Academic Writing: Selected Topics
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ACADEMIC WRITING Selected Topics WRITING WORKSHOP TRUTH IN ADVERTISING - DISCLAIMER This workshop is not about English grammar and vocabulary. If yours ain‟t good, it ain‟t gonna make it better. It is also not about publishing. No money-back guarantee if you follow the rules I propose and still cannot publish. It is not about writing using quantitative and qualitative methods. If you think the use of English is different between approaches, we are on different planets. It is about a specific type of writing – academic writing – used for dissertations and research papers. 2 THEMES ACADEMIC WRITING WRITING APPROACHES PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC WRITING SEENTENCE CONSTRUCTION WRITING A PAPER 3 4 1. ACADEMIC WRITING 1. ACADEMIC WRITING & TECHNICAL WRITING 2. WRITING OBJECTIVES 3. LANGUAGE & SUBSTANCE ACADEMIC WRITING & TECHNICAL WRITING Academic writing is a subset of technical writing. Technical writing is writing about technically complex subjects for an audience. This audience may be themselves experts or laymen. The whole point of technical writing is “simplifying the complex”. This is because the audience may not be technical experts. Experts or not, simple is easier to understand than complex. Simplicity is helped if the writing fulfills several attributes 5 WRITING OBJECTIVES Technical writing‟s purpose is to: Inform: to provide information without expecting any action from the reader Instruct: to give information so that the reader can do something Propose: to suggest a plan of action for a specific issue or problem Persuade: to convince the reader to change attitudes and behavior, or to take action. Academic writing‟s purpose is to both: Inform and Persuade 6 ACADEMIC WRITING 7 LANGUAGE VS. SUBSTANCE SUBJECT MATTER Because academic writing involves analysis, critical thinking and logic are essential. LANGUAGE The nature of academic writing dictates the language and its structure that should be used. LANGUAGE – 8 GEORGE BERNARD SHAW ON COMMUNICATION “The single biggest problem with communication is the illusion that it has taken place.” 1856-1960 ACADEMIC WRITING LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY FORMALITY PRECISION OBJECTIVITY EXPLICITNESS ACCURACY HEDGING 9 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES COMPLEXITY Written language is more complex (dense) than spoken. Academic language is more complex than non-academic language. „Density‟ refers to the substance packed into words or sentences. The difference is the sentence structure, not the vocabulary Spoken: You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets. Written: The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster trains running in the most adverse weather conditions. 10 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES FORMALITY Try these exercises: 1. With women especially, there is a lot of social pressure to conform to a certain physical shape. 2. The first National Government wasn't intended to be a coalition government in the normal sense of the term. 3. In 1947 the Treasury brought up the question of excluding South Africa (and India) from the sterling area. Colloquial words Colloquial words: a lot; kind of; soso; let‟s say; you bet (US) Abbreviations: Don‟t; can‟t; shouldn‟t; there‟s; we‟ve Two (or more)-worded verbs: bring up; put off; in the end 11 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES PRECISION Read these statements. Are they acceptable? The revolution lasted only 4 weeks, but the after-effects lasted 48 months. The Seattle protests in 1999 brought out thousands of protesters. The debate about whether there is life after death has raged for thousands of years. Precision is important but it is not always possible. Do not use words or phrases like “in the thousands”, or “many more” if you can use “about xxx thousand” or “twice as numerous”. But precision can also be overdone, as in “the trade/GDP ratio is 1.5468”. This is a „Chinese‟ problem. 12 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES OBJECTIVITY Instead of: My own view is that this issue is a red herring. You must agree that this is not an important consideration. We all think of government as being corrupt. The emphasis should be on the information to be conveyed, not the conveyor of the information. Why? Because academic writing is about what has been learned, not who learned it. Write: This issue is a red herring. Avoid “I”, “we”. “you” This is not an important consideration. Avoid expressions like “in my opinion”, “it is our judgment that” Many believe government is corrupt. 13 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES EXPLICITNESS Explicitness refers to showing how ideas are organized. This is done through “link” words, e.g. “because”, “however”, “therefore”. It also refers to making known who propose the ideas, if the persons are known. This is done through citation. Using link words: Although many debated the relationship between population and development, it was Myrdal who became the most famous. This is because of his book Asian Drama. Citing sources: Mason (2003) described the fertility transition in East Asia. His arguments stand in sharp contrast to those of Tey (2005). 14 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES EXPLICITNESS – LINK WORDS LINK WORD PURPOSE However Showing contrast Because Showing cause In addition Showing additional information Therefore Showing effect At the same time Showing simultaneity Following Showing time sequence Also Showing additional information After Showing time sequence Either … or Showing similarity, choice As a result of Showing cause 15 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES ACCURACY Because academic writing requires precision, accuracy in the use of words is vital. Accuracy involves the right use of vocabulary and punctuation Examples of wrong punctuation: Examples of confused vocabulary: Adapt vs adopt Affect vs. effect Beside vs. besides Complement vs. compliment Discrete vs discreet Principle vs principal He is an idiot, so is she. Stationery vs. stationary He is an idiot. Which is why his mother abandoned him. Council vs counsel This paper has three parts, part 1, part 2, part 3. 16 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES HEDGING STRENGTH OF CLAIM weak WORDS & PHRASES Seem, tend to, appear to be, possibly, may be medium Usually, typically, sometimes strong Certainly, must, likely, should, clearly Hedging refers to the recognition that a statement is made with different degrees of certainty. This is in conformity with the features „accuracy‟ and „precision‟. These words should not be taken lightly. Example: The importance of the family was certainly greater a hundred years ago than now. 17 ACADEMIC WRITING FEATURES EXERCISE 1 Please read through Exhibit 1. How many errors referred to in the section above can you pick out? 18 ON CRITICAL THINKING ALBERT EINSTEIN 19 ACADEMIC WRITING CRITICAL THINKING & LOGIC CRITICAL THINKING IS NEEDED FOR ACADEMIC ANALYSIS What is critical thinking? How is critical thinking different from other types of thinking? LOGIC IS ESSENTIAL TO CRITICAL THINKING What constitutes an abuse or breach of logic? 20 WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING? Critic (Greek) - one who can judge & discern. Refers to the ability to analyze, solve problems, think „outside the box‟. It does not mean being argumentative or critical of other people. It does mean application of the rules of logic Applying these rules permit challenges to consensus, holding of less popular views "If it was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but as it isn't, it ain't. That's logic."--Lewis Carroll 21 CRITICAL THINKING Bloom’s Taxonomy 22 Benjamin Bloom argues there are SIX levels of cognitive skills, each level more complex than that below it. LITERAL THINKING SKILLS CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS Knowledge Analysis Comprehension Synthesis Application Evaluation Literal thinking skills demonstrate mastery over information. Critical thinking skills permit manipulation of information, to judge their worth. WHAT AFFECTS CRITICAL THINKING? Knowledge base Problem solving ability Learning style Attitudes, including motivation Innate creativity 23 24 WHAT IS LOGIC? • Logic is a formal system of analysis that helps create, demonstrate, prove or disprove arguments. • It relies on reasoning, not emotion. • Successful argument relies on logical but sometimes non-logical (cannot be proved or disproved) arguments. • But it cannot use illogical (false) arguments ABUSE OF CRITICAL THINKING FAULTY LOGIC MISUSE OF LANGUAGE Oversimplification Words out of context Unjustified generalization Equivocating Black or white Weasel words Tautology Double-speak Ad Hominen Bandwagoning 25 FAULTY LOGIC 1 OVERSIMPLIFICATION Generally, neat solutions to complex problems. A common form is the fallacy of the single cause. This is when something that occurred is attributed to a single cause when multiple causes could have been responsible. 26 EXAMPLE The area has been enveloped in dense fog since morning. It was hazardous on the roads during the morning rush hour, but no major accidents occurred. However, during the evening rush hour a major pile-up occurred at a straight stretch of the highway. The police made the announcement to radio stations to advise all traffic to exercise extra care in view of the thick fog in the area. FAULTY LOGIC 2 UNJUSTIFIED GENERALIZATION Generally, generalization when there is insufficient arguments to reach a conclusion. A common form is one event preceding another being mistaken for cause. This is referred to as “post hoc ergo propter hoc”. EXAMPLE In an education fair, the president of a private university spoke to an interested audience. He made the argument that going to university can help people succeed in life. Therefore, everybody should enroll in university. He said because his university had graduated the largest number of students in the city, the audience should enroll in his university. 27 Faulty logic 3 28 BLACK OR WHITE EXAMPLE In the aftermath of the 9/11 disaster in New York, President George Bush launched his „war on terror‟. In his address to Congress on September 20, 2001, Bush said: “Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists”. In making this statement, he was echoing Hillary Clinton, who said on September 13, 2001:” Every nation has either to be with us, or against us”. Referred to as „false dilemma‟, it refers to allowing only two mutually exclusive possibilities (when there may be more). This fallacy may be intentional, to force a choice, or unintentional, by omission of other choices. FAULTY LOGIC 4 TAUTOLOGY 29 EXAMPLES The Gobi is a very dry desert. I will go there to deal with it personally. Hand-phone Predictions are about the future. Either it will rain or it won‟t rain. (tautology in logic) “It‟s déjà vu all over again.” (Yogi Berra) Weather forecast: “hujan di sana sini” An expression or explanation that repeats itself. The repetition adds nothing to the explanation. In logic, it consists of two facts one of which is true in any case. “The only difference between me and a madman is that I am not mad” (Salvador Dali) FAULTY LOGIC 5 30 AD HOMINEM EXAMPLE Attacking the person who expressed an opinion instead of the opinion. (Ad hominem – against the man) An argument is dismissed on the basic of an irrelevant fact. Sometimes referred as „guilt by association‟. “President Obama: „What‟s blocking us right now is a sort of hyper-partisanship in Washington that I was, frankly, hoping to overcome in 2008. My thinking was when we beat them in 2012 that might break the fever, and it‟s not quite broken yet. But I am persistent. And I am staying at it.‟” From Wehner, P. (2013). “Obama is the ultimate Ad Hominem president”. Commentary, May 15. FAULTY LOGIC 6 31 BANDWAGONING EXAMPLE An appeal to the popularity of an argument for accepting it as true. Sometimes referred to as „appeal to popularity‟. That does not make the argument wrong. But reliance on this is to ignore the application of logic. “Everyone is selfish; everyone is doing what he believes will make himself happier. The recognition of that can take most of the sting out of accusations that you're being "selfish." Why should you feel guilty for seeking your own happiness when that's what everyone else is doing, too?” Harry Browne, “The unselfishness trap”, from How I Found Freedom in an Unfree World (1973). MISUSE OF LANGUAGE 1 WORDS OUT OF CONTEXT Citing only a part of a statement, usually with a deliberate intention to mislead. Examples: A film critic who commented the film was suspenseful only in the last 5 minutes was quoted as saying the film was suspenseful. A US election ad claimed XXX was against bombing of terrorists when what XXX actually said was he was against indiscriminate bombing of terrorist strongholds because it could lead to civilian casualties. EQUIVOCATING Playing on the meaning of words, using the double meaning of a word to create ambiguity. Examples: John‟s estimates are biased; therefore we cannot trust anything he says. An average family has 2 children. Jane‟s family is very average. Hence Jane is likely to have 2 children. 32 FALSE EQUIVOCATION God is love. Love is blind. Ray Charles is blind. So, Ray Charles is God. MISUSE OF LANGUAGE 2 WEASEL WORDS Words used to retreat from a direct statement. Examples: DOUBLESPEAK Worse than weasel words, doublespeak is the use of words to hide the truth. Examples: „Save up to 90%‟. „This toothpaste helps fight tooth decay‟. „The more you buy the more you save.‟ „buy stocks online. It is like having your own stockbroker.‟ From now on, we shall replace the word „killing‟ with „deprivation of life‟. (US State Department) We are engaged in an RIF exercise. 34 THE ORIGIN OF WEASEL WORDS "In June, 1900, the Century Magazine published a story entitled 'The Stained Glass Political Platform,' by Stewart Chaplin, . . . and on page 235 these words occur: Why, weasel words are words that suck all the life out of the words next to them, just as a weasel sucks an egg and leaves the shell. If you heft the egg afterward it's as light as a feather, and not very filling when you're hungry, but a basketful of them would make quite a show, and would bamboozle the unwary. "This is the origin of the term Colonel [Theodore] Roosevelt has made famous." (Herbert M. Lloyd, letter to The New York Times, June 3, 1916) 35 ABUSE OF CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE 2 Please read through Exhibit 1. How many errors referred to in the section above can you pick out? 36 37 2. WRITING APPROACHES 1. THE PARAGRAPH 2. TYPES OF APPROACHES 3. EXAMPLES OF EACH APPROACH 4. COMPARING APPROACHES THE PARAGRAPH Paragraph: a collection of sentences revolving around a theme. Good paragraphing helps a reader understand what is being written. Hence, the basic rule: ONE topic per paragraph Characteristic of a good paragraph: Unity – a dingle focus Coherence – everything hangs together Adequate development – enough to be convincing 38 STARTING A NEW PARAGRAPH When starting a new topic When contrasting views or ideas When the topic is too complex and readers need a break When a „signpost‟ is needed: Signpost: summarizing what has been covered, where discussion is going [See Sample 1] When ending an introduction When beginning a conclusion 39 FAMOUS OPENING PARAGRAPHS “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” “In this grave hour, perhaps the most fateful in history, I send to every household of my peoples, both at home and overseas, this message, spoken with the same depth of feeling for each one of you as if I were able to cross your threshold and speak to you myself. For the second time in the lives of most of us, we are at war.” “I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.” 40 ACADEMIC WRITING APPROACHES Direct: the „American‟ approach Indirect: The „British‟ approach The „French‟ approach The different approaches reflect differences in the sequencing of logical arguments 41 THE „FRENCH‟ APPROACH Hong Kong‟s citizens feel that their city will be Asia‟s city of the future. They argue that Hong Kong enjoys many advantages – a vibrant financial sector, a commercially savvy business elite, a skilled workforce, and well developed infrastructure. But under China, Shanghai is being promoted as the commercial center of the country. It is rapidly catching up with, and will eventually overtake, Hong Kong. Singapore has stolen a march on Hong Kong in terms of promoting information technology. And with its currency tied to the US dollar, Hong Kong has become less competitive as other Asian countries devalued their currencies with the onset of the Asian Crisis. Therefore, Hong Kong will not be Asia‟s city of the future. 42 THE „BRITISH‟ APPROACH Under China, Shanghai is being promoted as the commercial center of the country. It is rapidly catching up with, and will eventually overtake, Hong Kong. Singapore has stolen a march on Hong Kong in terms of promoting information technology. And with its currency tied to the US dollar, Hong Kong has become less competitive as other Asian countries devalued their currencies with the onset of the Asian Crisis. Despite its many advantages – a vibrant financial sector, commercially savvy business elite, a skilled workforce, and well developed infrastructure, it is not hard to conclude that Hong Kong will not Asia‟s city of the future. 43 THE „AMERICAN‟ APPROACH Despite its many advantages – a vibrant financial sector, commercially savvy business elite, a skilled workforce, and well developed infrastructure, Hong Kong will not be Asia‟s city of the future. Under China, Shanghai is being promoted as the commercial center of the country. It is rapidly catching up with, and will eventually overtake, Hong Kong. Singapore has stolen a march on Hong Kong in terms of promoting information technology. And with its currency tied to the US dollar, Hong Kong has become less competitive as other Asian countries devalued their currencies with the onset of the Asian Crisis. [See Sample 1] 44 COMPARING APPROACHES FORMAT AMERICAN BRITISH FRENCH Topic sentence as first sentence Topic sentence as last sentence Topic sentence negating argument of paragraph as last sentence Rest of paragraph elaborates on topic Paragraph develops argument for topic sentence Paragraph‟s argument to be negated by topic sentence One topic per paragraph One topic per paragraph One topic per paragraph 45 COMPARING APPROACHES – 46 DIRECT APPROACH - PROS & CONS PROS CONS Message is clear, immediately obvious May be too in-your-face when persuasion needed Content is focused, all about the message Coherence within a paragraph not guaranteed Easy for abstracting No logical development of arguments Cohesion between paragraphs also easy Inadequate elaboration may leave message unconvincing Focus on the actor, not the deed COMPARING APPROACHES – 47 INDIRECT APPROACH - PROS & CONS PROS CONS Logical development of argument Takes time to get to message, may be hard to follow Coherence within paragraph is assured by logical development Poorly developed arguments affect message Focus on the deed, not the actor Coherence between paragraphs not so easy Not straightforward for abstracting Less proactive ACADEMIC WRITING APPROACHES EXERCISE 3 Please read through Exhibit 2. How would you modify its contents to conform to the preferred approach? 48 49 3. ACADEMIC WRITING PRINCIPLES 1. THE KISS PRINCIPLE 2. PARSIMONY IN WRITING 3. CLARITY 4. JARGON ACADEMIC WRITING RULES Keep it simple, stupid (the KISS Principle) Parsimony in writing – don‟t repeat, use unnecessary words Clarity Avoid jargon Coherence 50 THE KISS PRINCIPLE From the Economist Style Guide: “To write a genuine, familiar or truly English style is to write as anyone would speak in common conversation who had a thorough command or choice of words or who could discourse with ease, force and perspicuity setting aside all pedantic and oratorical flourishes.” (William Hazlitt 1778-1830) But what about this? “Drawing on a historical contrast between India, whose experience I know fairly well from my own research, and East Asia, whose experience I know almost as well from other‟s research, I plan to argue the following (among many other things), … that the contention (by Paul Krugman, drawing on the Alwyn Young calculations of total factor productivity (TFP), but in fact going back, as I say below, to T.N. Srinivasan in his comments, based on Jong-Il Kim and Larry Lau‟s calculations instead, on the World Bank study of East Asia) that there was no „miracle‟ misconstrues what is miraculous about the East Asian growth experience.” (from Jagdish Bhagwati. The Wind of the Hundred Days. p. 28) 51 FROM THE ECONOMIST STYLE GUIDE “It should be readily understandable.” “Do not be stuffy ...” “Use the language of everyday speech …” “Do not be hectoring or arrogant …” “Do not be too pleased with yourself …” “Do not be too chatty …” “Do not be too didactic ….” “Do your best to be lucid …” “Long paragraphs, like long sentences, can confuse the reader.” “Clear thinking is the key to clear writing.” 52 PARSIMONY IN WRITING REDUNDANT WORDS REDUNDANT LEAN Completely filled filled 12 midnight midnight WHAT IS THE LEAN VERSION OF: A total of 5 cases 5 cases Join together Close proximity proximity New beginning End result result Foreign imports Exactly the same The same Invited guests Free gift gift Revert back New innovation innovation Write down In the event that if Since the time when Period of 3 days 3 days Past history Merge together merge 53 PARSIMONY IN WRITING UNNECESSARY PHRASES THESE PHRASES SHOULD BE OMITTED As a matter of fact In the case of In the event of For all intents and purposes It needs to be noted It seems that Due to the fact that The point here is …. For the most part It is obvious that … For the purpose of The question as to whether …. In the final analysis It goes without saying In the process of In a very real sense Have a tendency to (use: tends to) By virtue of the fact that …. 54 PARSIMONY IN WRITING COLLOQUIALISM & GRAMMATICAL ERROR INCORRECT CORRECT Discuss about Discuss Emphasize on Emphasize For free Free Red color Red Large size Large Square shape Square List down List For sure certainly • Colloquialism is full of redundancies and even grammatical error. • It varies with country context. • Even if grammatical, it should not be used. “Big daddy, junior and the spook” is the colloquial equivalent of ????? 55 COLLOQUIALISM, MALAYSIAN STYLE SPEAKER/SITUATION COLLOQUIAL ENGLISH COLLOQUIAL MALAYSIAN ENGLISH Salesperson “How may I help you?” “You want what ah?” Salesperson “I am sorry we are out of stock” “No stock!” Friend offering to psy “Put away your wallet. This meal‟s on me.” “No need lah! I pay.” Expressing doubt “I don‟t think it happened.” “Where got?” Explaining “That‟s how it happened.” “Like that loh!” 56 CLARITY WHAT HELPS CLARITY? Clarity is the ability to deliver a message correctly and that is easy to understand. It is achieved through direct, natural expression of thought in familiar words as briefly as possible Clarity is helped by actions already discussed: The KISS principle Conciseness And by an appropriate sentence structure (next section): Plus the following simple rules (next slide): 57 CLARITY 58 SOME DO’S & DON’T’S 1 USE VERBS Use verbs, avoid the noun forms (nominalization). Example: • • The implementation of policy was successful. (unclear) The policy was successfully implemented. (clear) NOUN STRINGS Avoid „noun strings‟, i.e. a series of nouns used together. Example • • This report discusses our investment stimulation strategies. (unclear) This report discusses our strategies tor stimulating investment. (clear) MULTIPLE NEGATIVES Use positive rather than multiple negatives. Example: • This suggestion is not without merit. (unclear) • This suggestion has merit. (clear) • Not unlike what was said before, this makes no sense. (unclear) • Like what was … (clear) CLARITY 59 SOME DO’S & DON’T’S 2 Place subordinate clauses at the beginning of end of a sentence. People, events, institutions make clearer subjects than abstract processes. Example: Example • • Industrial espionage, because of the rise of ICT, is increasing. (unclear) Because of the rise of ICT, industrial espionage is increasing. (clear) EXPLETIVE CONSTRUCTIONS CLEAR SUBJECTS SUBORDINATE CLAUSES • • The revision of the process has increased efficiency. (unclear) When we revised the process, efficiency improved. (clear) Avoid beginning sentences with “It is” or “There is”. It adds no meaning to the sentence.. Example: • It is important to remember this. (unclear) • We must remember this. (clear) JARGON & ALL THAT Defined broadly, jargon refers to complicated, not easily understood words that include: Slang Gobbledygook (US); gibberish (UK) Alphabet soup (all acronyms) Computerese Defined narrowly, it refers only to terms used and understood by technical experts (Tech speak). "Tech Speak is a postcolloquial discourse modulation protocol for user status enhancement. It's a referential system for functionalstructural, microscopically specific macroscopic-object redesignation. It's a universal semantic transformation procedure. “ Tenner, E. (1986). Tech Speak, or How to Talk High Tech. London: Kogan Page. [Tenner is science editor of Princeton UP.] 60 JARGON & CLICHES 61 Jargon refers to terms or expressions that are borrowed from technical writing. Jargon often irritates. When jargon is used very frequently, it becomes cliché, expressions that are overused and tired. Examples: Examples: Learning curve A diamond in the rough Pushing the envelope At the speed of light Black box The writing on the wall Catch 22 All that glitters Bang for the buck Nerves of steel BTW, LOL, TTYL Tail between his legs JARGON – Try these INTERNET: You know FAQ, TTYL, LOL, BTW. But what is: HTH IIRC BFF CYA? POLITICAL: (US) POTUS SCOTUS Pro-choice Lame duck 62 BUSINESS: Back burner Fall guy Pie in the sky Bean counter Chapter 11 (US only) GENERAL Cloud 9 Shrink Fruitcake COHERENCE Coherence refers to arguments that link well one with another. It makes for good story-telling. Coherence applies to: Within a paragraph Between paragraphs 63 COHERENCE WITHIN PARAGRAPHS The Indirect Method achieves this more naturally because the story unfolds The Direct Method requires a conscious effort to: Build logical bridges: carry the same idea over from sentence to sentence. This idea is that in the topic sentence. Build verbal bridges: Use link words, e.g, „therefore‟, „however‟, „as a result‟, „later‟ Use synonymous words in different sentences, e.g. “Bhopal was a disaster. That the catastrophe occurred in India was doubly tragic. Use pronoun references, e.g. “9/11 was a disaster waiting to happen. It so happened in New York.” 64 COHERENCE BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS Coherence between paragraphs: achieved by logical sequencing of topic sentences. To do this requires a coherent organizational structure before writing. Examples: Sequencing of topic sentences When the monograph was published, Malaysia‟s demography and economy was undergoing rapid change. Economically …. Demographically …. Today, the demographic-economic dynamic has shifted …. 65 FOLLOWING WRITING RULES If you follow these rules: Will it be good academic writing? YES Will it be easily understood? YES Will key messages be conveyed? YES Will it be interesting to read? NOT NECESSARILY So, what should you do? 66 ACADEMIC WRITING RULES EXERCISE 4 Please read Exhibit 3. Try to identify breaches of the rules discussed above. Correct the sentences if necessary. 67 68 4. SENTENCE STRUCTURE & GRAMMAR 1. THE SENTENCE 2. COMMON ERRORS IN SENTENCE STRUCTURE 3. GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND ALL THAT THE SENTENCE Sentences are powerful deliverers of messages 69 Only two things are infinite – the universe and human stupidity, and I am not sure about the former (Albert Einstein) Maybe this world is another planet‟s hell (Aldous Huxley) Get your facts first. Then you can distort them as you please. (Mark Twain) Just remember you are absolutely unique. Just like everyone else. (Margaret Mead) A sentence consists of: The subject The object Subordinate clause(s) Problems can arise from: Sentence structure Use of words Grammar and vocabulary SOME FAMOUS SENTENCES (QUOTES) "The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, and wiser people so full of doubts." (Bertrand Russell) "Sex and religion are closer to each other than either might prefer." (Thomas More, 1478-1535) "The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it." (Oscar Wilde 1854-1900) "Some cause happiness wherever they go; others, whenever they go." (Oscar Wilde) "I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.“ (Thomas Edison 1847-1931) "A friendship founded on business is better than a business founded on friendship.“ (John D. Rockefeller 1874-1960) "It is dangerous to be sincere unless you are also stupid.“ (George Bernard Shaw 1856-1950) "Bigamy is having one wife too many. Monogamy is the same.“ (Oscar Wilde) 70 WRITING BASICS Common errors in sentence structure Comma splice Verb agreement Faulty parallelism Noun-pronoun agreement Dangling modifiers Sentence fragment Run-on sentences Double constructions 71 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 1 COMMA SPLICE What should be two separate sentences is written as one. Example: The city was crowded, there were people everywhere. Should be written: The city was crowded. There were people everywhere. OR The city was crowded; there were people everywhere. OR The city was crowded and there were people everywhere. 72 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 2 VERB TENSE AGREEMENT What happened when the past, the present, and the future walked into a bar? It was tense! Verbs used in different clauses in the same sentence have different tenses Example: The secretary was punctual but the boss is late. Should be written: The secretary was punctual but the boss was late 73 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 3 FAULTY PARALLELISM Different phrases in the same sentence have different structures. Examples: Give me liberty or let me die. I think, therefore I am in existence Should be written: Give me liberty or give me death (John Paul Jones) I think, therefore I exist (Latin – cogito ergo sum) (Descartes) 74 FAMOUS PARALLELISMS “My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” “For the end of a theoretical science is truth, but the end of a practical science is performance.” (Aristotle) “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” “I came, I saw, I conquered.” (Veni, Vidi, Vici) “The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessings. The inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries” (Winston Churchill) “Great minds discuss ideas. Average minds discuss events. Small minds discuss people.” (Eleanor Roosevelt) 75 … AND A CLASSIC! 76 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 4 NOUN-PRONOUN AGREEMENT Pronoun does not match the noun in the subject. Also referred to as „subject-verb agreement‟. Example: The government is not corrupt but they need to please their supporters Should be written: The government is not corrupt but it needs to please its supporters. OR Government officials are not corrupt but they need to please their supporters. 77 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 5 DANGLING MODIFIERS WHAT DANGLING MODIFIERS DO: Sentences with modifiers (adverbs) that have no subject to modify can lead to unfortunate results. With his tail held high, my father led his prize poodle around the arena. Example: I saw the dead dog driving down the highway. Freshly painted, Jim left the room to dry. The library has several books about dinosaurs in our school. Pygmies hunted elephants armed with spears. Walking along the bridge, a ship suddenly appeared. By stopping my subscription to cable TV, it was a peaceful day. Should be written: By stopping my subscription to cable TV, I had a peaceful day 78 79 SENTENCE STRUCTURE MISPLACED PHRASES CAN BE DEADLY! Best Newspaper Headlines for 1999 Miners Refuse to Work After Death Juvenile Court to Try Shooting Defendant Stolen Painting Found by Tree Two Sisters Reunited after 18 Years in Checkout Counter Kids Make Nutritious Snacks Local High School Dropouts Cut in Half Typhoon Rips through Cemetery; Hundreds Dead Include Your Children When Baking Cookies Iraqi Head Seeks Arms Is There a Ring of Debris around Uranus? SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 6 SENTENCE FRAGMENT A group of words that looks like a sentence (but is not a complete sentence. The longer the sentence, the more likely this occurs. Example: All regulations must be made aware. Should be written: Residents must be made aware of all regulations. 80 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 7 RUN-ON SENTENCES Sentences with too many ideas that should have been broken up into multiple sentences. Example: Because of ICT we can obtain information instantaneously which has changed many business practices that led to greater efficiency. Should be written: Because of ICT we can obtain information instantaneously. This has led to greater efficiency in many business practices. 81 SENTENCE STRUCTURE ERRORS 8 DOUBLE CONSTRUCTION The use of unnecessary, usually duplicated, words in a sentence. Example: Since the law has been passed, therefore the police can conduct their investigations directly. Similar to other developing countries…, Malaysia is also a victim of noncommunicable diseases. Should be written: Since the law has been passed, the police can conduct its investigations directly. Like other developing countries…, Malaysia _____________ (fill in). 82 GRAMMAR, SPELLING & ALL THAT KNOW MORE MISS STEAKS I have a spelling checker. It came with my PC. It plainly marks four my revue Mistake I cannot sea. I‟ve run this poem threw it, I‟m sure your please to no. Its letter perfect in its weigh; Words that Britons cannot spell. From the China Daily website: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/l anguage_tips/easyEnglish/200903/25/content_7615954.htm My checker tolled me sew. 83 ACADEMIC WRITING RULES EXERCISE 5 Please read Exhibit 3. Try to identify breaches of the rules discussed above. Correct the sentences if necessary. 84 85 5. WRITING A PAPER 1. THE ABSTRACT 2. THE INTRODUCTION 3. THE CONCLUSION THE ABSTRACT An abstract (Latin: abstractum) is a summary of a paper. It should be a complete piece. In journals, it is between 100 and 200 words. It must contain all the major points of the paper. It cannot contain anything not in the paper. It focuses on issues, findings rather than people. It contains no referencing, preferably no acronyms. It is written as a single paragraph, … Often in simpler English than that in the paper 86 THE ABSTRACT 87 DESCRIPTIVE ABSTRACT Describes what the paper does, less focus on findings Normally very short – fewer than 100 words Consists of: Background Objectives Focus areas Overview of results only EXAMPLE Malaysia has undergone a rapid demographic transition to low fertility. This yields a rich pool of human capital with education. This paper examines whether this „dividend‟ has been captured by Malaysia. Its assessment is based both on the quantitative and qualitative achievements of the education system over the last 30 years. It concludes that it has not done so fully (60 words) THE ABSTRACT 88 INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT Provides information of key findings, less about what the paper does Can be up to 200 words Consists of: Background Study objectives (optional) Methodology (optional) Findings Conclusions/recommendations THE ABSTRACT INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT EXAMPLE: Malaysia has undergone a rapid demographic transition to low fertility that produced a growing share of the working age population. Rising enrollment in upper secondary and tertiary education and many females remaining outside the labor force have reduced this pool. Together with high economic growth, this has created a shortage of labor that has been filled by immigrant labor. Breaking out of this low labor cost model requires strengthening the country‟s human capital base. While generous government expenditure and liberalization of the education sector has resulted in significant gains in numbers enrolled, several factors have had a negative effect on education quality. Unless reversed, this deterioration has long-term implications for the country‟s development. But reversing it will take political commitment that currently looks like a bridge too far. (119 words) 89 THE ABSTRACT 90 COMPARING ABSTRACT TYPES DESCRIPTIVE ABSTRACT INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT Describes the main points of the study, Informs about the main findings and less on findings recommendations of the paper Includes background, purpose and focus of paper Provides brief summary of background, purpose and focus May or may not include analytical methods, findings Focus on findings, conclusions and/or recommendations Begins with background and focuses on what the study does. Begins with background and focuses on what the study finds. THE INTRODUCTION The introduction is a lead-in to the rest of the paper. Like an appetizer, it should whet the reader‟s appetite for the main course, the paper. Hence, it should arouse the reader‟s interest in the paper … But not reveal all the contents. This requires: A strong opening line Clear, direct English A few strategies can bring this about. 91 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 1 CLARIFYING THE TOPIC EXAMPLE This involves providing the study background. This background should speak to why it is an important topic. This narrative typical sets limits (time and subject) for the study. The language used in cigarette advertisements in magazines and newspapers have long been governed by the guidelines of various organizations. Despite such restrictions, differences in word emphasis and other elements of slanting make it possible to trace changes in cigarette advertisements over the past twenty-five years. The above context provides a focal point for and frames this study ….. 92 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 2 STATE A POSITION EXAMPLE The language used in cigarette advertisements in magazines and newspapers have long been governed by the guidelines of various organizations. These organizations each have specific interest groups to answer to. For this reason, it does not go far enough in ensuring that smokers know the risks of smoking. This paper will demonstrate that the role played by special interest groups has harmed the portrayal of facts in documents….. It is possible to go beyond just clarifying a topic to take a stand up front. This attracts the reader‟s attention because he/she may also have a point of view. Some readers are attracted by argumentative papers. 93 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 3 RELATE TOPIC TO CURRENT ISSUE EXAMPLE People are more willing to read topics that have current relevance. This is because they: Have better recollection… are more interested, and they have more knowledge. The debate on cigarette advertisements in magazines and newspapers is focused the attention of numerous consumer groups. But it is merely a reflection of the larger current concern about the environment, and the growing suspicion that industries are not telling the public everything about the harm they do to it. Issues of importance to the environment also resonates with cigarette …. 94 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 4 LEVERAGE CONTROVERSY EXAMPLE: People living in the public eye have always a great deal written about them. If they are eminent leaders, their early lives and their most private moments become favorite topics for journalists. If they remain prominent for a long time, there is little that remains a secret. Joseph Stalin would seem a perfect example how the public records reveal a man‟s private life. Yet the truth is that few people truly knew anything about his life. He himself destroyed most of the records which might have shed light on his life and character. During his rule, the history of his life underwent repeated revisions. Since his death and subsequent „disgrace‟, so many other changes occurred that the „real‟ Stalin may never be truly known. This study tries to uncover the real Stalin ….. Controversy is attention grabbing. This is because people take sides. But care must be taken because it is not easy to contradict a prevailing view. Taking a position requires solid academic analysis. 95 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 5 HIGHLIGHT A PARADOX EXAMPLE Paradoxes also stir interest. This is because they set the stage for debate. It shows the writer‟s critical attitude … And promises an interesting paper. Television is certainly one of the most influential forces on society in the last half of the twentieth century. Yet though it is called „educational‟, it teaches little. Though it is called „real‟, it is deception of the worst sort. Though it is said to be a disseminator of society‟s values, it has worked to destroy them. It encourages violence, passivity, complacency, and illiteracy simultaneously. 96 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 6 USE RELEVANT STATISTICS EXAMPLE In 1974, a Senate subcommittee reported that it had surveyed 54 federal agencies and discovered that they together maintained 858 data banks on individuals. Eighty-four of the data banks were operating without explicit legal authority. Retail credit reporting companies are the next largest users of data banks, and businesses with many employees are next. Chances are that everybody in the U.S. is listed in one of these data banks, sometimes unflatteringly and sometimes with untruths. Statistics can speak louder than words. They also lend credibility to an argument (of course they can also be misused). The more alarming the statistics the better the impact. 97 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 7 USE A QUOTATION EXAMPLE A quotation is a powerful way of delivering the message of a topic. The more extreme or dramatic the quotation, the more powerful the impact. But it is not easy to find one, let alone a powerful one. “THE Malaysian education system is a crime inflicted upon our young.” This quotation by a senior manager exemplifies the polarized views on the country‟s education today. This polarization has its roots in the many changes that have taken place over the past 30 years. These changes have produced winners and losers. They are also embedded in the country‟s politics…. 98 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION 8 EVOKE HISTORY EXAMPLE For as long as there have been liars, there have been attempts to find the truth. Those on trial in ancient China were asked to chew rice powder while testifying. If the powder was dry when the suspect spat it out, he was judged guilty because it was assumed that nervousness over telling lies had dried the saliva in his mouth. Throughout the ages, similar less than reliable methods of determining the truth were used. Finally, with the invention of the modern lie detector in 1921, it seemed that there was at last a foolproof way of finding out if people answering questions were lying or being truthful. Giving a bit of history can evoke interest. People are curious about the origin of things. It gives the paper a scholarly air. It does not have to be directly about a topic but should lead to it. Irrelevant history does more harm than good. 99 SPICING UP AN INTRODUCTION COMBINING THE ABOVE “THE Malaysian education system is a crime inflicted upon our young.” This quotation by a senior manager exemplifies the polarized views on the country‟s education today. This polarization has its roots in the many changes that have taken place over the past 30 years. These changes have produced winners and losers. They are also embedded in the country‟s politics. This issue has gained prominence because, despite the government‟s lavish spending on education, international tests have shown education quality vis-à-vis the rest of the world not only to be sub-par but declining. This is occurring at a time when Malaysia aspires to first world status. This study will review how, despite many reforms, this quality deterioration came about, the domestic and external pressures that are exerted on the education sector ….. Approaches 7 + 2 + 3 100 WRITING AN INTRODUCTION 101 THE NO NO’S DON‟T REPEAT THE TITLE • It is already on the title page. • It is repetitive. • It shows a lack of imagination. • But some of the words can be used. DON‟T USE A DICTIONARY DEFINITION DON‟T ASK A QUESTION • It might lead to an unexpected answer in the reader‟s mind. • And it might be the wrong answer you want. • That would be a bad start at reading the paper • It suggests to the reader the paper is as interesting as reading the dictionary. • It shows a lack of imagination, or worse, lack of understanding. WRITING AN INTRODUCTION DEFAULT OPTION If you have a problem crafting any of the above options, the default option is to: Provide some background Say what you want to do, and … put down the main points of the paper. But you must be careful not to duplicate what you said in the abstract, which appears just before the introduction! It is not too creative an approach. But it will at least make you think twice about doing this in the conclusion. Note: An introduction may appear at the beginning of a paper but it is written at the end. 102 WRITING AN INTRODUCTION EXERCISE 6 Please read Sample 2 In doing so, review the structure of the introduction. How is cohesion achieved? 103 104 WRITING A CONCLUSION THE PREACHER’S MAXIM • Tell them what you are going to tell them (introduction) • Tell them (body) • Tell them what you told them (conclusion). Like the introduction, it is not easy to write. NOT the same as a summary, hence “Summary and Conclusions” Several strategies And also No No‟s. CRAFTING A CONCLUSION TIE TO INTRODUCTION Shows the unity of the paper, that the focus stays with themes identified. Shows discussion has not drifted. Some words, phrases from the introduction can be used. EXAMPLE We began this paper by arguing that statistical analysis of political processes is often flawed. In this paper, we have shown why. Most importantly by treating every event as a statistic, the role of context is lost. Nuances to each event also cannot be adequately captured. 105 CRAFTING A CONCLUSION FIT STUDY INTO LARGER CONTEXT EXAMPLE We have shown that statistical analysis of political processes is often flawed because by treating each event as a statistic just like other events, the role of context is lost. These arguments apply to all quantitative analysis of what are primarily qualitative developments. Seen in this light, our findings have wider applicability than for this specific study. Demonstrates relevance of the topic. Show the study‟s more general appeal Suggests that the larger context may have lessons for the study 106 CRAFTING A CONCLUSION DRAW IMPLICATIONS EXAMPLE: Represents logical extension of study findings. Answers the question “So what?” Opens up new avenues of thought to the reader May suggest action if framed as recommendations. Several implications emerge from this paper‟s findings. First, adequate, even generous, funding is a necessary but insufficient condition to guarantee education quality. Second, institutions matter. This means not only the quality of institutions but also inter-institution coordination. Third …. The recommendations that flow from these are ….. 107 CRAFTING A CONCLUSION MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS EXAMPLE: These findings speak to the need for radical reform. This reform should take a two-prong approach. The first prong should address the curriculum. Specific initiatives include harmonization of standards, ensuring currency of material … The second prong would cover institutions. Here, it will be important to ensure that institutions are appropriately staffed, that their efforts are coordinated, and that they focus on implementation as much as planning and policy-making. Brings effective closure to a study. This is the essence of actionoriented research. Answers effectively the question ‟So what?‟ Recommendations require much thought. But experience helps. 108 CRAFTING A CONCLUSION USE QUOTATIONS … AGAIN! EXAMPLE: The right quotation can crystalize a message more than a whole paragraph. It brings a different context to the issues under discussion. Quotations by the famous add weight to the conclusion. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy encouraged all Americans to “ask what you can do for your country.” Those involved in Habitat for Humanity with which President Carter was closely associated asked and found a wonderful answer. Habitat volunteers, like those described in this report, work year round to improve the lives of their fellow Americans. They are shining examples of answering the call to serve. 109 CRAFTING A CONCLUSION LOOK TO THE FUTURE EXAMPLE: These findings emerge from an analysis of the past but also has even greater relevance for the future. Should the proposed reforms be successfully implemented, a gradual rise in standards can be expected, this rise eventually becoming entrenched as mindsets change. Failure to reform, however, will see the country trapped in a vicious circle of mediocrity. The question is: will the commitment exist to carry through these reforms. Relevance for the future adds weight to the importance of the study. Redirects the reader‟s thought process from what had been (cannot be changed) to what can be (can be changed). Demonstrates extension of logic and ideas 110 CRAFTING A CONCLUSION 111 THE NO NO’S DON’T JUST SUMMARIZE It is already in the abstract (and maybe in the introduction). • • It is repetitive. • • It signals inability to answer the question: „So what?‟. • It shows a lack of imagination. • DON’T APOLOGIZE DON’T SUGGEST NEW IDEAS It raises the question: „If is is important, why wait till now?‟ Not enough time to develop argument. • It signals regret at what has been done. • It shows lack of confidence in findings • Knowing the study‟s limits is not an apology. • Nor is reversing an early position. CRAFTING A CONCLUSION EXERCISE 7 Please read Sample 3. The abstract provides a summary of the paper. The conclusion: Draws implications from findings Refutes earlier studies Offers suggestions on what to do 112 113 ACADEMIC WRITING Want more?
