PROOF
Contents
List of Figures and Tables
xi
Acknowledgements
xii
1 Introduction
1
The philosophy behind the book
1
What are culture and identity?
1
The importance and origins of culture and identity
2
Using the skills of sociology
2
Exam focus
2
Study guidance
3
Using concept maps
3
The content of the book
5
2 Key Issues in the Study of Culture and Identity
6
Introduction
6
What is culture?
6
What is identity?
7
Attempts to define culture
9
Non-sociological uses of the concept of culture
13
Socialization, norms and values
18
Evaluating the concept of culture: three problems
23
Understanding the concept of identity: do not lose sight of the individual
25
Conclusion
28
3 Classical Views on Culture and Identity
30
Introduction
30
Introducing two classical views on culture
32
View one: culture as order – functionalism
35
vii
PROOF
viii
Contents
View two: culture as ideological control – Marxism
42
Conclusion
53
4 The Development of ‘Action’ Sociology and Interactionists
54
Introduction
54
The role of meanings and motives in society
56
Georg Simmel
59
Contemporary forms of action sociology
64
Conclusion
70
5 Socialization, Self-Identity and the Life Course
Introduction
72
72
Socialization
72
Self-identity and the map of one’s life
74
The life course
76
Age and ageing
79
Returning to the relationship between the individual and society
79
Conclusion
81
6 How Much Agency Do Individuals Have in Culture?
83
Introduction
83
Thinking using culture: the creative self
85
Clarifying what is meant by ‘agency’
91
Reflexivity
92
Conclusion
92
7 Modern and Postmodern Culture and Identity
94
Introduction
94
What is modernity?
95
What is postmodernity?
98
Postmodern identities
102
Evaluation of postmodernism
105
Theories of risk
106
Conclusion
110
8 Mass Culture and Popular Culture
112
Introduction
112
Basic definitions
114
The ‘mass society thesis’
115
Who exactly are the masses?
118
PROOF
Contents
ix
Postmodernity and popular culture
122
Technological developments and their impact on culture
123
Conclusion
124
9 Youth Culture and Subculture
126
Introduction
126
The historical development of subcultural study
128
Subcultural solutions to the problems of society
130
Gramsci, the CCCS and hegemony
134
The CCCS and semiology
135
The historical rise of youth culture
138
Is there a postmodern youth culture?
142
Gender and youth culture
145
Rethinking subculture
145
Conclusion
146
10 Semiology, Structuralism and Poststructuralism
148
Introduction
148
Semiology and structuralism
149
Applying the semiological method
152
Structuralism and anthropology: Claude Lévi-Strauss
154
Structuralism and Marxism: Louis Althusser
156
Structural feminism
157
Postmodernism and signs
159
Poststructuralism
161
Conclusion
165
11 Class and Consumption
167
Introduction
167
A theoretical review of class identity
168
The historical treatment of class culture and identity
171
From production to consumption
175
Recent analysis of class culture and identity
181
Conclusion
184
12 Sex and Gender: Femininity and Masculinity
186
Introduction
186
Feminist theory and research into femininity
188
Gender socialization
193
PROOF
x
Contents
Postmodern theory and gender
198
Masculinity
200
Sexuality
204
The ‘knowing construction of identity’
208
Conclusion
209
13 Ethnicity and Identity
211
Introduction
211
Defining ‘ethnicity’
212
Ethnicity, inequality and power
219
Diaspora, hybridity, multiculturalism and globalization
221
Ethnic identity and choice
224
Conclusion
225
14 Community, Nation and Globalization
228
Introduction
228
Modernity and the decline of community
229
National identity
234
The importance of time and space
237
Understanding globalization
239
Conclusion
242
Appendix: Exam Guidance and Strategies for Essay Writing
244
Bibliography
247
Author Index
260
Subject Index
262
PROOF
Chapter 1
Introduction
THE PHILOSOPHY BEHIND THE BOOK
The aims of this book are twofold: to give you a good understanding of the study of culture
and identity within sociology, but in particular to involve you in your own learning and
develop your skills as a sociologist. There are activities and exercises throughout to help
you develop sociological skills and apply them to this topic area. The world of sociology is
a rapidly-changing and ever-expanding one. Each month, new trends are established, old
traditions are continued, and recent fads and fashions are replaced by newer ones. Each
month, new research is completed, and new articles, journals and books are published.
There is a wealth and rich variety of sociological information ‘out there’ for the interested consumer. Sociology is a subject enlivened by the ‘now’. With your development of
sociological skills comes the pleasure and challenge of applying them to current events, of
looking at the world around you in a different way.
Given that the use of theory is at the heart of what sociology does, a key feature of this
book is its emphasis on the newer sociological theories, which are given an equal footing
with more traditional ideas and concepts. There is an overview of classical theories, but
the book does not attempt to cover them in great depth: this has been capably covered
by many other texts. This book focuses on recent theoretical developments, comparing
them with classical theory and focusing on critical issues and awareness of current debate.
Given its current popularity and issues in society today, this is especially important in the
case of ‘culture and identity’.
WHAT ARE CULTURE AND IDENTITY?
By culture, sociologists generally mean ‘the way of life of a group’, and by identity they
usually mean ‘knowing who you are’, though, as Chapter 2 will illustrate, there is much
controversy over the precise definition of these key concepts. The study of culture and
identity therefore involves debates on a wide range of important issues:
The relationship of the individual to the wider group.
The degree of freedom individuals have in their day-to-day life.
The type and degree of self-consciousness individuals have in respect of the way they
behave.
The amount of control that the wider social framework into which individuals are
born has over their lives.
1
PROOF
2
Culture and Identity
THE IMPORTANCE AND ORIGINS OF CULTURE AND IDENTITY
The adoption of the topic of ‘culture and identity’ is a major theoretical and empirical
development in contemporary sociology. One of the aims of this book is to demonstrate
that sociology has, since its beginning and the work of its founders, been concerned with
the relationship between the individual and society, the role of culture in social life, and
how identity develops in a social context.
The study of culture and identity is not just within the domain of sociology, however:
this book will also refer to psychology, biology, anthropology and the broader areas of
cultural and media studies where these are relevant. Culture and identity are central issues
for a number of academic disciplines.
However, as well as acknowledging the traditional roots of culture and identity in
older theories, it is also important to pay attention to newer ideas. Hence this book
will not consider only the ideas of Durkheim, Marx and Weber, but will also look at
the theories that developed after their time (the interactionist schools, neo-Marxism, the
various branches of feminism and the Frankfurt School), relating these older ideas to poststructuralism, postmodernism, the new right, structurational sociology, and the idea of
reflexive modernity and the risk society, among other recent developments.
USING THE SKILLS OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is not just about having knowledge of, understanding and remembering ideas
and concepts – though memory is, of course, an important aspect of revising for examinations. In order to be successful at sociology you have to be able to analyse debates and
arguments, apply sociological and non-sociological ideas in appropriate ways, to interpret questions correctly and to develop the skill of evaluation – to be able to discuss both
the strengths and weaknesses of the ideas contained within the sociological ‘world view’
after discussing the evidence and the claims made by the proponents of various theoretical
positions. It involves a particular way of thinking about the world around you.
To help you develop these skills, practical exercises are provided in each chapter of this
book. Each exercise is accompanied by symbols denoting the particular skill, or skills, it
aims to help you develop:
K
Knowledge U
Understanding I
Interpretation A
Application An
Analysis E
Evaluation Chapters conclude with a list of important concepts, an exam focus section and critical
thinking questions.
EXAM FOCUS
The exam focus sections give you a range of sample essay questions. These provide you
with an opportunity to apply your knowledge and understanding, and to develop your
PROOF
Introduction
3
skills when responding to essay questions. See the exam guidance section in the Appendix
of this book for further guidance on planning and writing essays.
STUDY GUIDANCE
As well as completing the exercises throughout the text, here are some suggestions to aid
your use of the text and develop your sociological understanding:
Compile a glossary of important terms and concepts to refer back to.
Approach the text critically. Ask questions throughout. Discuss the issues raised with
friends and colleagues.
Note down research and theorists you would like to consider in more detail and then
seek out the original texts.
Reflect on your own experiences. Reflexive consideration will develop your skills as a
sociologist.
Be an active learner. Take a critical thinking question and ponder it as you go out for
a walk, or talk to friends about it.
When making notes, be creative. Compile summary tables, lists of key points, chapter
summaries. Try using different coloured pens to highlight different skills. When evaluating, use red for weaknesses and green for strengths, use a different colour for
research studies.
Creating forms of spider diagrams for different topics gives you the opportunity to
make links between different concepts, theories and ideas. Look at the visual ‘concept map’ for the class and consumption topic Figure 1.1 as a starting point and the
guidance below on how to use them.
Try to put research and theories in their social and historical context. Keep in mind
when they were published and where research is conducted. For example, identity and
culture in the twenty-first century has been influenced by global terrorist activity, the
internet and instant global communications.
Always give yourself time to think. This will help you to mentally organize the
knowledge, and give it some structure, both of which will aid memory.
USING CONCEPT MAPS
The concept maps within the text aim to aid your understanding of key ideas within
the historical and theoretical frame in which they were conceived. In addition, we hope
they encourage you to make links between different theories and ideas. For example, the
concept map for class and consumption (see Figure 1.1 and Chapter 11) enables you to
make the links between, for example, the ideas of Marx on ‘false idols’ and postmodern
analysis of consumption. Visual representations can help you to gain a clear overview of
a topic and prompt you to summarize key ideas. Here are some suggestions for using
concept maps:
Copy and enlarge the maps and add summaries, dates, and make links between
theories and ideas.
Add strengths and weaknesses of theories and research in different colours.
PROOF
4
Culture and Identity
Paul Willis
Commodity fetishism
Marx
False idols
Marx
Focus on identity of
working classes
Identity culturally
reproduced
Class divisions are a
natural hierarchy
NEO-MARXIST
MARXIST
FUNCTIONALIST
Identities based on
production
FEMINIST
Class and
Consumption
NEW RIGHT
Zweig
Social mobility is
possible for all if one
works hard –
meritocracy
Fragmentation of
class identity
Identities based on
consumption and
life -style
‘Death’ of class?
Or changing
class identity?
Globalization
POST-MODERNISM
Identities more fluid
Class no longer
relevant to identity
Mike Savage et al.
The underclass
Women and gender
identity have been
ignored
Peter Saunders
‘Chav’ culture
Choice and freedom
of identity
Identity comes from
what we purchase
Different types of
consumers
New social movements not
based on class
Is what we purchase linked to
wealth and income and
therefore class?
Figure 1.1 Class and consumption concept map
Highlight central ideas.
Use them to help you plan essay responses.
Create a concept map for any idea or section of text you find challenging; the process
of creating one and reflecting on which areas are most significant will deepen your
understanding.
If you are learn best when being creative, add cartoons and images.
PROOF
Introduction
5
Chronological concept maps are useful to gain an overview of the developments of
theories and ideas over time (such as the impact of feminism on gender identity in
Chapter 12, or classical theory in Chapter 3).
Create your own concept maps for other sections of the text – the bigger, the better
(try using A1 size paper and sticking them on your wall when revising).
THE CONTENT OF THE BOOK
Chapter 2 introduces key issues in the study of culture and identity, plus the relevant
definitions and concepts.
Chapters 3–6 outline various key theoretical perspectives that sociologists draw on to
consider matters of culture and identity, including functionalism, Marxism, neo-Marxism,
interactionist sociologies, late modernism and postmodernism, poststructuralism,
feminisms and structurational sociology.
After this review of theory, Chapters 7–14 take these theories and apply them to related
topics and debates, including mass culture, youth culture, work and class, gender, sexuality
and the body, ethnicity, and nationality and globalization.
PROOF
Author Index
Abbott, P. and Wallace, C. 170, 188, 190
Adorno, T and Horkheimer, M. 47, 116, 170
Adorno, T. 116
Alexander, C. 220
Alexander, J. 41
Althusser, L. 156, 157
Anagnostou, Y. 214
Anderson, E. 202
Archer, L. 220
Archer, M. 22, 24, 92
Aspinall, P. 216, 218
Ballaster, R. 197
Barthes, R. 135, 151, 152, 153, 154
Baudrillard, J. 63, 101, 122, 123, 159, 160
Bauman, Z. 99, 103, 228, 232, 233, 242
Beck, U. 106, 107, 179
Becker, H. 130
Berger, P. and Luckman, T. 66
Blumer, H. 65
Bordo, S. 191
Bourdieu, P. 80, 92, 214
Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. 47
Brown, R. 225
Butler, J. 198
Cixous, H. 157, 158
Cohen, A. 27, 84, 233
Cohen, R. 223
Cohen, S. 130
Comte, A. 22, 30
Connell, R. 201, 202, 203
Cooley, C. 65
Côté, J. and Levine, C. 14, 16
Crenshaw, K. 159
Darwin, C. 13, 31, 43
Davidson, M 178
Derrida, J. 160, 161
du Gay, P. 141
260
Durkheim, E. 22, 30, 32, 34, 35, 37, 39, 43,
53, 54, 154, 230, 231, 232, 233
Elias, N. 17, 208, 235
Engels, F. 31, 42, 47, 193, 231
Eriksen, T. 213, 218, 224
Erikson, E. 15
Faludi, S. 197
Fausto-Sterling, A. 195
Featherstone, M. 99, 122, 179
Featherstone, M. and Hepworth, M. 179
Fiske, J. 132
Foucault, M. 162, 163, 164, 165, 207
Fox, K. 14
Frankenberg, R. 215
Freud, S. 14, 16, 22
Frosh, S. 203
Fukuyama, F. 174, 241
Garfinkel, H. 66
Garland, J. and Chakraborti, N. 226
Gauntlett, D. 208
Geaves, R. 221
Giddens, A. 19, 27, 84, 87, 88, 89, 92, 106,
179, 181, 206, 237, 238, 241
Giddens, A. and Diamond, P. 183
Gilmore, D. 201
Gilroy, P. 213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 221, 226
Giroux, H. 137
Goffman, E. 85, 86, 87, 238
Goldschmidt, W. 13
Gramsci, A. 134, 156
Grosfoguel, R. 216
Habermas, J. 89, 90, 92
Hakim, C. 197
Hall, S. 26, 5, 154, 216, 223, 226
Hartmann, H. 189, 190
Heath, A. 181, 183
Heatherington, K. 180
PROOF
Author Index
Hebdige, D. 135, 136, 153, 154
Hey, V. 199
Hochschild, A. 194
Hockey, J. 204
Hodkinson, P. 145
Hood-Williams, J. 195
hooks, b. 223
Horlheimer, M. 116
Hughey, M. 215
Irigaray, L.
158
Jenkins, R. 25, 74, 75, 236, 237
Jones, S. 21
King, A. 203
Kirby, M. 195
Kristeva, J. 158, 159
Lawler, S. 183
Lea, J. and Young, J. 172
Lévi-Strauss, C. 137, 154, 155, 156
Lyotard, J. 100
Mac an Ghaill, M. 201, 203
Marcia, J. 15
Marcuse, H. 17, 116
Martineau, H. 30, 187
Marx, K. 30, 31, 32, 34, 42, 43, 44, 47, 53,
54, 57
McCrone, D. 234, 235, 236
McDowell, L. 203
McRobbie, A. 144, 145, 146, 197, 200
Mead, G. 65
Mercer, K. 104, 219
Merton, R. 128, 129
Miller, W. 172
Mills, C. W. 9, 148
Modood, T. 215
Moore, A. 208
Moran, C. 198
Morgan, D. 77
Morris, D. 13
Muggleton, D. 146
Murray, C. 172, 200
Nicholson, L.
199
O’Hara, M. 195
Oakley, A. 188, 194
261
Park, R. 129, 211
Parsons, T. 35, 39, 40, 72, 193
Payne, G. and Grew, C. 182
Pedrozo, Z. 182
Peirce, C. S. 151
Pilkington, A. 223, 224, 235, 240
Postman, N. 139
Rahman, M. 208
Richardson, D. 202
Robins, K. 222
Ruspini, E. 208
Said, E. 221, 235
Sartre, J. 162
Saunders, P. 170
Saussure, F. 150, 151
Schutz, A. 65, 66
Segal, L. 205, 206
Seidler, V. 201
Seidman, S. 207
Simmel, G. 59, 60, 92, 230, 231
Skeggs, B. 183
Smith, J. 194
Smits, K. 224
Soja, E. 64
Spencer, H. 35, 36
Spencer, S. 224
Stuart, A. 197
Swingewood, A. 23, 117
Tajfel, H. 15
Tiger, L. and Fox, R. 13
Tönnies, F. 229, 231
Turner, B. 22
Twine, F. 215
Walby, S. 194
Weber, M. 30, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 70, 92,
96
Weeks, J. 216
Weinstein, D. 137
Whelehan, I. 198
Williams, R. 9
Willis, P. 47, 133, 171
Wirth, L. 231
Woodward, K. 26, 196
Zingsheim, J. 164
Zweig, C. 63, 173
PROOF
Subject Index
Action sociology 12, 54, 55, 92
Age 79, 218
Agency 19, 22, 83, 84, 91
Anomie 39, 62, 230
Anthropology 14
Asian identity 220
Assimilationist model 211, 224
Audience 120
Crisis of masculinity 203
‘Cult of celebrity’ 182
Cultural capital 173
Cultural homogenization 240, 242
Cultural reproduction 170
Culture 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
22, 23, 24, 32, 36, 40, 45, 46, 56, 114,
120, 128, 131, 199, 204, 212, 214
Biography 9
Biological determinism 199
Biological explanations of identity 13
Black feminism 190
Black identity 213, 214, 215, 225
Blogs 240, 241
Bourgeoisie 42
Bricolage 137, 144, 155, 156
Deconstruction 160, 161, 191
Deviant subculture 128
Dialectic 43, 44
Diaspora 221
Discourse 162, 163, 164
Division of labour 38, 230
Dominant ideology thesis 45
Dramaturgical analogy 85, 86, 87
Dual systems theory 190
‘Chav’ 182, 183, 184
Calvinism 58
Capitalism 189
Census 216
Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies
(CCCS) 132, 153
Chicago School 64, 65, 129, 211
Class 42, 167, 169
Class consciousness 44
Class identity 167–85, 220
Collective conscience see ‘conscience collective’
Commodification 48, 115, 116, 183
Commodity fetishism 48, 116, 177
Common culture 134
Communism 44
Community 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 237
Compulsory heterosexuality 206
Conscience collective 37
Consumer culture 178, 179
Consumerism 48, 203
Consumption 120, 167, 174, 175, 176, 177
Cosmopolitanism 223, 235, 236
Creative self 85
262
Economic determinism 44, 193
Embourgeoisement 173
Emigration 217
Erklären 56
Essay writing 244, 245, 246
Ethnic hybridity 216
Ethnic identity 211, 212, 216, 218, 222, 224
Ethnicity 211, 212, 214, 218, 225, 234
Ethnographic 199, 212, 225
Ethnomethodology 66
Evolutionary theory 13, 43
Exam guidance 244, 245
Excorporation 119, 120, 132
Expressive roles 193
False class consciousness 44, 90
False idols 3, 177
Fatherhood 200
Femininity 21, 191, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198,
200, 203
Feminism 21, 186, 187, 188, 189, 194, 196,
197, 198, 206
PROOF
Subject Index
Fluid identities 164, 165, 207, 208, 216
Focal concerns 172
Fracturing of class identity 173, 174, 175
Fragmented identity 102, 191, 209, 223
Frankfurt School 17, 47, 48, 89, 90, 116, 117,
123
Functionalism 35, 41, 42, 169
Gemeinschaft 229
Gender 13, 186, 193, 194, 198
Gesellschaft 229, 230
Global hybridity 223
Globalization 203, 204, 212, 221, 224, 228,
233, 235, 239, 241, 242
Habitus 81
Hegemonic masculinity 202, 204
Hegemony 134, 136, 156, 203
Heterosexuality 202, 203
High culture 114
Historical materialism 44
Hybrid cultures 226
Hybrid identities 221, 222, 233, 236
Identity 1, 2, 7, 8, 13, 15, 22, 25, 26, 38, 57,
76, 102, 103, 171, 216, 228, 242
Identity construction 239
Ideological state apparatus 157
Ideology 45, 46, 90, 116
Imagined communities 27, 233
Immigration 217
Instrumental roles 193
Intersectionality 208
Islamic identity 221
‘Lad culture’ 198, 200
Liberal feminism 189
Life course 76, 77, 78
Lifestyle politics 179, 206
Liquid modernity 99
Locale 238
Low culture 114, 116
Malestream 170, 187
Marxism 42, 46, 48, 49, 73, 115, 170, 187,
188, 190, 193, 214
Marxist feminism 189
Masculinity 21, 186, 187, 191, 193, 196, 198,
200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 209, 215
Mass culture 47, 112, 114, 115, 118, 126
Mass society 115
Means of production 44
Mechanical solidarity 38, 230
Media 198, 208, 209, 222
263
Metanarratives 100
Migration 217, 220, 223
Modernity 61, 62, 94, 95, 96, 228, 229
Modes of production 43
Moral panic 127
Motherhood 195, 196, 197
Multiculturalism 221, 223, 224
Music and youth culture 140
National identity 222, 224, 226, 228, 233,
234, 235, 236
Nationalism 234, 236
Nature versus nurture debate 20
Neo-functionalism 35, 41
Neo-Marxism 49
New Left Realism 41, 172
New Right 41, 170, 172, 173, 196, 200
New social movements 180, 181
Norms 18, 39
Online communities 240
Orientalism 221, 235
Organic solidarity 38, 230
Parent culture 134
Participant observation 14, 199
Patriarchy 22, 187, 188, 189, 190, 195, 197,
198, 201, 209
Phenomenology 65, 66
Plastic sexuality 206
Pluralism 117, 224
Popular culture 112, 113, 114, 119, 122, 123,
126, 132, 197, 198, 200, 222
Positivism 30
Postmodern blackness 223
Postmodern feminism 191
Postmodern television 139, 140
Postmodern youth culture 142, 143, 144, 145
Postmodernism 13, 27, 63, 94, 98, 100, 102,
103, 104, 105, 110, 122, 142, 159, 160,
161, 177, 184, 191, 198, 207, 218, 222,
223, 224, 228, 233, 239
Poststructuralism 161, 162, 163, 164, 222
Proletariat 42
Psychological explanations of identity 14
Psychoanalytic theory 14
‘Queer theory’
187, 207
Race 214, 225
Racism 211, 215
Radical feminism 189
Rationalization 96, 97
Reflexive modernity 241, 242
PROOF
264
Subject Index
Reflexivity 92, 208
Relativism 24
Religious fundamentalism 212
Resistance and identity 219
Resistance subcultures 132
Risk 106, 107, 108
Risk society 179, 180
Sabotage 206
Self-identity 74
Semiology 135, 149–54
Sex 193, 194, 204, 205
Sexism 198
Sexuality 187, 193, 196, 204, 205, 206, 207,
208
Signifier 150, 151
Signs 101, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 159, 160,
161, 183
Social construction of identity 220
Social identity theory 15
Social relations of production 44
Social solidarity 72
Socialization 18, 19, 39, 72, 74, 81
Sociobiology 13, 21, 193, 196, 199
Sociological imagination 9, 148, 149
Solidarity 38, 230
Status 8
Strain theory 128
Structural feminism 157, 158, 159, 191
Structural sociology 12
Structuralism 149, 150, 151
Structurational sociology 19, 88, 237
Subcultural theories 184
Subculture 126, 128, 134
Surveillance 207
Symbolic ethnicity 226
Symbolic interactionism 64, 65, 74
Symbols 101
Technological developments 123
Terrorism 212, 221
Third wave of feminism 198
Third world feminism 190
Transgender 187, 195, 208
Triple systems theory 190
Underclass 170
Urbanization 229
Value consensus
Values 18
Verstehen 56
39
White identity 215, 225
Working class 171, 172, 183, 202, 203
Youth culture 126–47
Youth subcultures 120, 126, 146, 147, 220