhead!fire!their!gun!at!the!rustling!ahead,!shoot!Lewis.!A!case!
of!circular!causation,!where!the!plaintiff!cannot!show!which!of!the!two!parties!caused!the!
harm,!where!only!one!party!was!responsible.!Shifts!burden!of!proof!to!defendants!to!
prove!who!is!liable.!!!
Resurfice$v$Hanke:!Hanke!overfills!a!Zamboni!with!gas,!ignites,!burns!him.!The!material!
contribution!to!risk!approach!is!applied!only!when!factors!outside!of!the!plaintiff’s!
control!make!it!impossible!for!him!to!prove!causation.!Plaintiff!caught!in!the!sphere!of!
risk!created!by!the!defendant.!
Clements$v$Clements:!Clements!motorbike!runs!over!a!nail,!skids!on!wet!pavement,!
crashes,!wife!suffers!brain!injury.!The!material!contribution!to!risk!approach!is!applied!
only!when!there!are!multiple!tortfeasors,!all!are!negligent,!one!or!more!has!caused!the!
injury,!and!one!can!point!the!finger!at!the!other.!Multiple!independent!sufficient!causes.!
!
!Pure$Economic$Loss$
A!claim!for!negligent!misrepresentation!requires!the!plaintiff!to!show!that!their!reliance!
on!the!representation!was!reasonably!foreseeable!and!reasonable!in!the!circumstances!
(Hercules!Management),!that!the!statements!were!untrue,!inaccurate,!or!misleading,!
that!the!representor!breached!the!standard!of!care,!and!that!the!plaintiff!did!in!fact!rely!
on!the!representation,!to!their!detriment!(Queen).!!!!
!
Hedley$Byrne$v$Heller:$!Byrne!seeks!information!from!bank,!bank!declares!customer!has!
good!credit,!customer!defaults,!seeks!to!hold!bank!liable!for!losses.!Reasonable!
foreseeability!of!harm!and!responsibility!for!the!statement!serves!to!limit!liability.!!
Queen$v$Cognos:!Cognos!misrepresents!job!opportunity!to!Queen,!causing!him!to!move!
from!Ottawa!to!Calgary.!Test!for!negligent!misrepresentation:!Duty!of!care!based!on!a!
special!relationship!(See!Hercules)!between!the!representor!and!representee.!Untrue,!
inaccurate,!or!misleading!representation.!Representor!failed!to!meet!their!standard!of!
care/acted!negligently.!Representee!reasonably!relied!on!the!misrepresentation!
(causation).!Detrimental!reliance.!
Hercules$Management$v$Ernst$&$Young:!Shareholders!rely!on!negligently!done!audit!to!
make!further!investments!in!a!company!and!suffer!economic!loss.!No!duty!found!due!to!
residual!policy!reasons:!indeterminate!class!of!shareholders/investors.!Special!
relationship!between!representor!and!representee:!representor!should!have!foreseen!the!
reliance!by!the!representee,!and!representee’s!reliance!was!reasonable!in!the!
circumstances.!See!also!Premakumaran'v'Canada!for!nonCpersonal,!nonCspecific!
representations!cannot!be!reasonably!relied!upon.!See!also!R'v'Imperial'Tobacco!where!
the!representations!were!policy!activities,!not!operational,!of!the!government.!OverC
riding!policy!reasons!between!these!different!actors.!
Haskett$v$Equifax:!Equifax!gives!negligent!credit!reports!to!banks,!Haskett!cannot!secure!
a!loan.!The!preCestablished!category!of!negligent!misrepresentation!can!apply!where!the!
plaintiff!was!not!the!representee.!
BDC$v$Hofstrand$Farms:!BDC!couriers!land!title!document,!arrives!late,!Hofstrand!farms!
loses!ability!to!sell!land.!Deemed!to!have!no!knowledge!of!impact!of!negligence,!BDC!
didn’t!undertake!liability!for!delivery!on!time,!not!sufficiently!proximate.!Negligent!
undertaking!of!a!service!requires!an!undertaking!and!knowledge!of!potential!harm.!
$
Manufacturers!owe!a!duty!of!care!to!consumers!to!produce!safe!products/structures!
(Donoghue,!Winnipeg!Condo).!Shoddy!products!are!not!necessarily!dangerous!products.!
Building!developers!owe!a!duty!of!care!to!residents!and!purchasers!to!build!a!safe!
structure!for!the!useful!life!of!the!building!(Winnipeg!Condo).$
Winnipeg$Condo$v$Bird$Construction:!Poorly!built!and!dangerous!building!where!a!chunk!
falls!off,!subsequent!purchasers!don’t!have!a!contract!with!the!construction!company.!
Defective!products!must!be!dangerous,!not!shoddy.!Standard!of!care!to!produce!safe!
structures.!Proximity:!reasonable!to!rely!on!safety,!reasonable!to!assume!someone!may!
be!hurt!by!the!bad!construction.!Policy:!warranties!and!caveat!emptor!aren’t!sufficient.!
Avoids!indeterminacy!by!limiting!liability!to!subsequent!residents!and!purchasers,!for!the!
useful!life!of!the!building,!for!the!reasonable!cost!of!repairing!the!defects.!
$
The!exclusionary!rule!prevents!recovery!for!relational!economic!loss!except!in!a!number!
of!circumstances.!First,!if!there!are!shared!proprietary!interests,!a!general!averaging!case,!
or!a!joint!venture!(CNR).!Second,!if!there!is!no!way!for!the!plaintiff!to!recover!in!the!other!
economic!loss!categories,!they!may!be!able!to!recover!based!on!a!full!Anns/Kamloops!
analysis!between!them!and!the!tortfeasor!(Bow!Valley!Husky).$
Canadian$National$Railway$v$Norsk:!Norsk!tows!a!barge,!breaks!Public!Works!Canada!
bridge!which!CNR!relies!on.!CNR!pays!to!divert!trains.!The!categories!of!pure!economic!
loss!are!not!closed.!McLachlin!employs!Kamloops!to!find!joint!venture!and!so!sufficient!
proximity!to!recover!for!relational!economic!loss.!La!Forest!dissents,!no!relational!loss!
except!for!shared!proprietary!interests,!general!averaging,!and!joint!ventures.!!
Bow$Valley$Husky$v$Saint$John$Shipbuilding:!Shipbuilding!builds!a!rig!for!BVH!with!
defective!thermaclad!that!sparks!when!wet.!Bow!Valley!and!Husky!claim!they!suffer!
relational!economic!loss!for!rent!owed!to!BVH.!Duty!to!warn!about!dangerous!products.!
Process!for!relational!economic!loss:!Exclusionary!rule,!then!La!Forest!exceptions,!then!
other!economic!loss!categories,!then!Anns/Kamloops.!Anns/Kamloops:!sufficiently!close!
relationship!such!that!carelessness!by!the!defendant!in!their!reasonable!contemplation!
would!harm!the!plaintiff.!Not!a!joint!venture,!fails!Anns/Kamloops!for!policy!reasons!of!
preventing!double!recovery.!Joint!venture:!contribution,!joint!proprietary!interests,!
mutual!control,!expectation!of!profits,!a!right!to!profits,!and!usually!a!single!undertaking.!
!
Remoteness$
The!defendant!can!then!argue!that!the!harm!was!too!remote:!that!the!kind!of!harm!
wasn’t!reasonably!foreseeable!as!a!real!risk!consequence!of!their!actions!(Wagon!
Mounds!1&2,!Hughes).!The!extent!or!specific!components!of!the!harm!need!not!be!
reasonably!foreseeable,!thus!a!thin!skull!or!eggshell!personality!doesn’t!prevent!the!
plaintiff!from!recovering!(Hughes,!Smith).!A!novus!actus!interveniens!may!make!the!harm!
too!remote,!such!as!a!person’s!unreasonable!reaction,!negligence,!wrongful!acts,!or!
negligent!medical!treatment!(Mustapha,!McKew,!Harris,!Mercer).!!
Wagon$Mound$No$1:!Furnace!oil!negligently!pumped,!leaks!into!water,!blown!across!the!
harbour,!engineering!firm!wharf!catches!fire!from!torch!spark,!furnace!oil!doesn’t!usually!
catch!fire!on!water.!Tortfeasor!is!liable!only!for!the!probable!consequences,!the!
reasonably!foreseeable!consequences!of!their!act.!!
Wagon$Mound$No$2:!Boat!is!damaged!by!the!fire.!40%!likely!to!have!happened.!
Reasonably!foreseeable.!Was!the!actual!harm!a!real!risk?!See!Bolton'v'Stone!for!more!
than!a!de!minimis!risk.!See!Mustapha'v'Culligan!for!material!risk.!!
Hughes$v$Lord$Advocate:!Workers!leave!manhole!uncovered,!marked!with!lights!and!
tent.!Boy!trips,!falls,!paraffin!lamp!mists,!explodes,!and!harms!boy.!Reasonably!
foreseeable.!Is!the!type!of!harm!reasonably!foreseeable?!Viewed!holistically,!not!the!
component!parts.!See!Tremain'v'Pike!for!rat!bite!injuries!for!farm!worker!reasonably!
foreseeable,!injuries!from!rat!urine!not.!
Smith$v$Leech$Brain:!Molten!metal!from!Leech!Brain!factory!hits!Smith!on!lip,!causes!
ulceration,!preCexisting!malignancy!becomes!cancer,!dies.!Plaintiff!successful.!Thin!skull:!Is!
the!kind!of!harm!reasonably!foreseeable,!not!the!extent!of!the!harm.!Take!the!plaintiff!as!
you!find!them.!See!Marconato'v'Franklin!for!plaintiff!with!thinCskull!of!an!eggCshell!
personality!who!suffers!personality!change!after!car!accident.!See!Athey'v'Leonati!for!
thinCskull!reduces!damages!awarded.!
Mustapha$v$Culligan:!Facts!in!Duty!of!Care.!Too!remote.!Nervous!shock!by!anyone!who!
sees!a!fly!not!reasonably!foreseeable.!Thin!skull!prevents!recovery!when!that!kind!of!
harm!occurs!only!due!to!the!thin!skull.!A!plaintiff’s!unreasonable!reactions!may!not!be!
reasonably!foreseeable.!!
Devji$v$Burnaby:!Devji!IDs!car!crash!victim’s!body,!sues!Burnaby!for!negligent!
maintenance!of!roads!causing!pure!mental!suffering.!Too!remote.!Pure!mental!suffering!
requires!a!recognizable!psychiatric!injury,!and!in!danger!or!direct!witness!to!danger.!!
Wieland$v$Cyril$Lord$of$Carpets:!Wieland!falls!down!stairs!in!neck!brace!after!leaving!
doctors!office!after!car!accident!with!defendant.!There!was!a!reasonably!foreseeable!real!
risk!of!subsequent!injuries!due!to!decreased!mobility.!
McKew$v$Holland:!McKew!jumps!the!last!few!steps.!Too!remote.!A!plaintiff’s!negligent!act!
may!be!a!novus&actus&interveniens.!
Mercer$v$Gray:!Defendant!has!duty!to!show!negligent!medical!treatment!is!actionable!to!
be!a!novus&actus&interveniens.!But!see!Price'v'Milawski!where!Milawski!negligently!xrays!
Price’s!ankle,!which!is!negligently!used!by!the!surgeon.!Defendant!liable!for!subsequent!
negligent!medical!treatment!as!long!as!not!gross!negligence.!
Harris$v$TTC:!Boy!sticks!hand!outside!bus,!struck!by!pole.!Bus!driver!knew!people!did!that!
so!reasonably!foreseeable.!Subsequent!wrongful!or!illegal!acts!may!be!reasonably!
foreseeable.!
Bradford$v$Kanellos:!Grease!fire!in!restaurant,!someone!yells!fire,!stampede.!Court!finds!
restaurant’s!grease!fire!too!remote.!Middle!party’s!hysterical!conduct!a!novus!actus!
interveniens.!
Dudek$v$Li:!Li!causes!car!accident!with!Dudek.!Injuries!aggravated!after!car!accident!2!
months!later.!The!defendant!is!liable!only!for!injuries!that!emanate!from!their!negligent!
act.!
Ives$v$Clare$Bros:!Clare!Bros!negligently!provides!Ives!with!furnace!that!collects!CO.!
Negligently!inspected.!Not!a!novus!interveniens.!Rejects!the!proximate!cause!argument.!
Hollis$v$Dow$Corning:!Dow!produces!breast!implants!that!rupture!inside!Ms.!Hollis.!They!
knew!of!the!kind!of!harm!that!a!user!like!Ms.!Hollis!would!suffer.!A!product!manufacturer!
has!an!ongoing!duty!to!warn!of!inherent!dangers!for!ordinary!use!of!its!products,!
proportional!to!the!risk!of!harm.!Duty!to!warn!can!be!presumably!discharged!through!a!
learned!intermediary:!technical!nature,!naturally!used!in!supervision,!customer!not!
reasonably!able!to!be!directly!warned.!
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Defences&to&Negligence&
Contributory!Negligence!
A!defendant!can!relieve!themselves!of!liability!partially!or!wholly!if!they!show!that!the!
plaintiff!was!negligent!in!their!own!right,!contributing!to!the!harm!caused.!
Butterfield$v$Forrester:!Forrester!leaves!pole!across!road,!Butterfield!negligently!rides!
horse!at!night,!hits!pole.!A!person!not!using!ordinary!caution!cannot!be!compensated.!
Davies$v$Mann:!Davies!negligently!ties!up!donkey!near!road,!run!over!by!Mann’s!wagon.!
Davies!had!the!last!clear!chance!to!avoid!the!accident,!so!cannot!recover.!
Scurfield$v$Cariboo$Heliskiing:!Scurfield!heliskis,!sees!avalanche,!keeps!going.!BC!
Negligence!Act!nullifies!last!clear!chance!argument.!But!not!reasonably!foreseeable!that!
he!would!keep!going.!
Yuan'v'Farstad:!Positive!duty!to!wear!a!seatbelt,!else!contributorily!negligent.!
Galaske'v'O’Donnell:!Driver!has!a!duty!to!ensure!child!passenger’s!seatbelt!done!up.!In!
control!of!vehicle,!licensed!activity.!!
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Voluntary!Assumption!of!Risk!
Hampley$v$Shelpley:!Hampley!injured!by!Shelpley!while!setting!up!road!block.!Voluntary!
assumption!of!risk!requires!evidence!the!person!is!waiving!their!rights!and!consenting!to!
lack!of!reasonable!care!(not!just!to!a!risk).!Note!sporting!contexts!successfully!employ!this!
defence.!
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Illegality:!the!harm!was!due!to!participation!in!illegal!activity.!
Hall$v$Herbert:!Herbert!pushes!car!with!drunk!Hall!driving!into!a!ditch.!Cannot!profit!from!
violating!legal!or!moral!rules.!See!British'Columbia'v'Zastowny!for!Zastowny’s!life!of!
crime!caused!by!sexual!assault!while!in!prison.!Sues!for!lost!income.!He!cannot!recover!
for!income!lost!by!being!imprisoned.!
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Defamation&
An!action!for!defamation!requires!the!plaintiff!to!show!three!things.!First,!that!the!
statements!were!defamatory!or!objectively!would!tend!to!lower!the!plaintiff!in!the!
estimation!of!rightCthinking!members!of!society!generally!(Sim).!Second,!the!the!
statements!be!regarded!as!capable!of!referring!to!the!plaintiff,!for!example!by!a!
reasonable!person!who!knew!the!plaintiff!(Knuffer,!Booth).!Finally,!that!the!statements!
are!published,!broadcast!or!disseminated,!even!if!unintentionally,!when!it!is!a!natural!and!
probable!consequence!of!their!actions!(BC!Libel!and!Slander!Act,!McNichol).!Slander,!
unlike!libel,!requires!proof!of!pecuniary!loss,!except!when!the!statements!are!an!
accusation!of!committing!a!crime,!having!a!contagious!disease!or!being!unfit!for!work.!
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1.!Objective!test:!the!words!tend!to!lower!the!plaintiff!in!the!
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estimation!of!rightCthinking!members!of!society!generally!(Sim)!!
!!!!!Contextual.!Remarks!viewed!as!a!whole!bring!discredit!to!their!
reputation!(Bou!Malhab)!
!!!!!Ordinary!member!of!society!in!the!audience,!social!class!(Rapp)!
2.!Q!of!law:!can!the!statements!be!regarded!as!capable!of!referring!to!
the!plaintiff!(Knuffer).!!
!!!!!Would!a!reasonable!person!who!knew!the!plaintiff!know!it!
referred!to!them?!(BCTV)!
!!!!!Lack!of!care/intent!are!irrelevant!(BCTV)!
!!!!!Reasonable!person!would!know!relevant!extraneous!facts!
(Cassidy)!
3.!Published!or!disseminated,!incl.!broadcasts,!restatements,!
republications,!not!hyperlinks!(BC!Libel!and!Slander!Act)!
!!!!!If!not,!must!show!pecuniary!damages!unless!accusation!of!crime,!
fitness!for!work,!contagious!disease.!
!!!!!Is!dissemination!a!natural!and!probable!consequence!of!their!act?!
(McNichol)!
!!!!!Innocent!dissemination!if!no!knowledge!of!dissemination,!no!
reason!to!know,!and!nonCnegligence!in!not!knowing.!(Menear).!!
Defences&to&Defamation&
A.!Justification!
!!!!!Are!the!words!reasonably!capable!of!bearing!the!meaning!of!what!
the!evidence!establishes?!(Williams)!
!!!!!Belief!of!truth!is!irrelevant!(Hulton)!
B.!Absolute!Privilege!!
!!!!!Executive!officers!about!the!state,!parliamentary!officers!in!
parliament,!judicial/quasiCjudicial!proceedings!that!affect!rights.!!
C.!Qualified!Privilege!
!!!!!Rebutted!by!scintilla!of!malice:!spite,!illCwill,!ulterior!motive,!
knowing!or!reckless!disregard!for!the!truth.!(SunCLife,!Hill)!
!!!!!Rebutted!by!privilege!exceeded.!
i.!Protecting!one’s!own!interest?!(SunCLife)!
ii.!Protecting!shared!interests?!!
!!!!!Reciprocal!interest!to!give!and!receive!information.!(CLG)!
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!!!!!Language!warranted!by!the!occasion.!(Bereman,!Fast)!
iii.!Duty!to!protect!another’s!interests?!
!!!!!Including!protecting!moral!or!legal!interests.!(Watt)!
iv.!Protecting!the!public!interest.!!
!!!!!Fitness!for!public!office!protected,!policy!concerns.!(Boland)!
!!!!!Only!those!with!reciprocal!duty!to!listen,!not!whole!world!(Parlett)!
D.!Responsible!communication!on!a!matter!of!public!interest!
!!!!!Matter!of!public!interest?!(Torstar)!
!!!!!Defendant!diligent!to!verify!facts,!accounting!for!circumstances:!
severity,!importance,!urgency.!(Torstar)!
!!!!!Reporting!of!facts,!not!editorials.!(Torstar)!
E.!Fair!comment!
!!!!!Matter!of!public!interest!(Cherneskey)!
!!!!!Based!on!fact!(Cherneskey)!
!!!!!Recognizably!comments!(Cherneskey)!
!!!!!Fair:!objectively!honestly!believed!by!a!person!who!knew!the!facts!
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Hill$v$Church$of$Scientology:!Scientology!held!a!press!conference!alleging!prosecutor!Hill!
misled!judge,!broke!confidentiality,!files!lawsuit,!fails.!Tension!between!protecting!an!
individual’s!reputation!(sense!of!worth,!value,!dignity)!and!freedom!of!expression!(express!
new!ideas!and!put!forward!opinions!on!public!issues).!!
Grant$v$Torstar:!Grant,!friend!with!ON!premier,!wants!to!enlarge!his!golf!course.!
Neigbour!is!quoted!in!Torstar!as!saying!that!it's!a!done!deal!because!of!his!relationship!
with!the!premier.!Freedom!of!expression!is!important!for!selfCexpression!and!realization.!
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What$is$Defamation$
Sim$v$Stretch:!Plaintiff!ascribes!meaning.!Is!there!a!reasonable!interpretation!supporting!
that!claim.!Objective!test:!Would!the!words!tend!to!lower!the!plaintiff!in!the!estimation!of!
rightCthinking!members!of!society!generally?!
Bou$Malhab$v$Diffusion$Metromedia:!Radio!host!rants!about!Arab!cab!drivers.!Would!an!
ordinary!person!believe!that!th(e!remarks!made,!when!viewed!as!a!whole,!brought!
discredit!on!the!reputation.!Contextual.!See!Rapp'v'McClelland'for!allowances!for!
different!audiences,!social!classes!that!may!deem!it!defamatory.!See!Murphy'v'Lamarsh'
for!words!tend!to!bring!the!man!into!hatred,!contempt,!ridicule,!or!cause!him!to!be!
shunned!or!avoided.!
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Referring$to$the$Plaintiff$
Knuffer$v$London$Express:!Q!of!law:!can!the!statements!be!regarded!as!capable!of!
referring!to!the!plaintiff.!Q!of!fact:!do!the!statements!refer!to!the!plaintiff.!!!
Booth$v$BCTV:!BCTV!accuses!high!up!police!officers!of!taking!bribes.!Would!a!reasonable!
person!who!knew!the!plaintiff!understand!it!referred!to!him?!Lack!of!intent!or!care!is!
irrelevant.!!
Cassidy$v$Daily$Mirror$Newspaper:!Newspaper!publishes!fake!engagement!for!Mrs.!
Cassidy’s!husband.!Would!a!reasonable!person!who!knew!the!plaintiff!who!knows!
extraneous!facts!understand!it!referred!to!him?!
!
That$is$Published$or$Disseminated$
BC$Libel$and$Slander$Act:!Broadcasts!are!disseminated.!!
Restatements!and!republication!are!dissemination.!Hyperlinks!are!not.!
McNichol$v$Grandy:!Employee!hears!loud!conversation!between!plaintiff!and!defendant!
through!a!hole!in!the!thin!wall.!Is!dissemination!a!natural!and!probable!consequence!of!
their!actions?!See!Hulton'v'Jones!with!madeCup!name!for!intent!is!irrelevant.!
Menear$v$Miguna:!UofT!press!publishes!defamation.!Innocent!dissemination!requires!no!
knowledge!of!defamation,!no!grounds!to!know!it!likely!contained!defamation,!and!nonC
negligence!in!not!knowing!about!defamation.!
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Defences&to&Defamation&
$
Justification$
The!defendant!can!argue!that!the!statements!were!justified,!if!they!present!evidence!
which!is!sufficiently!relevant!to!a!meaning!the!words!are!reasonably!capable!of!bearing!
(Williams).!!
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See!Hulton'v'Jones!for!belief!of!truth!is!irrelevant.!!
Williams$v$Reason:!Reason!claims!Williams!is!a!shamateur!athlete.!Is!the!evidence!
sufficiently!relevant!to!a!meaning!the!words!are!reasonably!capable!of!bearing.!!
Bank$of$British$Columbia$v$CBC:!CBC!runs!story!saying!Bank!of!BC!is!doing!poorly.!
Excerpts!from!an!interview!saying!the!opposite.!Showing!truth!of!misconstrued!
statements!may!not!be!sufficient.!!!
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Absolute$Privilege$
Statements!by!executive!officers!about!the!state,!parliamentary!officers!in!parliament,!
and!in!judicial/quasiCjudicial!proceedings!are!protected!by!absolute!privilege.!!
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Dowson$v$The$Queen:!RCMP!superintendent!makes!defamatory!statement!in!report!in!
parliament!about!acting!assistant!deputy!AG.!Deemed!agents!of!high!officials.!
Hung$v$Gardiner:!Litigator!and!accountant!in!front!of!Law!Society!review!board.!Does!the!
tribunal!have!similarities!to!a!court/affect!rights?!
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Qualified$Privilege$
The!defendant!can!be!relieved!of!liability!if!they!successfully!argue!that!the!statement!is!
protected!by!qualified!privilege:!protecting!their!own,!shared,!another’s!or!the!public!
interest.!A!defence!of!qualified!privilege!requires!a!reciprocal!interest!to!communicate!
and!receive!that!statement,!with!the!language!used!warranted!by!the!occasion!(Parlett,!
Bereman).!It!can!be!rebutted!if!the!plaintiff!shows!that!the!statements!made!contain!a!
scintilla!of!malice!or!that!the!privilege!was!exceeded!(Sun!Life!Assurance).!
!
Protecting!One’s!Own!Interest!
SunULife$Assurance$v$Dalrymple:!Defendant!directors!enticed!staff!to!stay.!Self!interest!
tied!to!company.!Plaintiff!has!burden!to!show!a!scintilla!of!malice!exists.!See!Hill'v'Church'
of'Scientology!for!malice!includes!spite!or!illCwill,!indirect!or!ulterior!motive,!and!
dishonest!or!knowing!or!reckless!disregard!(indifference)!for!the!truth.!Privilege!
exceeded.!
Pleau$v$Sears:!Sears!displays!Pleau’s!name!to!cashiers!for!signing!bad!cheques.!Deemed!
in!the!selfCinterest!of!Sears.!
Smith$v$Cross:!Cross!emails!school!trustees!implying!Smith!is!a!pedophile.!Deemed!
malicious,!reckless!disregard!for!the!truth.!
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Protecting!Shared!Interests!
C(LG)$v$C(VM):!Therapists!have!reciprocal!duty!to!receive!allegations!of!sexual!abuse.!
Bereman$v$Power$Publishing:!Language!used!must!be!warranted!by!the!occasion,!not!
beyond!the!limit!of!what’s!acceptable!in!the!circumstances.!
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Duty!to!Protect!Another’s!Interests!
Watt$v$Longsdon:!Where!they!are!protecting!the!interest!of!a!third!party.!Difficulty!in!
determining!moral!duties.!
Fast$v$Cowling:!Cowling,!a!realtor,!sends!letter!to!other!realtors!accusing!solicitor!Fast!of!
being!unethical.!Court!finds!defamation.!Malice:!language!not!appropriate!in!the!
circumstances.!
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Protecting!the!Public!Interest!
Globe$and$Mail$v$Boland:!Globe!publishes!editorial!that!Boland!made!up!a!communist!
influx!of!immigrants.!Argues!public!interest.!Fails!due!to!negative!impacts!to!politics,!
fitness!for!public!office.!
Parlett$v$Robinson:!NDP!MP!accuses!Parlett!of!exploiting!imprisoned!wood!carver.!Must!
limit!communication!to!those!with!a!reciprocal!duty!to!receive,!not!published!to!the!
world.!!
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Responsible$Communication$on$a$Matter$of$Public$Interest$
The!defence!of!responsible!communication!on!a!matter!of!public!interest!requires!that!
the!defendant!was!diligent!in!trying!to!verify!facts!having!regard!to!the!circumstances,!
and!only!applies!to!facts,!not!editorials!(Grant).$$
$
Grant$v$Torstar:!See!facts!in!Defamation.!Torstar!published!to!a!wide!audience,!not!just!
those!with!a!reciprocal!interest.!Publication!must!be!a!matter!of!public!interest.!
Defendant!must!be!diligent!to!try!to!verify!facts,!having!regard!to!circumstances!(severity,!
importance,!urgency).!Intended!meaning!is!relevant!if!ambiguous.!Applies!only!to!facts,!
not!editorials.!!
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Fair$Comment$
Fair!comment!is!a!defence!to!defamation!where!the!defendant!makes!a!recognizable!
comment!that!is!based!on!fact!on!a!matter!of!public!interest!(Cherneskey).!It!must!be!
fair,!or!objectively!honestly!believed!by!someone!who!knew!the!proven!facts!(WIC!Radio).$$
Cherneskey$v$Armadale$Publishers:!Law!students!write!newspaper!article!accusing!
Cherneskey!of!being!racist!for!opposing!rehab!centre!in!white!neighbourhood.!Test!for!
fair!comment:!matters!of!public!interest,!based!on!fact,!recognizably!comments,!fair:!
honestly!believed!by!defamer.!!
WIC$Radio$v$Simpson:!Radio!host!compares!antiCgay!Simpson!to!Hitler.!Honest!belief!is!
objective:!could!any!person!honestly!express!that!opinion!on!the!proven!facts.!
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Strict&Liability&Torts&
While!its!application!is!relatively!limited!in!Canada,!the!rule!in!Rylands!v!Fletcher!permits!
a!plaintiff!to!recover!when!the!defendant!has!made!a!nonCnatural!use!of!their!land!which!
is!likely!to!do!mischief!if!it!escapes,!which!has!escaped!and!caused!damage,!even!if!
there’s!no!evidence!of!the!defendant’s!negligence!(Rylands,!John!Campbell!Law).!The!
defendant!may!then!raise!one!of!five!defences:!that!the!plaintiff!consented!to!the!nonC
natural!use!of!the!land,!that!the!plaintiff!acted!in!facilitating!the!escape,!that!the!escape!
was!an!act!of!god,!that!the!escape!was!due!to!the!deliberate!act!of!a!third!party,!or!that!
the!activity!was!an!inevitable!consequence!of!their!statutory!duty.!$
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Rylands$v$Fletcher:!Ryland’s!reservoir!floods!Fletcher’s!mine.!Anyone!who!collects!
anything!on!their!land!likely!to!do!mischief!if!it!escapes!is!liable!for!any!damage!it!causes!
even!if!without!negligence.!NonCnatural!uses!of!land.!Unless!plaintiff!responsible!for!
escape.!!
John$Campbell$Law$v$Strata$Plan$1350:!Tree!grows!into!sewage!pipe,!spills!into!law!
office.!Plaintiff!must!show:!defendant’s!nonCnatural!use!of!land,!brought!onto!land!
something!likely!to!do!mischief!if!escaped,!escape,!damage!caused.!
Principle$behind$strict$liability:!UltraChazardous!activities!should!always!compensate!
neighbors,!as!harm!is!inevitable!and!due!care!isn’t!sufficient.!!
Smith$v$Inco:!Class!action!against!Inco!steel!smelter!for!nickel!in!soil!downwind!of!factory.!
Land!zoned!for!smelter,!deemed!ordinary!use.!NonCnatural!use!means!nonCordinary!use!
(consider!time,!place,!and!manner!of!use),!not!ultraChazardous.!BC!requires!single!escape!
instance,!not!continuous.!See!Tock$v$St.$John’s$for!sewage!an!ordinary!use!of!land,!which!
can!evolve!over!time.!!
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Defences$to$Strict$Liability$
Consent:!Rickards'v'Lothian:!Vandal!plugs!neighbour’s!sink.!Benefit!and!nonCobjection!can!
imply!consent!to!the!escape.!!
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Act!of!the!Plaintiff:!Playing!an!active!role!in!facilitating!the!escape.!Fletcher’s!mine!close!to!
reservoir.!!
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Act!of!God:!Extreme,!not!just!a!storm.!Is!the!event!reasonably!foreseeable?!
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Deliberate!Act!of!a!Third!Party:!Rickards!v!Lothian!was!caused!by!a!third!party!vandal.!
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Statutory!Authority:!Tock'v'St.'John’s:'did!the!statute!clearly!and!explicitly!authorize!the!
activity?!The!nuisance!was!inevitable!consequence!of!statutory!duty.!If!nuisance!was!the!
result!of!discretion,!then!not!a!defence!unless!no!other!options.!
!
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Vicarious&Liability&
An!enterprise!risk!creator,!including!the!crown,!can!be!found!vicariously!liable!for!the!
harm!caused!by!a!tortfeasor!(BC!Crown!Proceedings!Act).!The!courts!consider!the!nature!
of!the!relationship,!including!level!of!oversight!and!control!over!the!tortfeasor,!and!the!
nature!of!the!acts!of!the!tortfeasor,!especially!if!they!are!a!mode!of!of!doing!what!has!
been!authorized,!when!assessing!vicarious!liability!(Sagaz,!Bazley).!!
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Vicarious&Liability&
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1.!Nature!of!relationship!of!torfeasor!to!entity.!
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Precedent?!(Bazley)!
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!!!!!Level!of!control!over!tortfeasor,!not!a!contractor.!(Sagaz,!KLB)!
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!!!!!If!tortfeasor!provides!their!own!supplies/labour.!(Sagaz)!
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!!!!!Opportunity!for!risk!and!profit!by!worker.!(Sagaz)!
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2.!!Nature!of!the!acts:!act!is!authorized!or!mode!of!doing!what’s!
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authorized.!(Bazley)!
!!!!!Acting!in!furtherance!of!entity’s!aims,!entity’s!role!in!creating!
friction,!theft/fraud.!(Bazley)!
!!!!!Significant!connection!between!between!entity’s!risk!and!resultant!
harm?!(Bazley)!
3.!Policy!reasons!to!employ!vicarious!liability?!Connection!between!
entity’s!risk!and!resultant!harms.!(Bazley)!
!!!!!Opportunity!to!abuse!power!given!to!tortfeasor.!
!!!!!Extent!to!which!act!furthered!entity’s!ends.!
!!!!!Extent!to!which!friction/intimacy!is!inherent!in!enterprise.!
!!!!!Extent!of!power!given!to!tortfeasor!wrt!victims.!
!!!!!Vulnerability!of!potential!victims!
!!!!!Does!it!promote!deterrence!to!hold!the!entity!liable!(Mary!
Immaculates)!!
4.!Is!it!a!nonCdelegable!duty?!Statute!says!“shall”,!not!“may”.!
(Blackwater)!
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671122$Ontario$v$Sagaz$Industries:!Sagaz!is!bribed!to!switch!Canadian!Tire!car!cover!
suppliers,!671122!goes!out!of!business.!Not!vicariously!liable.!Vicarious!liability!is!based!
on!the!nature!of!the!relationship!and!the!nature!of!the!acts!in!the!relationship!with!the!
tortious!party.!!See!Market'Investigations'v'Minister'of'Social'Security!for!factors!of!
sufficiently!close!relationship:!level!of!control,!level!of!independence,!provide!own!
equipment,!hires!their!own!help,!degree!of!financial!risk!taken!by!worker,!degree!of!
management!by!worker,!worker’s!opportunity!for!profit.!!
Bazley$v$Curry:!Children’s!foundation!authorizes!volunteers!to!act!as!parental!figures.!
Curry,!a!pedophile,!touches!Bazley.!!Nature!of!the!acts:!Is!the!act!authorized!or!a!mode!of!
doing!what!has!been!authorized?!Look!for!precedent:!employee!acting!in!furtherance!of!
employer’s!aims,!employer’s!creation!of!friction,!employee!theft!or!fraud.!Consider!policy!
reasons!for!employing!vicarious!liability.!!Significant!connection!between!employer’s!risk!
and!resultant!harm.!Factors:!opportunity!the!enterprise!risk!creator!provided!to!abuse!
power,!extent!to!which!the!act!furthered!employer’s!ends,!extent!to!which!the!
friction/confrontation/intimacy!is!inherent!in!the!enterprise,!extent!of!power!conferred!
on!employee!with!relation!to!the!victim,!vulnerability!of!potential!victims.!But!see!Jacobi'
v'Griffiths!where!Boys!and!Girls!Club!director!Griffiths!sexually!assaults!children.!Not!
liable.!Only!slight!opportunity!provided!to!abuse!powers,!done!afterChours,!no!
relationship!of!trust!with!Children.!
KLB$v$British$Columbia:!Children!abused!in!foster!care!homes!placed!by!BC!government.!
No!liability,!similar!to!independent!contractors.!Level!of!control!important!for!sufficiently!
close!relationship.!
Blackwater$v$Plint:!Blackwater!abused!while!attending!residential!school.!Multiple!
parties!can!be!vicariously!liable.!Church!not!immune!despite!good!intentions.!Is!there!a!
nonCdelegable!statutory!duty?!Words!like!“shall”!indicate!a!duty.!“May”,!or!inspecting!
standards!doesn’t!imply!a!duty.!Was!it!breached?!See!Lewis'v'BC!for!nonCdelegable!duty!
for!road!safety!and!maintenance.!!
BE$v$Order$of$the$Oblates$of$Mary$Immaculate:$Residential!school!abuse.!Is!it!fair!and!
does!it!promote!deterrence!to!hold!the!risk!creator!liable?!Precedent!acts!as!a!guide,!not!
binding,!for!finding!a!sufficiently!close!relationship.!!