Laborers in Colonial Virginia
 The Shift from Indentured Servitude to
Slavery through the Development of Slave
Codes
 Apprenticeships and Education
Indentured Servitude
Although many European
nations were using African
slaves, early 17th century
English law and custom did
not include slavery. England
had no need for African
slaves, because early 17th
century unemployment
rates in England were so
high.
Indentured (contracted)
servants came for many
reasons:
• Convict Servants
• Voluntary Servitude
• Private Contracts
Their treatment varied
widely.
SERVANT
Richard Frethorne
George Alsop
James Revel
Observations about
treatment of indentured
servants
REASON FOR INDENTURE
FOOD / CLOTHING / SHELTER
TREATMENT BY MASTER
Excerpt from Richard Frethorne’s letter to his parents in England (1623):
Loving and Kind Mother and Father:
My most humble duty remembered to you, hoping in god of
your good health, as I myself am at the making hereof.
This is to let you understand that I your child am in a most
heavy case by reason of the country, [which] is such that it
causeth much sickness, as the scurvy and the bloody flux
and diverse other diseases, which maketh the body very
poor and weak. And when we are sick there is nothing to
comfort us; for since I came out of the ship I never ate
anything but peas, and loblollie (that is, water gruel). As for
deer or venison I never saw any since I came into this land.
There is indeed some fowl, but we are not allowed to go
and get it, but must work hard both early and late for a
mess of water gruel and a mouthful of bread and beef. A
mouthful of bread for a penny loaf must serve for four men
which is most pitiful...
And I have nothing to comfort me, nor is there nothing to
be gotten here but sickness and death, except that one
had money to lay out in some things for profit. But I have
nothing at all–no, not a shirt to my back but two rags, nor
clothes but one poor suit, nor but one pair of shoes, but
one pair of stockings, but one cap, [and] but two bands. My
cloak is stolen by one of my fellows, and to his dying hour
would not tell me what he did with it; but some of my
fellows saw him have butter and beef out of a ship, which
my cloak, I doubt [not], paid for. So that I have not a penny,
nor a penny worth, to help me too either spice or sugar or
strong waters, without the which one cannot live here…
I am not half a quarter so strong as I was in England, and
all is for want of victuals; for I do protest unto you that I
have eaten more in [one] day at home than I have allowed
me here for a week. You have given more than my day’s
allowance to a beggar at the door...
And indeed so I find it now, to my great grief and misery;
and saith that if you love me you will redeem me suddenly,
for which I do entreat and beg. And if you cannot get the
merchants to redeem me for some little money, then for
God’s sake get a gathering or entreat some good folks to
lay out some little sum of money in meal and cheese and
butter and beef…
Good father, do not forget me, but have mercy and pity my
miserable case. I know if you did but see me, you would
weep to see me; for I have but one suit. (But [though] it is a
strange one, it is very well guarded.) Wherefore, for God’s
sake, pity me. I pray you to remember my love to all my
friends and kindred. I hope all my brothers and sisters are
in good health, and as for my part I have set down my
resolution that certainly will be; that is, that the answer of
this letter will be life or death to me. Therefore, good father,
send as soon as you can; and if you send me any thing let
this be the mark.
Richard Frethorne
Martin’s Hundred
Frethorn arrived in Jamestown three months prior to the writing of this letter.
The document can be viewed in its entirety at
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/6475
Excerpt from George Alsop, A Character of the Province of Maryland (1666):
… the Servants here in Mary-Land of all Colonies,
distant or remote Plantations, have the least cause to
complain, either for strictness of Servitude, want of
Provisions, or need of Apparel: Five dayes and a half in
the Summer weeks is the alotted time that they work
in; and for two months, when the Sun predominates in
the highest pitch of his heat, they claim an antient and
customary Priviledge, to repose themselves three
hours in the day within the house, and this is
undeniably granted to them that work in the Fields.
In the Winter time, which lasteth three months (viz.)
December, January, and February, they do little or no
work or imployment, save cutting of wood to make
good fires to sit by, unless their Ingenuity will prompt
them to hunt the Deer, or Boar, or recreate themselves
in Fowling, to slaughter the Swans, Geese, and
Turkeys (which this Country affords in a most plentiful
manner:) For every Servant has a Gun, Powder and
Shot allowed him, to sport him withall on all Holidayes
and leasurable times, if he be capable of using it, or be
willing to learn.
Now those Servants which come over into this
Province, being Artificers [craftsmen], they never
(during their Servitude) work in the Fields, or do any
other imployment save that which their Handicraft and
Mechanick endeavours are capable of putting them
upon, and are esteem’d as well by their Masters, as
those that imploy them, above measure. He that’s a
Tradesman here in Mary-Land (though a Servant),
lives as well as most common Handicrafts do in
London, though they may want something of that
Liberty which Freemen have, to go and come at their
pleasure . . .
He that lives in the nature of a Servant in this Province,
must serve but four years by the Custom of the
Country; and when the expiration of his time speaks
him a Freeman, there’s a law in the Province, that
enjoyns his Master whom he hath served to give him
Fifty Acres of Land, Corn to serve him a whole year,
three Sutes of Apparel, with things necessary to them,
and Tools to work withall; so that they are no sooner
free, but they are ready to set up for themselves, and
when once entred, they live passingly well…
In short, touching the Servants of this Province, they
live well in the time of their Service, and by their
restrainment in that time, they are made capable of
living much better when they come to be free; which in
several other parts of the world I have observed, That
after some servants have brought their indented and
limited time to a just and legal period by Servitude,
they have been much more incapable of supporting
themselves from sinking into the Gulf of a slavish, poor,
fettered, and intangled life, then all the fastness of their
prefixed time did involve them in before.
Excerpts from “The Poor Unhappy Transported Felon’s Sorrowful account of fourteen Years
Transportation, at Virginia in America.” by James Revel (c.1680)
My loving countrymen pray lend an ear,
To this relation which I bring you here,
My sufferings at large I will unfold,
What tho’ its strange it’s true as e’er was told…
Of honest parents I did come tho’ poor,
Who besides me had never children more,
Near Temple bar was born their darling Son,
And for some years in virtuous paths did run.
Then to a Tin man I was Prentice bound,
My master and my mistress good I found,
They lik’d me well, my business I did mind,
From me my parents comfort hop’d to find…
One night was taken up one of our gang,
Who five impeach’d, and three of them were hang’d.
I was one of the five was try’d and cast,
Yet transportation I did get at last,
A just reward for my vile actions past,
Thus justice overtook me at the last…
And after sailing seven weeks or more,
We at Virginia all were set on shore…
At last to my new master’s home I came,
At the town of Wicomico call’d by name,
Where my European clothes were took from me,
Which never after I again did see.
I from my master then did run away,
A canvas shirt and trowsers then they gave,
And rov’d about the streets both night and day,
And a hopsack frock in which I was to slave,
Did with a gang of rouges a thieving go,
No shoes nor stockings had I for to wear,
Which fill’d my parents’ hearts with grief and woe… Nor hat nor cap both head and feet were bare.
Thus drest into the field I must go,
Amongst Tobacco plants all day to hoe,
At day break in the morning our work begun,
And so we’d go to the setting of the sun…
We and the negros all alike did fare,
Of work and food we had equal share,
For in a piece of ground we call’d our own,
The food we eat first by ourselves were sown.
No other time to us they did allow,
But on a Sunday we the same must do,
Six days we slave for our master’s good,
The seventh day is to produce our food…
At length it pleased God I sick did fall,
But I no favour could receive at all,
For I was forced to work while I could stand,
Or hold the hoe within my feeble hand.
Much hardship then indeed I did endure,
No dog was ever used so I’m sure,
More pity the poor Negro slaves bestow’d,
Then my unhuman brutal master shew’d…
My countrymen take warning e’er too late,
Lest you should share my late unhappy fate,
Altho’ but little crimes you here have done,
Consider seven or fourteen years to come.
Forc’d from your friends and country for to go,
Sometimes when we a hard day’s work have done, Amongst the Negro’s to work and hoe,
In distant countries void of all relief,
Away unto the mill we must be gone,
Sold for a slave because you prov’d a thief.
Till twelve or one o’Clock a grinding corn,
Therefore young men with speed your lives amend,
Yet must be up at daylight in the morn…
Take my advice as one that is your friend,
For tho’ so slight you make of it here,
Hard is your lot if once they get you there.
The Labor Force Shifts
As the economy improves, it becomes harder to find British
indentured servants…
1625:
1683:
40% of the total labor force are indentured servants.
16% of the total labor force are indentured servants.
and those who come are increasingly skilled:
1654-1661: 30% of indentured servants come with skills.
1773-1775: 80.5% of indentured servants come with skills
In need of a new source of field labor, Britain follows the lead of
other European nations and taps into the existing slave trade.
The African and African-American
population increases:
1625:
1648:
1671:
1680:
1700:
1720:
1730:
1740:
1775:
23
300
2,000
3,000
16,390
26,559
30,000
60,000
210,000
Slavery
When the first Africans arrived in Virginia in 1619, there were no slave
codes, and it appears they were purchased as indentured servants.
By 1774,
almost half of
all Virginians
were of
African
descent, and
the vast
majority of
them were
enslaved.

Slavery was not uniquely American. It existed before recorded history, and was an
accepted source of labor in most of the pre-industrial 17th and 18th century world.

Africans were actively involved in the trade, but were not “selling their own people”;
more powerful nations enslaved their less powerful neighbors.
African Slavery vs. American Slavery
 Not always hereditary,
sometimes voluntary
 Status of mother determines
newborn child’s status
 Sometimes temporary
 Servitude for life
 Sometimes slaves are
 Definite legal separation
absorbed into the community
 Occupations can include
positions of high social status
between master and slave
 Wide range of occupations,
but not high-status positions
The Development of Virginia’s Slave Codes
1640-1660:
Judicial Rulings
1640 John Punch Case
1660-1680:
De facto becomes
de jure
1662 A child’s status is determined by the status of the mother at the moment
of the child’s birth
1656 Elizabeth Key’s Suit for Freedom
1667 Baptism of slaves does not exempt them from bondage.
1669 An act about the "casual" killing of slaves; “if any slave resist his master
and by the extremity of the correction should chance to die, that his
death not be accompted Felony”
1680-1705:
Laws reflect
racism, deliberate
separation of
blacks and whites
and conscious
efforts to control
slave conduct.
1680 Thirty lashes on the bare back "if any negroe or other slave shall
presume to lift up his hand against any Christian“
1691 Any child between an English woman and a negro or mulatto shall be
bound out for 31 years;
No negro or mulatto may be set free unless the owner pays for their
transportation out of the colony within six months, and after paying ten
pounds sterling to the Church wardens of the parish.
1705 All negro, mulatto, and Indian slaves shall be adjudged to be real
estate
1723 Slaves may be freed ONLY upon the approval of the Governor’s
Council.
African-American Daily Life
Preservation of African Cultures
Adaptation and Assimilation to British Culture
Methods of Resistance
Preservation of African Cultures & Adaptations to a New World
Foods: Pepper, Okra, Peanuts (Goobers),
Yams (not Sweet Potatoes)
Negotiations: Renting out skills,
Selling eggs, baskets, etc.
Skills: Woodworking, Basket weaving,
Pottery, Metalsmithing
Farming
Family: Fictive family connections
Religion: Voodun, Spirit Gods
Stories & Music: To release tension
To transmit family histories
To teach morals, values, survival skills
Anansi becomes Brer Rabbit
Naming Practices: Days of the Week
Music/Dance/Stories
Religion: The Great Awakening:
Methodist movement, Baptists,
Presbyterians, etc.
Clothing
Education: Reading & Writing,
Masters’ Habits, Rules & Regulations
Limitations & Freedoms
"The Old Plantation," attributed to John Rose, Beaufort County, South Carolina, probably 1785–1790.
Resistance
How do people resist doing things they don’t want to do?
Students
Enslaved
People
Resistance to Slavery

“Wearing a mask”

Alcohol abuse

Work slow-downs

Feigning illness or pregnancy

Pretending not to know English

Damage, loss or destruction of property

Theft, or “rearranging the master’s property”

“Ears in the wall” – listening to conversations

Interpreting directions incorrectly or feigning ignorance

Short-term running away

Permanent running away
Running Away
“The love of freedom,
sir, is an inborn
sentiment, which the
God of nature has
planted deep in the
heart: long may it be
kept under by arbitrary
institutions of society;
but, at the first
favourable moment, it
springs forth, and
flourishes with vigour
that defies check.”
St. George Tucker, Letter to a Member of
the General Assembly of Virginia (1801)
Would You Run?
Motivators




Reunion with loved ones
Desire for freedom
Abusive treatment
The need for rest
vs.
Inhibitors




Separation from loved ones
Endangering others
Difficulties w/ provisions, disguise
Dangers & potential punishments
Slave
Runaway Ad
Master
Physical Appearance, including
Clothing:
Motive for Placing Ad:
Skills:
What Has the Master Lost?
Personality Traits:
Attitude Toward Runaway:
Motive for Running Away:
Where Does Master Suspect Slave has
Gone?
STAFFORD County, August 20, 1768. RAN away last April, from one of the
subscriber's quarters in Loudoun, (where he had been a short time sawing) a
Mulatto slave belonging to Samuel Selden, jun. named Peter Deadfoot, though it
is supposed he has changed his name, as he the day before attempted to pass
for a freeman, and had got as far as Noland's ferry, on his way to Philadelphia, by
a forged pass, in which he was called William Swann. He is a tall, slim, clean
limbed, active, genteel, handsome fellow, with broad shoulders; about 22 years of
age, a dark Mulatto, with a nose rather flat than otherwise, very sensible, and
smooth tongued; but is apt to speak quick, swear, and with dreadful curses upon
himself, in defence of his innocence, if taxed with a fault, even when guilty; which
may be easily discovered, by any person's taxing him with being run away. He is
an indifferent shoemaker, a good butcher, ploughman, and carter; and excellent
sawyer, and waterman, understands breaking oxen well, and is one of the best
scythemen, either with or without a cradle, in America; in short, he is so ingenious
a fellow, that he can turn his hand to anything; he has a great share of pride,
though he is very obliging, is extremely fond of dress; and though his holiday
clothes were taken from him, when he first attempted to get off, yet, as he has
probably passed for a freeman, I make no doubt he has supplied himself with
others, as such a fellow would readily get employment; it has been reported that
he was seen on board a vessel in York river, near York town; but for my own part,
I suspect that he is either in Prince William county, Charles county in Maryland (in
both which places he has relations) or in the neighbourhood of Winchester.
Whoever apprehends the said slave, and conveys him to me in Stafford county,
shall receive, if taken within ten miles of my house, Five Pounds; if above fifty
miles, Ten Pounds; and if above one hundred miles, Twenty Pounds reward,
besides what the law allows.
THOMSON MASON.
Virginia’s Free Negroes
At the time of the Revolution, Virginia had
about 500,000 inhabitants. Approximately half
of those people were of African descent, and
the vast majority of them were enslaved; only
about 2,000 were free.
Manumission laws temporarily relaxed during
the Revolutionary era, and by 1790 there
were about 13,000 free blacks. By 1800 there
were about 20,000.
Suggestions for Discussing Slavery
in the Classroom





Keep parents informed.
Base discussion on documented facts.
Terminology:

Help students understand the 18th-century meanings of
potentially offensive words.

Be careful with word choice (most slaves were illiterate,
but they were not uneducated—education is the
acquisition of the skills one will need in life).
Be aware that your students may feel anger or guilt.

Share the pain, but emphasize the people’s strengths,
survival and contributions.

We cannot change the past, but we can change the
present and the future.
Be sure to have Q&A time: let students ask questions in their
journals, or write down questions anonymously.
http://www.history.org/history/teaching/runaway.cfm
http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/gos/
http://www.slavevoyages.org
Apprenticeships and
Education of Free
Children
(lest they become burdens to society)
An apprenticeship was a legally binding contract (an indenture) between a child
(or his guardian) and the master of a trade. These contracts were often drawn
up, signed before the courts, and entered into a deed book. They typically
required the following:
Apprentice must:
 Work for the master without
pay for the term of the
contract.
 Obtain master’s permission
before leaving the premises
 Abstain from vices such as
taverns and the theater.
 Keep trade secrets.
Master to provide:
 Training in the trade.
 Sometimes room and board
 Basic education (reading,
writing and arithmetic).
 Sometimes a set of tools or
clothes on completion of the
apprenticeship.

Apprenticeships varied in length, depending upon child’s age
when the apprenticeship started. For girls, apprenticeships
ended at 18, and for boys, 21.

Upon completion of an apprenticeship, a free person became
a “journeyman,” who worked for wages.

In Virginia there was no guild system, so anyone who owned a
trade business was called a “master.”

Sometimes slaves were apprenticed until they had learned a
trade sufficiently to perform it for their masters’ profit.

Girls were rarely apprenticed unless they were orphans, and
usually in housewifery, or the arts and mysteries of running a
household. They were also occasionally apprenticed to
mantua-making, millinery and midwifery.

Despite the lack of formal trades training, many widows ended
up running their late husbands’ trades.
Non-Apprenticeship Forms of Education

Most girls were expected to marry and raise families. Whether servants
or daughters living at home, the housewifery skills they learned included
not only cooking and sewing, but gardening, food preservation, first aid,
and basic medicine. They also usually learned basic academic skills.

There was no public education system in Virginia, although
schoolmasters /mistresses sometimes set up schools in towns. Wealthier
children were usually tutored at home, and received a thorough
academic education, as well as arts instruction in dancing, singing, the
playing of musical instruments and riding. Girls also learned painting and
needlework, while boys often learned fencing.

Wealthy boys’ education continued at college, either here or abroad, with
the expectation that they might go on to become doctors, lawyers or
clergymen.

Enslaved people were occasionally taught to read and write if it was
relevant to their work; it was not yet illegal to teach slaves to read. The
Bray School in Williamsburg was specifically for “negroe, mullatto and
indian” children.