Written Communication Skills
Undergraduate Programme:
Management Communication Skills
Interpersonal Communication
Course Notes
These are detailed notes. Much more than a copy of the lecture or workshop slides, they provide a
detailed review of the topic with additional concepts and exercises.
© David White, Whitehorn Consulting Ltd
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Contents
Objectives
3
Introduction
4
Information vs. Data
4
Communication Models
4
Feedback
5
Noise
5
Other issues
5
Attitude issues
7
Interpretation process
7
Non verbal aspects of communication
8
What can NVC do?
9
The functions of NVC
9
Kinesics
10
Body shape & appearance
10
Gesture
11
Hidden meanings
11
Gaze
12
Paralanguage
13
Environment
13
What effect does colour have?
15
Transaction Analysis
15
The importance of feedback
18
Conclusions
20
Review
20
Bibliography
20
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Objectives
After studying this course you will be able to:
Distinguish and evaluate a range of useful communication theories
Identify key non verbal communications
Recognise non verbal communication in others
Manage your own non verbal communication more effectively
Analyse the nature of transaction you have with others
Value and interpret feedback more fully
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Introduction
•
What % of the working day is spent on verbal communication?
•
69%
•
What % of the meaning of a spoken message comes from the words?
•
7%
These alarming statistics would suggest that a lot of our communication effort may be misguided. We
focus on words at the expense of all the other ways in which people exchange information with each
other. Communication is a complex process. We need to know underlying issues and have a body of
‘practical’ theory to help us.
Information vs. Data
We live in an era of data overload. From every source, we are bombarded with material that may only
serve to confuse us. For the data to be useful, it needs to be
•
Accurate
•
Timely
•
Complete
•
Relevant
(Source: Business Communications, Rouse M J and Rouse S)
Timely does not necessarily mean quick – it means it is there when it is needed. Likewise,
completeness does not necessarily mean exhaustive – it means as complete as the receiver needs it to
be to make an appropriate decision.
Communication Models
The simplest place to start is Aristotle’s original one way communication model shown below. Yet
simple as it is, the complexity involved in encoding and decoding thoughts into language of some sort
and then communicating it to others. How often have we given a simple message only to find it is
misunderstood by the recipient?
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Aristotle’s Rhetoric
Sender
encodes
message
Receiver
decodes
message
The channel or medium used is part of the problem. A communication delivered by voice will be rich
in nuance and the recipient will be able to decode our sense of humour at work in the message. But the
same words delivered as an email may generate a negative reaction as the recipient takes our ironic
comment seriously.
Feedback
Communication is not usually or ideally a one way process. Feedback is the mechanism by which we
get response from our receiver. This will hopefully tell us whether our message has been understood
correctly. It will also let us know what the recipient’s views are and will move the communication on
from a monologue to a dialogue.
Noise
Noise on the line is something we are familiar with as an obstruction to effective communication. But
noise also means distractions or interruptions which divert the recipient from the key features of the
message. Noise can be everything from distracting clothing, events going on in the background,
physical discomfort, a persistent telephone or a lack of time to properly discuss the issues.
Task! Think of typical meetings you have with your boss. What noise elements are
present to make the communication more effective? Do you or your boss try to do
anything about them?
Other issues
Looking at the second communication model diagram, you will see there are other issues beyond
feedback and noise.
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Interaction model of
communication
Organisation structure
& culture
Task
characteristics
Feedback
Sender
encodes
message
Aristotle’s
Rhetoric
message
delivered through
channels and media
Receiver
decodes
message
NOISE!
Group characteristics
Organisation culture and structure
The culture and structure of an organisation are very closely linked. An organisation with many
bureaucratic layers of management in a large office complex will often lead to reduced constructive
communication as information is filtered heavily as it makes its way up and down the hierarchy. On
the other hand, a smaller organisation where the Chief Executive is reached by anyone in the company
may foster freer communication and the exchange of ideas.
Group characteristics
These refer to the individual culture and style of a particular workgroup. Some may be very seriousminded and task focused. Others may have a more light-hearted culture in which people have more
time to communicate.
Task! How would you describe the culture of your workgroup? How does this affect
communication? Could anything be done to improve it?
Task characteristics
The nature of the tasks or work being undertaken will also influence communication style. Physically
demanding tasks such as cooking in a restaurant kitchen will foster a communication style which is
brusque and occasionally brutal. On the other hand, while staff in an HR department may not have to
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deal with urgent demands as quickly as the kitchen, the issues may be very complex and a high level
of discussion is required to reach the right answer.
Attitude issues
The view we have of ourselves and others will also affect the communications that take place. Turner
and Lombard’s two-person relationship model below highlights the various aspects at work. Imagine a
situation where Person A is lacking in confidence in their job, and is intimidated by the experience and
track record of person B. Likewise person B may be very sure of themselves and somewhat dismissive
as Person A. (Source: Interpersonal Behaviour and Administration, Arhtu N Turner & George F F
Lombard, Free Press 1969, New York)
When sitting down to discuss a work issue, these relationships will colour the conversation. Even if
person A puts forward the best solution to a particular problem, it probably won’t get accepted
because of the relationship issues involved.
Two- Person
relationship model
Turner and Lombard
A’s view of,
and behaviour
toward B
A’s view of,
(way of thinking
about) A
B’s view of,
and behaviour
toward A
B’s view of,
(way of thinking
about) B
Interpretation process
Going beyond these models, it is also important to think carefully about how we interpret the
information we receive. People are naturally drawn to pay more attention to information that fits their
views; interests and beliefs. Advertising for a particular product will be noticed and read mostly by
those people already using it. For the advertiser to achieve ‘conquest’ sales will require breaking down
these barriers of perception.
Imagine the case of a person prejudiced against a particular race. For them Interpretation will be:
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Highly selective
They won’t notice positive behaviour but will instead focus on negative examples in the news.
Seeks congruence between internal state, behaviour & interpretation
Likewise they will notice behaviour that fits their prejudiced stereotype so as to create a
comfortable feeling that their beliefs about the world are confirmed in practice.
Perceptual defence
At the same time they will consciously defend their prejudice if challenged either directly or by
events. Occasional unavoidable positive examples will be regarded as the exceptions to the rule.
Active participation aids interpretation
Yet if the person travels to the country against which they are prejudiced, they will meet and get to
like individual people… completely overcoming their prejudices. Sadly, on return home the original
prejudices will reassert themselves. So we end up with the dual and contradictory situation where the
person will like the individual people yet dislike the nation.
Non verbal aspects of communication
Non verbal behaviour can be characterised as unselfconsciously enacted and may go unnoticed.
Non verbal communication describes those behaviours which may be unselfconscious but are noticed
by others and which communicate something to them. Examples of these are shown in the table
below:
Awareness of NVC
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Sender
Receiver
Examples
aware
aware
Verbal, some gestures
eg pointing
mostly
unaware
unaware
Most nvc , eg unconscious
frown
Pupil dilation, gaze shifts
aware
mostly
aware
unaware, but
has effect
unaware
unaware
aware
Trained behaviour in
sender, eg use of space
Trained behaviour in
receiver, eg posture
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What can NVC do?
There are number of ways in which NVC can modify our communications:
Repeating
NVC can simply repeat the verbal communication. A person giving direction may advise turning right
and point right at the same time. If they pointed left, would you believe the verbal or non verbal
instruction?
Contradicting
NVC is harder to control than verbal communication. People will say one thing verbally, while their
body communicates a very different story. A person waiting before an important meeting may claim
not to be feeling nervous while their tense posture, damp hands and facial expression may something
else.
Substituting
NVC can replace verbal communication altogether. A person may be unwilling to admit their feelings
at all, but they may be communicating them anyway. In the language of love, an awful lot of
communication between people who attracted to each other occurs before any meaningful verbal
communication takes place.
Complementing
NVC may complement a verbal communication. If a person blushes as they apologise to a friend, the
sincerity of the communication will be increased dramatically. It will individuate how seriously they
have taken the situation and the embarrassment they feel.
Accenting
Finally, NVC can also add considerable emphasis to an utterance. A fist banging down on the table
will signal a degree of conflict that the words alone may not.
The functions of NVC
NVC has a number of specific functions that go beyond what is possible with purely verbal
communication.
•
Expressing emotions e.g. crying
•
Communicating attitudes e.g. sitting close to friends
•
Accompanying and supporting speech e.g. the listener nodding
•
Self presentation e.g. the clothes we choose to wear
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•
Rituals e.g. greetings
Kinesics
Kinesics is the term given to the study of body movement by Ray Birdwhistell. The language of the
body features a number of key aspects
•
body shape & appearance
•
posture
•
gesture
•
touch
•
facial expression
•
gaze
(Source: Kinesics & Context, Ray L Birdwhistell, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970)
Body shape & appearance
This aspect alone highlights the communication issues surrounding height, weight, beauty, clothing
and ethnicity.
The effects of physique
Physiologically we are divided into three general groups:
•
Endomorphs: Fat, round and soft
•
Ectomorphs: Tall, thin and fragile
•
Mesomorphs: Muscular, bony and athletic
There are some disappointing trends in the way these groups are treated by society as a whole.
Research has shown that:
•
Tall men earn more and get better jobs
•
Overweight people are less likely to be offered the job and earn less
•
Men prefer female partners to be 15 cm shorter; women prefer male partners to be 10
cm taller
Yet research shows no actual behaviour or performance differences related to body shape.
Task! How has your own body shape, or that of your friends, been a help or
hindrance in any situations?
Clothing
How do we use clothing in self presentation? It is impossible to not communicate via our choice of
clothing. In the entertainment professions, this is taken to a very high level. But for all of us, clothing
decisions will communicate in the following ways:
Displaying positive features
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e.g. wealth – by wearing expensive jewellery or branded clothing
Enhancing physical attractiveness
e.g. the Wonderbra
Displaying self-image
e.g. the famous entrepreneur Richard Branson’s avoidance of a tie at formal business occasions
Conforming to norms of situation
e.g. wearing a black tie at a funeral, putting self-image to one side in the process
Showing membership of a group
e.g. young groups of people dressing as punks and goths
Occupational roles
e.g. wearing the formal or informal uniforms of nurses, judges, or the student
Task! Consider your own approach to the above categories. How do you vary your
own clothing? If you don’t, what does that say about you?
Gesture
While facial expressions are consistent across many nationalities, deliberate gesture
•
varies by culture
•
varies by fashion
•
very powerful
What are the three main kinds of gesture?
1. Emblems
Conscious, deliberate and clear
e.g. the hitchhiking thumb
2. Illustrators
Partly conscious movements to illustrate speech
e.g. drawing a circle in the air when mentioning the world
3. Self-touching
Unconscious Body focused movement
e.g. a man fiddling tightening his tie knot as he is about to say something significant
Hidden meanings
Studies of non verbal communication have shown that gestures – unconscious or otherwise may have
meanings that are not obvious to either the person themselves or those interacting with them.
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Task! What are the possible hidden meanings of the following gestures?
1. crossed arms
2. mirroring posture (two people in identical, mirrored postures)
3. rubbing neck
4. touching mouth
5. palms up
6. legs crossed away (from the person with whom you are interacting)
Answers:
1. crossed arms - possible disagreement or defensiveness
2. mirroring posture – congruence, strong empathy and agreement
3. rubbing neck – ‘hot under the collar’, nervous and potentially lying
4. touching mouth – during a conversation this may indicate that this person is keen to speak
5. palms up – ‘nothing to hide’ symbol of honesty
6. legs crossed away – preference to move away from this interaction
Gaze
Gaze and eye contact are strong indicators of intention and attitude. It is often said that the ‘eyes don’t
or can’t lie’!
The use of gaze enables us to gain information and to give information. However, it varies by culture
and it is important not to stare in cultures where this could be misread as a sign of aggression.
Gaze also denotes power & superiority. A senior person may fix a subordinate in the eye as a way of
coercing or admonishing him or her.
Gaze direction changes mark points of change in behaviour in a useful way.
Task! Engage in a conversation with two friends and watch how their gaze direction
changes when they are speaking and not speaking.
It is normal for us to look away from the other person soon after we begin an utterance, and then back
to the listener at the end. Where do we look and what does it mean? If we are looking up and to the
right while speaking this is often associated with an honest recounting of an event or opinion.
However, if our gaze shifts down while speaking this may mean we are uncomfortable with our own
view – its truth or acceptability.
Gaze links strongly to proxemics or the study of special relationships. If we are physically close to
someone in a situation we are unhappy with then we will deliberately avoid eye contact. An example
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would be when passengers are crammed close together on a crowded train. This phenomenon is
known as maintaining an ‘intimacy equilibrium’.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage is the name given to those aspects of our verbal utterances that run in parallel to the
meaning of the words we might use. Some of these are covered in the chapter on presentation skills.
During a presentation we need to manage our voice carefully to achieve a style that fits in with our
communication objectives.
The aspects to consider are:
•
qualities - pitch, range, rate, rhythm
•
characterisers - laughing, crying
•
qualifiers - momentary changes in our voice
•
segregates – meaningless phrases that punctuate the utterance, e.g. ‘y’know’
Environment
In any advanced society, a lot of meaning is communicated by the environment which people create
for themselves:
Buildings
The head office of a large corporation in the middle of prime real estate, with its enormous atrium is
an example of deliberately wasting space to make a statement about the wealth and power of the
company.
Rooms
The more senior a person is the larger their office space, desk and chair will be. They are not
physically bigger but are given more credibility and status by these elements.
Seating
Frequently the senior manager will have two seating areas in their office – one cantered on their desk,
the other a more relaxed meeting area. This may even feature a sofa or other soft furnishings. Whether
your interview with this manager takes place at the desk or in the other area will say a lot about how
they view you and the nature of the topic to be discussed.
Task! Which subjects would be discussed at the desk – and which in the informal
area? Draw on your experience!
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Artefacts & objects
The choice of items you have around you will also say a lot about your values, status, self image and
concerns. Any good salesperson will become a student of these minor items to develop a feel for the
individual who they are trying to persuade.
Consider this extract from Communication in organisations (Dalmar Fisher, West Publishing):
The objects in an office often convey clear signals about the occupant’s status… In a facetious yet
revealing article, Boston Globe columnist Susan Trausch listed the objects that can help one to
‘become powerful’ in an organisation. First, she wrote, a chair with arms is important. It allows you
to ‘rest elbows on chair arms, clasp hands together, put chin on hands, and say “hmmm”. Next a
spare chair or couch is a must, since it suggests you are important enough to have visitors. This is so
necessary that if you have room for nothing else, a folding chair, folded, will do. A work table next to
your desk is only slightly less essential. It connotes that you have so many important papers one desk
will not hold them all. Some sort of shelving helps to give your space “intellectual depth” and finally,
you should consider investing in a grandfather clock, since “people lower their voices around a
grandfather clock”.
Time
Chronemics is the name given to the study of time issues relating to communication. The more senior
the person the greater freedom they will have to make demands on a subordinates time without
‘making an appointment’. The impression given, consciously or unconsciously, is that the senior
person’s time is much more valuable than that of their subordinate.
Time of day will change the importance or meaning of a message. Different cultural norms must be
allowed for. The USA, Japan, UK and Germany place a great emphasis on punctuality. However,
Spain, Italy, Ireland, Greece, India and Pakistan are known to take a more relaxed view of the subject.
The important issue is to adjust your approach to the culture in which you are trying to operate.
Territory & space
Proxemics is the name given to the study of the study of the informal space between us
Edward T Hall identifies these principles:
•
more senior you are the more (& better) space you have
•
more senior you are the more protection you have
•
more senior you are the more right you have to invade the space of others
The Business Class passenger values their extra space and isolation from fellow passengers. Privacy
is more important than the need for physical space.
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What effect does colour have?
Studies have been done on the psychological effects of colour in communication terms. The following
general effects of colour have been agreed upon in the Western world. However, these are not
absolutes or even consistent – other cultures will have different views on at least some of these
colours.
•
Red
Hot, angry, hostile, vital, exciting
•
Blue
Cool, leisurely, distant, secure, calm
•
Yellow
Unpleasant, cheerful, jovial
•
Orange
Disturbed, defiant, stimulating
•
Purple
Depressed, sad, dignified, stately
•
Green
Cool, pleasant, leisurely, in control
•
Black
Sad, intense, fear, dejected, unhappy
•
Brown
Sad, despondent, neutral
•
White
Joy, lightness, neutral, cold
Transaction Analysis
Eric Berne has developed a very interesting model of interpersonal behaviour that is based on the idea
that we have three different states: parent, adult or child.
(Sources: Games People Play, Eric Berne, Grove Press 1964 and I’m OK – You’re OK, Thomas A
Harris, Harper & Row, 1969)
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Transaction analysis
Eric Berne
Parent
Controlling
Standard setting
Nurturing
Adult
Information
processing
Child
Natural
Little Professor
Adapted
The three different states apply to all of us and are not to confused with age or stage in life.
Parent is about a controlling and caring behaviour, while adult is all about cool rationality. The child
represents our tendency to emotional reaction and our ability to manipulate emotional responses in
others.
Look at these examples of the way that interactions take place:
Complementary transaction
Manager
Parent
Adult
Child
Subordinate
Parent
Adult
Child
Q When will the monthly report be ready?
A 10am on Monday
In this example, both parties are simply seeking and receiving factual information.
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Complementary transaction
Manager
Parent
Adult
Child
Subordinate
Parent
Adult
Child
Q You should have finished the monthly report by now
A I’m very sorry
-I’ll get it to you by the end of the
day
In this case the manager is acting as parent – setting standards. The subordinate recognises the need to
adapt and respond respectfully.
Crossed transaction
Manager
Parent
Adult
Child
Subordinate
Parent
Adult
Child
Q When will the monthly report be ready?
A Nag nag nag
-leave me alone to get on with it
This is an interesting example of a crossed transaction. The manager is seeking information as an adult
– not setting standards as a parent. However, that’s not the way the subordinate sees it. The reaction to
what is perceived as an adult to child admonishment is a ‘childish’ emotional reaction.
Crossed (parallel) transaction
Manager
Parent
Adult
Child
Subordinate
Parent
Adult
Child
Q No-one works as hard as they used to
A Oh I don’t know, may of the staff were still
here at 7 last night
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You may recognise the first statement as parent to parent – sharing a nostalgic and judgmental
perception of standards. However the subordinate chooses to take a factual view of the situation and
shares their view without overtly criticising the manager.
Ulterior transaction
Manager
Parent
Adult
Child
Subordinate
Parent
Adult
Child
Q Here’s my report
-it took me all weekend
A Alright
This is an example of the apparent transaction being at odds with the actual one. At first sight, the
conversation appears to be adult to adult information sharing. In reality the first speaker (subordinate)
is giving information but also seeking approval. The manager appears to be simply acknowledging
receipt but their refusal to comment more favourably would suggest that there is an element of
admonishment for not having got the report done earlier.
Task! Think back to a recent difficult exchange you may have had with a colleague.
Analyse how the discussion changed using transaction analysis.
The importance of feedback
The Johari window is an interesting insight into how we perceive ourselves and others.
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The Johari window
JosephLuftand HarryIngham
less
Exposure more
more
Feedback
less
Arena
Blind
spot
Known
by others
Facade
Unknown
Unknown
by others
Known by self
Unknown by self
From this diagram we see that there is an interesting tension between:
Arena
This refers to those items about ourselves which we know about, are willing to expose to others and
get feedback on. Examples could include skills such as those relating to foreign languages.
Façade
This refers to those features which we know about ourselves but we choose not to reveal to others.
Examples here would be a weakness about which we are embarrassed, such as an inability to dance.
Blind Spot
This is sometimes called the ‘bad breath syndrome’. Others know about this feature but we are
unaware of it. Sadly we get no feedback and remain ignorant of an interpersonal weakness that
actually holds back out relationships with others.
Unknown
This covers items that we may not be aware of and which others are not aware of either.
The point about willing to expose ourselves and to gain feedback is to move as much as possible into
the ‘healthy’ arena area.
Task! Think about the relationships you have with your closest friends. Are there any
areas in the ‘blind spot’ or ‘façade’ on which you have resisted feedback or benefited
from it – however painful it may be?
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Conclusions
The key learning point from the theories and issues covered in this chapter is that you cannot ‘not’
communicate.
Every word we say, the way we say it, the clothes we wear, our timekeeping, our posture and
gestures… all contribute to the way others understand us. Become a student of both your behaviour
and that of others to become a better communicator.
Review
In this chapter we have reviewed the some important theory explaining the nature of interpersonal
communication.
We began by defining communication and the different between information and data. A number of
communication models were described and assessed along with their implications for understanding.
We then consider non verbal aspects of communication – what it does and its characteristics. This
includes such issues as kinesics, gesture, gaze and paralanguage.
We finish by looking at transaction analysis and importance of feedback.
Bibliography
Writing and Speaking at Work, Bailey, E. (1999) Prentice Hall, Paramun, NJ
Business Communications, Nickson, D. and Siddons, S. (1996) Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford
Business Communications – A cultural and strategic approach. Rouse MJ and Rouse S, Thomson
Learning (2002)
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