Week 10: Chapter 9: Part 1: Terms
Justinian - (483-565), called The Great, Byzantine emperor (527-65), who extended
Byzantine rule in the West, beautified Constantinople (present-day İstanbul), and
completed the codification of Roman law. His full name was Flavius Petrus Sabgatius
Justinianus. (Encarta)
Theodora - (circa 508-48), Byzantine empress (527-48), wife of Emperor Justinian I,
probably born in Constantinople (present-day İstanbul). According to the Byzantine
historian Procopius, her father was a trainer of circus animals, and she was an actor and a
courtesan before marrying Justinian in 523. Four years later Justinian became emperor
and made her joint ruler. Many decisions concerning the government of the empire were
made by Theodora. In 532, as a result of high taxes and religious and political
controversies, an insurrection, called the Nika riot, broke out in Constantinople. Theodora
helped save the throne by preventing Justinian from fleeing the city. Historians take issue
with Procopius's description of Theodora as tyrannical and cruel, but they agree upon her
beauty and intellectual gifts. Her religious sympathies lay with the
Monophysites.(Encarta)
Hagia Sophia - also Church of the Holy Wisdom, the most famous Byzantine structure
in Constantinople (now İstanbul), built (532-37) by Emperor Justinian I, and now a
museum. Its huge size and daring technical innovations make it one of the world's key
monuments.(Encarta)
Greek Fire - a gelatinous, incendiary mixture, used in warfare before gunpowder was
invented. Flammable liquids had long been in use, but it was not until the 7th century that
Greek fire was invented, possibly by Callinicus, an Egyptian architect who had fled from
Syria during the Muslim invasions. Greek fire was an effective weapon, especially when
used against ships at sea. The substance apparently ignited spontaneously, and could not
be extinguished by water. In 673 Greek fire was used by the Byzantine Empire to repel
an Arab fleet attacking Constantinople (present-day İstanbul); the Byzantine Empire
continued to use Greek fire in combat until the empire's fall in 1453.
The formula of Greek fire was closely guarded as a state secret for many centuries by the
Byzantine Empire. The exact composition of Greek fire is still disputed, but it was
probably composed of a mixture of flammable materials such as sulfur and pitch in a
petroleum base. This jellylike mixture was sprayed on the enemy from tubes through
which it was forced under pressure by pumps. (Wikipedia)
Bulgaria - country in southeastern Europe. Bulgaria’s location as a crossroads has made
it the center of many struggles for power. An independent kingdom for many centuries,
Bulgaria was a major power for long periods during the Middle Ages. At different times
its rulers controlled much of the Balkan Peninsula, and its Orthodox Christian religion
and culture influenced many Slavic peoples of southern and eastern Europe. The region
that is now Bulgaria was at one time included in the Roman Empire as part of the
provinces of Thrace and Moesia. Slavic and Turkic tribes settled in the area between
about the 4th and 6th centuries AD. One branch of people known as Bulgars, who had
established a large state near the Volga River on the east side of the Black Sea, invaded
the Balkan Peninsula in the 7th century. They set up a state between the Danube River
and the Balkan Mountains, an area that was then claimed by the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantine armies failed repeatedly to dislodge the invaders during the 8th and early 9th
centuries. By the end of the 9th century the Bulgarians had annexed considerable
additional territory and laid the foundations for a strong state under Khan Krum, who
reigned from 803 to 814. The Krum armies inflicted a devastating defeat on an invading
Byzantine force in 811 and, assuming the offensive, nearly succeeded in 813 in taking
Constantinople the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
Tsar - 1. Russian emperor: an emperor of Russia, before 1917
2. tyrant: a tyrant or autocrat
3. somebody in authority: somebody given authority, especially for dealing with a
particular issue or problem
[Mid-16th century. Via Russian tsar', Old Slavonic tsĕsarĭ, and Gothic kaisar< Latin
Caesar (see Caesar)] (Encarta)
Bulgaroktonos - Basil II, surnamed the Bulgar-slayer 958 – December 15, 1025), also
known as Basil the Porphyrogenitus and Basil the Young to distinguish him from Basil I
the Macedonian, was a Byzantine emperor from the Macedonian dynasty who reigned
from January 10, 976 to December 15, 1025. Under his reign, the Byzantine Empire
reached its greatest strength in nearly five centuries.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil_II)
Empress Theodora - (circa 508-48), Byzantine empress (527-48), wife of Emperor
Justinian I, probably born in Constantinople (present-day İstanbul). According to the
Byzantine historian Procopius, her father was a trainer of circus animals, and she was an
actor and a courtesan before marrying Justinian in 523. Four years later Justinian became
emperor and made her joint ruler. Many decisions concerning the government of the
empire were made by Theodora. In 532, as a result of high taxes and religious and
political controversies, an insurrection, called the Nika riot, broke out in Constantinople.
Theodora helped save the throne by preventing Justinian from fleeing the city. Historians
take issue with Procopius's description of Theodora as tyrannical and cruel, but they
agree upon her beauty and intellectual gifts. Her religious sympathies lay with the
Monophysites.(Previously cited)
Michael II - (died October 2, 829) reigned as Byzantine emperor from 820 to his death.
Because of his Judeo-Christian origin and iconoclasm, Michael II was not popular among
Orthodox clergy, who depicted him as an ignorant and poorly educated peasant, but
Michael II was a competent statesman and administrator. He brought stability to most of
the Byzantine Empire for the first time in many generations and began restoration of
Byzantine military (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_II)
Icons - a painted image of a religious figure or event, especially a painted panel that is
characteristic of the Eastern Christian church. The term icon is derived from the Greek
eikenai, ”to resemble,” and refers to an image believed to be sacred in itself that can aid
in contacting the represented figure. (Encarta)
Iconoclasm - (Greek eikon, “image”; klaein, “to break”), any movement against the
religious use of images, especially the one that disturbed the Byzantine Empire in the 8th
and 9th centuries. (Encarta)
Cyril and Methodius - Saints Cyril (827-869) and Methodius (826?-884), brothers, born
in Thessalonica, Greece, known as the “apostles of the Slavs.” In 860 they were part of a
mission sent by the Byzantine emperor Michael III, called The Drunkard, to the Khazars,
a Tatar people who tolerated all faiths and whose ruler practiced Judaism. In 862-863,
preparatory to undertaking a mission to Greater Moravia (now Slovakia and the eastern
region of the Czech Republic) in answer to a request from the Moravian ruler to Emperor
Michael, Cyril created a Slavonic alphabet. It was the alphabet, of very restricted presentday use, known now as Glagolitic, and not, as was formerly supposed, the Cyrillic
alphabet. Over the next several years, in Moravia, the brothers translated books of the
New Testament into the vernacular, using these translations to develop a Slavonic liturgy.
They were called to Rome by Pope Nicholas I to account for their use of the vernacular in
church services. Nicholas died before they reached Rome, and Adrian II, his successor,
approved the Slavonic liturgy. Cyril died in Rome. Methodius returned to Moravia,
extending his missionary work, and was appointed archbishop in 869. Cyril and
Methodius were canonized in 1881 by Pope Leo XIII. Their feast day is February 14 in
the Roman Catholic Church; in the Orthodox Church it is May 11. (Encarta)
Slavic Peoples - most numerous of European peoples, with a population of more than
250 million, distributed principally in Eastern and Central Europe, most of the Balkan
Peninsula, and beyond the Ural Mountains in Asia. The early Slavs were an obscure
group of farmers and herders living in the marshes and woodlands of what is now eastern
Poland and western Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. By the 7th century the Slavs had
reached as far south as the Adriatic and Aegean seas. During the next two centuries they
settled in most of the Balkan Peninsula, then part of the Byzantine empire, dislocating
native populations or slavicizing newcomers, such as the Bulgarians. (Wikipedia)
Kiev - First settled in prehistoric times, Kyiv became an East Slavic settlement during the
6th and 7th centuries. It soon developed into an important commercial center located on a
major trade route. In 860 the city was taken over by Varangians (Vikings), who made it
the center of the first significant East Slavic state, called Kievan Rus. In 988, during the
reign of Volodymyr I (Vladimir I; also known as Saint Vladimir), the inhabitants of Kyiv
adopted the Greek Orthodox faith, and the city became the leading religious center in
Kievan Rus. (Wikipedia)
Rurik - Rurik was the Viking (or Varangian) leader who ventured from Jutland to found
what is considered to be the first Russian monarchy. According to early chronicles, Rurik
and his fellow Scandinavian warriors were invited to rule the Slavs, who had fallen into
political chaos. Rurik's achievements remain a historical mystery, but it is said that he led
an army to the Baltic coast of Russia around 855; he established a fortress east of the
Baltic Sea at Novgorod around 862 and ruled an area that extended as far south as Kiev
(in what is now the Ukraine). When he left Russia in 873 (to manage land in Friesland)
he turned his land over to the Viking Oleg, who moved the seat of power to Kiev in 882
and extended his domain to challenge the Byzantine Empire. Oleg was succeeded by
Rurik's son, Igor, and the dynasty Rurik began lasted until the death of Feodor I in 1598.
The Slavs referred to the Scandinavian invaders as "Rusi," a name which became the
origin of the word Russia. (http://www.answers.com/topic/rurik)
Kievan Rus - First settled in prehistoric times, Kyiv became an East Slavic settlement
during the 6th and 7th centuries. It soon developed into an important commercial center
located on a major trade route. In 860 the city was taken over by Varangians (Vikings),
who made it the center of the first significant East Slavic state, called Kievan Rus. In 988,
during the reign of Volodymyr I (Vladimir I; also known as Saint Vladimir), the
inhabitants of Kyiv adopted the Greek Orthodox faith, and the city became the leading
religious center in Kievan Rus. (Wikipedia)
Vladimir I - (circa 956-1015), grand duke of Kyiv, whose baptism made Orthodox
Christianity the official religion of Kievan Rus. Born in Kyiv, Vladimir was a pagan at
the beginning of his reign, which was at first devoted to consolidating his territories into a
unified Kievan state. In exchange for helping the Byzantine emperor Basil II suppress a
rebellion, Vladimir was allowed to marry the emperor's sister, Anne, at which time (988)
he accepted Christianity. Allied to Byzantium by religious and family ties, Vladimir
introduced Byzantine civilization into Kievan Rus by building churches, suppressing
paganism, and making social reforms. Nonetheless, he remained open to Western
influences, which are reflected in his legislation.
Russian Orthodoxy - In 882 Kyiv and Novgorod were united as the state of Kievan Rus
under a single ruler from the house of Ryurik. The East Slavs were pagans who
worshiped the Earth’s natural forces. By the early 10th century, however, Kievan Rus had
established close commercial and cultural ties with the Byzantine Empire, the center of
Orthodox Christianity. In 980 Vladimir I became ruler; eight years later he converted to
Orthodox Christianity and made Orthodoxy the official religion of Kievan Rus. The
Slavic church had considerable autonomy, and services were held in a Slavic liturgical
language known as Old Church Slavonic rather than in the Greek language of the
Byzantine Empire. In matters of doctrine, however, the church obeyed the rulings of the
patriarch of Constantinople in the Byzantine capital. Monasteries and churches were built
in Byzantine style, and Byzantine culture became the predominant influence in fields
such as art, architecture, and music. Vladimir’s choice of Orthodox Christianity, rather
than the Latin church (Roman Catholicism) or Islam, had an important influence on the
future of Russia. Orthodoxy played a crucial role in shaping the values and the separate
identity of the East Slavs. As Christians, they belonged unequivocally to Europe rather
than to one of the other great regional civilizations of the world. As Orthodox,
particularly after the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, they were powerful but
peripheral members of the European Christian community.(Wikipedia)
Yaroslav - Kievan Rus achieved its greatest power and splendor under Yaroslav the
Wise in the 11th century. Yaroslav made Kyiv a great city and built magnificent
buildings, including the notable Cathedral of Saint Sophia (also known as the Hagia
Sophia of Kyiv). Yaroslav did much to develop Rus education and culture. He also
compiled the first Russian law code, the so-called Russkaya Pravda (Russian Justice).
(Wikipedia)
Boyars - landowner in the Russian aristocracy. During the 16th century boyars formed a
powerful interest group threatening the tsar's power, until their influence was decisively
broken in 1565 when much of their land was confiscated.
Tartars - collective name applied to the peoples of Turkic origin whose ancestors
invaded parts of Asia and Europe under Mongol leadership in the 13th century. Also
known as Tartars, the original Tatars probably came from east-central Asia or central
Siberia, and, unlike the Mongols, spoke a language belonging to the Turkic branch of the
Altaic languages family. (Wikipedia)
Week 10: Chapter 9: Part 2: Questions
1. How did the Byzantine Empire (BE) originate?
The Byzantine Empire truly began when the Romans created their eastern capital at
Constantinople in the 4th century ce. It thrived where Rome suffered, becoming a vibrant
center for trade in it’s own right. When Rome fell in the 5th century, it broke into three
parts allowing for the continuation of the Byzantine Empire.
2. What were some of the groups that threatened the BE and how was the BE able to
survive a thousand years?
The Byzantine Empire was threatened by Germanic invaders, the Huns and the Turks. It
lasted for over 1000 years due to it’s political, cultural and economic stability. The
Byzantine Empire inherited a good deal from Rome, but created it’s own distinct
personality. When threatened, they responded by raising their own armies, recruiting in
the Middle East if need be, rather than hiring of “barbarian mercenaries” that the West
employed. This kept the East self-reliant and not at another’s mercy. Already established
civilizations as well as stable agriculture and a well-defined political system helped
prevent internal dissention as well.
3. Describe some of the significant (important) Byzantine political, social and religious
institutions. Discuss reasons for the decline of the BE.
Political – Justinian’s Code (unification of Roman laws, summed up and reconciled
earlier versions of laws). Use of spies to help preserve loyalty, extensive bureaucracy
Social – Hagia Sophia, women held the throne (Theodora & Zoe), secular school system
that trained in Greek classics, philosophy and science; food prices kept low to keep large
peasant populations happy, distinct architectural styles, large gap between rich and poor
Religious – ruler was head of church as well as state, art revolved around religious
themes, different and distinct rituals arose, Schism officially separate them from Rome
creating the Eastern Orthodox church though it must be noted this paved the way for the
distinct religions to embrace their own identities rather than an official break with the
church.
Reasons for Decline – Turkish invaders began pressing in on the borders, tax revenues
and food sources were cut off as a result, new independent Slavic kingdoms lessened the
power of the Byzantines, Italian cities began dominating trade, The 4th Crusade
succeeded in looting Constantinople
4. Describe the split that occurred between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic
Churches. What impact did it have on both Byzantine and European civilizations?
Byzantine emperors resented papal interference and indulged feelings of superiority to
the western kings (believe they were the true hers of Rome and that the westerners were
“crude and unsophisticated” p.202) The two sides began to drift away from each other
though no definitive break was sought at first. By the 11th century, the divergence was
such as could not be ignored. A host of questions were raised by the East to which the
Pope responded by excommunicating those asking the questions. They in turn
excommunicated all Roman Catholics – fostering a permanent split. Despite this, there is
a common belief system shared between east and west. Trade was still fostered between
the two and the ultimate result was simply creating different patterns of development so
that the East became culturally separated from the west.
5. How was the Eastern Orthodox Church able to spread its ideas throughout eastern
Europe?
The ability of missionaries from the East to speak the Slavic languages helped
tremendously to spread the ideas of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The attempt to reach
out to the locals helped create the Cyrillic alphabet which in turn helped spread literacy.
Willingness to hold mass in vernacular rather than Latin also garnered support.
6. Describe the Russian state in Kiev, its rise, its culture, economy, etc.
Slavic peoples began settling into Russia during the days of the Roman Empire. They
intermixed and intermarried with natives, but created a distinct culture. Trade began to
flourish in the 6th century as a trade route was established with Scandinavia. These
Scandinavians began establishing governments along the trade routes particularly in the
city of Kiev. As Kiev grew more populated a monarchy emerged which, though
composed of loose alliances with landed aristocracy, lasted until the 12th century.
Contact with the Byzantine Empire introduced Christianity to the region, mass
conversions were made and a separate Russian Orthodox Church soon began to take
shape. A formal law code was developed, and state run courts were created. Much of the
culture was based upon the Byzantine example with traditional practices giving way to
new ideas. Using the Cyrillic alphabet, the Russian language and literature began to
develop.
7. Describe the important Russian political, social and religious institutions.
When Byzantium fell, the Russians quickly announced they were the inheritors of the 3rd
Rome. Perhaps one of the most important aspects of the development of Russia was its
adaptation of the Byzantine civilization. The aristocratic landlord class, boyars, was
established at this time and had considerable influence later in Russian history. A
bureaucracy, similar to the Byzantine one had been desired, but it by no means was able
to be accomplished at this time. In religion, churches were ornate, a monastic movement
was developed and almsgiving was emphasized. Religious devotion became a way of life.
Art and architecture centered on religious themes. For additional information see answer
above.