Spousal Adjustment Problems
The Most Common Cause of
Expatriate Failure
Student Name:
Katharina Wagner
Student Number:
Course:
MA Intercultural Communication
Module:
Area Studies, LNG001-6
Lecturer:
Tricia Smart
Date:
05.06.2012
Table of Contents
Page
Executive Summary
3
1. Introduction
3
2. Problems of Single-Career Couples
3
2.1 Lack of Discussion of the Assignment Beforehand
3
2.2 Lack of Training
4
2.3 Lack of Support by the Partner / Isolation
4
2.4 Lack of Cultural Knowledge and Language Skills
6
2.5 Loneliness and Meaninglessness
7
3. Problems of Dual-Career Couples
7
3.1 Unemployment Abroad
7
3.2 Lack of Career Assistance
3.3 Identity Issues
8
4. Problems of Male Spouses
9
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
10
6. References
11
2
Executive Summary
This term paper summarises the most common issues that spouse face when they accompany their expatriate partner abroad. It is written for a human resource manager who wants
to prepare for his new position as an international human resource manager. The following
issues are addressed: the problems of single-career couples such as loneliness of the
spouse abroad, problems of dual-career couples for instance unemployment issues overseas
and adaptation problems of the male spouse. The paper concludes that companies still do
not consider such issues sufficiently and it suggests some possible solutions such as intercultural training for the spouse.
1. Introduction
The present term paper is the second part of a previous term paper that described the most
common issues causing expatriate failure. According to various research studies, the most
often identified reason why assignments abroad fail is the problems that spouses experience
when living there (GMAC, NFTC and SHRM, 2004). Both papers are written for a human
resource manager who accepted a position in an international human resources department
and who wants to prepare for this task. Since the manager will interact with future expatriates
whose partners will have a different status of employment, this paper provides an overview of
the problems of single-career couples, dual-career couples and it also addressed the adaptation issue of male spouses very briefly. In regard to single-career couples, the following issues are explained: the lack of discussion of the assignment beforehand, the lack of training
and support by the partner (isolation), the lack of cultural knowledge and language skills as
well as feeling lonely and meaningless.
2. Problems of Single-Career Couples
2.1 Lack of Discussion of the Assignment Beforehand
Companies send employees abroad for different reasons such as the management of subsidiaries or strategic alliances. In contrast to that, a wife mainly moves abroad because of her
husbands' assignment. In the following, spouses are mainly referred to as wives since most
spouses are still female and married (GMAC, NFTC and SHRM, 2004, p.16). According to
Adler (2008), many couples do not think about a possible global assignment abroad until the
offer is made which might surprise or shock wives initially.
Adler (2008) also mentions that the employee and the company generally think that the wife
has a say in the decision about accepting the global assignment. In fact, she rarely plays a
role in this decision and is rarely included in the interview (Dowling and Welch, 2005; cited in
3
Andreason, 2008, p.391). Indeed, according to Campbell's study (AMJ Campbell International, 2008, p.8), about three quarters of the companies did not communicate directly with
family members before the move abroad and only 30,5 % communicated directly with them
after the move.
The company usually has already invested a lot of money in the employee when the offer is
made which creates a subtle pressure not to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
moving to another country. On the one hand, the employee does not want to disappoint the
organisation by not accepting the offer, and on the other hand, the wife feels the same way in
regard to her husband. Furthermore, the employee might be afraid that not accepting could
interfere with his career and his wife does not want to disagree. All in all, those concerns can
lead to not discussing important topics before departure, though an open communication
about those pressures and one's fears in regard to living in a foreign country would be advisable (Adler, 2008). If couples feel pressure to agree to an assignment, negative outcomes for
instance spousal depression or issues with the children's behaviour are more probable (The
Interchange Institute, 2008, cited in SHRM, 2010, p.7).
2.2 Lack of Training
When people become expatriates and move abroad, they do not only have to move physically, they also have to adapt to the host culture and create a life that is meaningful. In general, companies focus their support on helping with the logistics of moving to a new place,
e.g. real estate assistance, work permits, setting up a bank account, etc. (AMJ Campbell
International, 2008; McNulty, 2007). During the last years, other types of support where also
included, such as language or cultural awareness training (Adler, 2008) which prepares the
spouses for possible issues such as feeling lost or not being in control and it can help them
to find solutions for that (Butler, 2011). Though, companies still do not provide sufficient training for spouses; according to Campbell (AMJ Campbell International 2008, p.8) only about
26 % of the spouses were offered any kind of training (see Linehan 2002; Takeuchi et al.
2002b; Konopaske et al. 2005; McCaughey and Bruning 2005; all cited in Cole, 2011,
p.1507).
2.3 Lack of Support by the Partner / Isolation
In general, spouses have closer contact with the local culture and the 'foreignness' than her
partner, since he interacts with people from a very international stratum of society who are
more cosmopolitan, can speak English and had have contact to foreigners previously. He
might as well have colleagues or a secretary to help him with translating and understanding
local customs. Whereas, his wife is in contact with people, who are less international i.e. they
rarely speak English or have met foreigners before, while providing for the daily needs of her
4
family. She also has to depend on herself when being confronted with unknown customs.
Global managers are often surrounded by other expatriates who provide them with useful
knowledge and who might have the same frustrations. In contrast to that, wives stay at home
where they are isolated (Adler, 2008; Brown, 2008; Andreason, 2008).
At the initial stage of the global assignment, the expatriate manager has to work long days,
since it is a new job, and those assignments often require travelling a lot (Shaffer and Harrison 2001; Kupka and Cathro 2007; all cited in Cole, 2011, p.1508). His absence contributes
to his wife's problems to adapting to the new culture. When he gets more and more involved
in his work, his wife feels more excluded by the separation and the little support, she receives (Adler, 2008).
Figure 1: Availability Gap: Need versus Availability (Adler, 2008, p.327)
This gap of availability is particularly striking at the beginning of the assignment, when the
husband is less available and the wife needs him more for tasks regarding the move abroad
and for moral support (see Fig. 1). Adler (2008, p.327) mentions that '[t]he pattern of absent
husbands and isolated wives […] reinforces itself in a vicious cycle.' When more problems
occur at home, many expatriate managers try to spend less time there. They tend to work
and travel even more than is really required. When the husband realises that this situation is
primarily caused by his assignment, he feels guilty and further avoids being at home (ibid.;
see Brown, 2008). Not having enough time with their husbands has been identified as the
main cause of stress for their partners which results in not feeling supported or valued. This
underlines the husband's influence on his wife's stress level because he is her main source
of recognition (Brown, 2008).
5
2.4 Lack of Cultural Knowledge and Language Skills
Spouses often do not feel sufficiently prepared for living abroad since they lack knowledge
about the country, its culture and the specific region where they will live. It is common that
their expectations differ substantially from reality which causes feelings of excitement and
surprise, but also of fear and confusion upon arrival. For instance, the family might live in a
luxurious apartment with several bathrooms in a developing country, but the water supply is
insufficient (Adler, 2008).
Those reactions are part of the culture shock i.e. the adjustment process to a new culture
which comprises different psychological and emotional reactions (Andreason, 2008). Expatriates often cannot make sense of others' behaviour and do not achieve the expected results
at work. Due to being in more contact with the local culture, wives often suffer from disorientation. Particularly difficult are the first months in a new country and the surprise in the beginning is followed by frustration about not being able to handle easy things and concerns about
security and health (Cole, 2011; Brown, 2008). Little problems, like an inconsistent electric
power supply or a phone that only sometimes works, constantly contribute to the level of
frustration (Adler, 2008). Most of the difficulties are caused because the wife has not learned
yet how to handle problems in the new environment; those problems are intensified by the
lack of language command, being bored and alone and, therefore, feeling insignificant (Adler,
2008). This emphasises the importance of intercultural communication skills as an option to
reduce stress (Brown, 2008).
Wives usually have a more immediate need to learn the foreign language than their employed husbands. According to a recent survey, about 60 % of the participating companies
provided language courses for the spouse (GMAC, NFTC and SHRM, 2004, p.11). The other
40 % expect the spouse to get the language training herself and they often do not finance the
course. This results in the spouse not becoming fluent in the respective language and consequently, she feels embarrassed to use her insufficient language skills and becomes more
isolated. In the end, she does not feel entirely comfortable in the other culture. In contrast to
that, the husband usually learns the language in the office and the children learn it at school
which can also contribute to the spouse's frustration (Adler, 2008, SHRM, 2010). Spouses
who experience their stay abroad in a positive way, generally have acquired a basic command of the host country's language, those, who do not attempt to learn it, usually report
negative experiences (Andreason, 2008).
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2.5 Loneliness and Meaninglessness
At the beginning of living abroad, wives feel lonely because of the lack of close friends which
contributes to their initial difficulties (Brown, 2008). Since their friends and family are still at
home, spouses experience an inner emptiness. This feeling is magnified by, for instance,
being alone more often, not being able to communicate properly in the foreign language or
not being able to talk to one's husband since he does not have the same problems (Adler,
2008). Though, spouses with preschool-age children adjust more easily because of their
children's dependency on them which helps to keep this aspect of their social identity (Andreason, 2008).
Another problem is that the spouses often have much more time at their disposal than in their
home country, because servants are doing the housework. The spouses no longer fulfil their
previous role and duties for their husbands and children. This causes a feeling not being
needed and of being meaningless and '[t]hey describe themselves as living in a gilded cage'
(Adler, 2008, p.325). Furthermore, many wives are not allowed to work or to pursue their
careers because they cannot get a work permit or due to legal restrictions.
After the adjustment period in the beginning, the wife goes through a phase during which she
tries to find meaningful activities which give her live a certain routine and continuity. At this
stage, she must find out what she would like to do and how she can achieve this in her host
country. Adler (2008, p.327) refers to this as 'the search for a meaningful portable life'.
Though, the phase of the creation of a meaningful portable life is neglected in most cases.
Usually, only learning the language, adjustment and culture shock are considered. Though,
adjusting to the new culture is only one part of creating a fulfilling life, it refers to being able to
cope with the new situation successfully without being constantly frustrated. What is more,
the spouse has to give meaning to her life abroad which gives her direction and also motivation. Some women do volunteer work, found their own company or study the host culture
(ibid.). Others work for expatriate organisations to reprise their self-concept and provide them
with self-affirmation through others (Andreason, 2008).
3. Problems of Dual-Career Couples
3.1 Unemployment Abroad
Researchers found out that the number of couples in which both partners have their own
career, i.e. dual-career couples, increased since the 1990s (GMAC, NFTC and SHRM Global
Forum, 2004). Previously, companies mainly selected men for global assignments with wives
who did not have a career of their own or a job that they would give up willingly for their husbands. This has changed; today, both men and women work as expatriates with spouses
7
who have their own career (Frazee, 1999; Jordan, 2001; all cited in Adler, 2008, p.330). Recent studies indicate that the percentage of female expatriate managers rose to 20 % (Cartus
2007; Smerd 2007; GMAC 2008; all cited in Cole, 2011, p.1506). An earlier study from 20032004 indicates that 5 % of the female and 55 % of the male expatriates were married
(GMAC, NFTC and SHRM, 2004, p.16).
Some spouses have to leave their job or restructure their career to accompany their partner
(Butler, 2011). About half of the spouses are working in their home country and less than a
fifth is employed in the host country (GMAC, NFTC and SHRM Global Forum, 2004, p.17).
The reasons for the low employment rate abroad might be that the visa is restricted, the foreign qualifications are not recognised or that employers prefer locals (Cole, 2011). But
thanks to a new law in the EU, relatives of non-EU skilled workers are also allowed to work in
the EU since the beginning of 2012 (Iacolino, 2012).
3.2 Lack of Career Assistance
In regard to dual-career couples, new considerations arise under which conditions an assignment abroad should be accepted. Issues in regard to dual-career issues are a common
reason for refusing an international assignment because the spouse’s career is disrupted
and the income of the spouse is lost (ORC Worldwide, 2005; cited in Cole, 2011, p.1506).
The couple might accept it if the company finds a position for the spouse in the target region,
offers job hunting assistance or intra-company employment. Sometimes the spouse agrees
to take a sabbatical, etc. Some companies offer alternative arrangements, for instance business travel, commuter or short-term assignments. There are many options available which a
company has to consider when offering an assignment (Adler, 2008, Andreason, 2008, Konopaske, Robie and Ivancevich, 2005). But despite the positive effects of employment assistance, employers offer little help in this regard (Cole, 2008). In Cole's study (2008), only 18 %
of spouses received career assistance which was rated with mediocre effectiveness and it
turned out that spouses primarily need networking information for job hunting (Cole, 2011).
3.3 Identity Issues
An employment disruption negatively influences the spouse's adjustment in terms of the interaction with locals and it can lead to identity issues (Harvey, 1995, Caligiuri et al., 1998; all
cited in Cole, 2011, p.1508; Harvey, 1996; Andreason, 2008; Cole, 2008). That means they
can lose a significant part of their social identity since this part is derived from a membership
to a specific group i.e. their profession or a company (Tajfel, 1982; cited in Cole, 2011,
p.1508). The loss of this role might result in a lower self-esteem and psychological withdrawal (Schlenker and Gutek, 1987; cited in Cole, 2011, p.1509). In this respect, spouses
who have a career orientation are more prone to identity loss if their employment is inter8
rupted than spouses who mainly work to enhance the family's income i.e. their work is not an
important part of their identity (Cole, 2011). Female career-oriented spouses have a better
interactional and cultural adjustment than males (Cole, 2008). Identity issues are particularly
significant if spouses are in the growth/establishment phase of the career when they have to
prove themselves, or in the maintenance stage when they are in a high position or lead their
own company. An international assignment can be integrated easier at the beginning of one's
career as an opportunity for education or at the end of a career in form of an early retirement
or a sabbatical (Cole, 2011).
4. Problems of Male Spouses
'The number of female expatriates with male accompanying spouses has slowly been increasing' (Mercer Human Resource Consulting 2006; GMAC 2008; cited in Cole, 2011,
p.1506) since it became necessary for companies to expand their pool of candidates beyond
the traditionally male group (Caligiuri and Tung 1999; Taylor, Napier and Mayrhofer 2002, all
cited in Cole, 2011, p.1506-1507). Female managers have equal success abroad and show
higher levels of adjusting and interacting than their male counterparts (ibid.).
The continuing rise in female expatriate numbers goes along with increasing numbers in
male spouses. Though, the research of male spouses' problems is limited heretofore, studies
indicate that male trailing spouses without a meaningful work often have problems to adapt
because the local culture might not accept a life-style in which the man stays at home (Jordan, 2001; cited in Adler, 2008, p.333, Cole, 2011). In this case, it is difficult to find social
support and many communities denigrate and exclude those men (Adler, 2008) since '[s]ocial
role theory posits that socio-cultural norms regarding gender roles view men as primary
breadwinners (Eagly 1987; Brett, Stroh and Reilly 1992; Haas 1995; all cited in Cole, 2011,
p.1509). When the male partner steps into the role of a househusband in which he becomes
dependent on his wife in financial terms, he might have difficulties to adapt psychologically
because of this social role change which, in turn, affects his adjustment abroad negatively
(ibid.).
In contrast to that, sociocultural norms are broader for women i.e. they accept the role as a
housewife and as an employee. Therefore, they might be less negatively affected by a
change in their gender role when their employment is interrupted (Haas, 1995, cited in ibid.,
p.1509) and experience less adjustment problems.
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5. Conclusion and Recommendations
To sum up, this term paper has identifies the most important issues that are face by spouses
abroad. It turned out that problems appear more frequently in the beginning and spouses are
often overstrained with their new living situation especially if they have to handle most issues
in their new home alone since the expatriate manager spends a lot of time at work.
In regard to dual-career couples, the most common problem is that they have difficulties to
find an employment abroad if this fails they can suffer from identity issues. Concerning male
spouses, it is often not accepted that the man follows his wife abroad and might stay at the
new home which can isolate him from the foreign society.
International human resources manager should integrate the following suggestion to solve
those problems:
•
Include the spouse in the partner's job interview
•
Provide intercultural training and language courses for the spouse
•
Provide information about the new country's culture and about expat spouses' associations for the spouse
•
Offer career counselling for the spouse and provide contact person abroad
•
Particularly support male spouse with job offers
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6. References
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Thomson Learning
AMJ Campbell International (2008) Family Matters! Report on the Key Findings of the ExpatExpert.com/
AMJ
Campbell
International
Relocation
Survey.
Available
at:
http://www.expatexpert.com/pdf/Report_on_Key_Findings_of_Family_Matters_Survey.pdf
(Accessed: 06 May 2012)
Andreason, A.W. (2008) 'Expatriate Adjustment of Spouses and Expatriate Managers: An
Integrative Research Review', International Journal of Management, 25(2), pp.382-395.
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Brown, R.J. (2008) 'Dominant Stressors on Expatriate Couples During International Assignments', The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(6), pp.1018–1034.
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escapefromamerica.com/2011/11/challenges-faced-by-expat-women-2/
(Accessed:
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March 2012)
Cole, N.D. (2008) Managing Global Talent: What Do Expatriate Spouses Need? Report to
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Cole, N.D. (2011) 'Managing Global Talent: Solving The Spousal Adjustment Problem', International Journal of Human Resources Management, 22(7), pp.1504-1530. EBSCOhost
[Online] Available at: http://0-search.ebscohost.com.brum.beds.ac.uk (Accessed: 20 April
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Global Relocation Services (GMAC), National Foreign Trade Council, Inc. (NFTC) and
SHRM Global Forum (2004) Global Relocation Trends 2003-2004 Survey Report. Available
at:
http://www.shrm.org/Research/SurveyFindings/Documents/Global%20Relocation%
20Trends%20-%20A%20Study%20by%20SHRM%20GMAC%20and%20NFTC.pdf
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(Ac-
Harvey, M. (1996) 'Addressing the Dual-Career Expatriation Dilemma', Human Resource
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brum.beds.ac.uk (Accessed: 05 May 2012)
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March 2012)
Konopaske, R., Robie, C. and Ivancevich, J.M. (2005) 'A Preliminary Model of Spouse Influence on Managerial Global Assignment Willingness', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(3), pp.405-426. EBSCOhost [Online] Available at: http://0search.ebscohost.com. brum.beds.ac.uk (Accessed: 05 May 2012)
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~smcnulty/docs/2005%20Trailing%20Spouse%20Survey.pdf (Accessed at: 06 May 2012)
Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) (2010) Global Talent for Competitive
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%20research_ quarterly_q3_fnl.pdf (Accessed at 06 May 2012)
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