C O G N IT I O N A N D E M O T I O N , 1999, 13 (5), 505±521 Social Functions of Emotions at Four Levels of Analysis D a ch er K elt ner University of California± Berkeley, USA Jo n at h a n H a idt University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA In t h is p a per we int egr at e claim s a n d ® n d in gs co n cer n in g t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n s at t h e in d ivid u a l, d ya d ic, gro u p, a nd cu ltu r a l levels o f a n a lysis. A cro ss levels o f a n a lysis t h eo rists a ssu m e t ha t em o t io n s so lve p ro blem s im p o r t a n t t o so cia l r elat io n sh ip s in t h e co n t ext o f o n go in g in t era ct ion s. T h eor ists d iver ge, h owever, in t h eir a ssum p tio n s ab o u t th e o r igins, d e® n in g ch a r a ct er istics, a n d co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n s, a n d in th eir p r efer red fo r m s o f d at a . We illu str at e t h e d iffer en ces a n d co m p a tib ilit ies a m o n g t h ese levels o f a n a lysis fo r th e sp eci® c ca se o f em b ar r a ssm en t . We clo se b y su ggest in g resea rch str at egies t h a t in co r p o r at e a so cia l-fu n ct ion a l p er sp ect ive. INTRODUCTION T h e p r im a ry fu n ct io n is t o m o b ilize t h e o r ga n ism t o dea l q u ick ly wit h im p o r t a n t in t er p erso n a l en cou n ter s. Ð E k m a n , 1992, p. 171 E m o t io n s a re a p r im ar y id io m fo r d e® n in g a n d n ego tiat in g so cia l rela tio n s o f th e self in a m o r a l o r d er. Ð L u t z & W h ite, 1986, p. 417 E a r ly st u d ies o f em o t io n t en d ed t o fo cu s o n t h e ``in t ra p erso n a l’ ’ a sp ect s o f em o t io n , m a p p in g t h e d et er m in a n t s a n d ch a ra ct er ist ics o f em o t io n a l 1 resp o n se w ith in t h e in d ivid u a l. M a ny o f t h e in it ia l fu n ct io n a l a cco u n t s o f em o t io n sim ila r ly h igh ligh t ed h o w em o t io n s so lve p ro b lem s with in t h e R eq uest s fo r r epr in t s sh o u ld b e sen t to D r D a ch er K eltn er, D ep ar tm en t of P sycho lo gy, 3210 To lm an H a ll, U n iver sity of C a lifo r n ia , Ber keley, C A 94 720, U SA . 1 T h e ob vio u s except io n t o th is st atem en t is t h e r esea r ch o n th e int erp erso na l or in tero rgan ism ic fu nction s o f fa cia l exp ression s, b eginn in g wit h D a r win (1872/1965), an d ca r r ied o n sin ce th e 1960s b y E km a n (1993), I za r d (1977), a nd o th ers. q 1999 P sych olo gy P ress L td 506 KELTNER AND HAIDT in d ivid u a l, fo r exa m p le a s ``in t er r up t s’ ’ t h a t p r io ritise m u ltip le go a ls o f t h e in d ivid u a l (e.g. Sim o n , 1967 ; To m k in s, 1962). Severa l d evelo p m en t s h ave led research ers t o exam in e m o re clo sely t h e ``in t erp erso n a l’ ’ fu n ctio n s o f em o t io n s. R esea rch ers h ave b egu n t o u n cover h ow em o t io n s stru ctu re relat io n ship s b etween pa ren t s a n d ch ild ren (e.g. Bowlb y, 1969), sib lin gs (D u n n & M u n n , 1985), an d ro m an t ic p a rt n ers (L even so n & G o t t m a n , 1983). E m o t io n s, su ch a s an ger an d em b a rra ssm en t , have b een shown t o h ave syst em at ic effects o n o t h er in d ivid u a ls (e.g. Averill, 1980 ; K elt n er & Bu swell, 1997 ; M iller & L ea ry, 1992). E t h o logica l stu d ies su ggest h ow em ot io n s gu id e so cial in t era ctio n s su ch a s co u rt sh ip a n d ap p ea sem en t ritu als (E ib l-E ib esfeld t , 1989). F in a lly, t h e growin g con t a ct b etween an t h ro p o logist s (A b u -L u gh o d , 1986 ; L u t z & W h ite, 1986 ) a n d p sych o logist s (H a id t , K o ller, & D ia s, 1993 ; M ark u s & K itaya m a , 1991 ; M esq u ita & F rijd a , 1992 ; R u ssell, 1991 ) in t h e n ew ® eld o f cu ltu ral p sych o logy (Sh wed er, 1990 ) h as led t o gr eat er awaren ess o f t h e ways t h at em o t io n s co n stru ct a n d a re co n stru cted by cu ltu ra l p ra ctices a nd in stitu t io n s. T h ese co nvergin g t ren d s h ave in sp ired a wave o f resea rch a n d t h eo r y in a va r iet y o f d iscip lin es o n t h e co n n ect io n s b et ween em o t io n s a n d t h e so cia l enviro n m en t (C a m p o s, C a m p o s, & Ba rret t , 1989; C la rk , 19 90; F rijd a , 19 86; K em p er, 1993; L u t z & A b u -L u gh o d , 1990; d e R iver a & G rin k is, 19 86; To o b y & C o sm id es, 1990 ). F ir jd a a n d M esq u it a (1994) h ave writt en t h o u gh t fu lly ab o u t t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n s, p a rt icu la r ly a n ger, sh a m e, a n d gu ilt . H owever, we t h in k t h e t im e is r igh t fo r a m o re gen er a l d iscu ssio n o f t h e a ssu m p t io n s, cla im s, a n d em p irica l ® n d in gs t h a t ca n b e b ro u gh t t o get h er in t o a so cia l fu n ct io n a l p ersp ective o n t h e em o t io n s. O u r a im s in t h is review a re a s fo llows. F irst , we d iscu ss wh a t it m ea n s t o t a ke a so cia l fu n ct io n a l a p p ro a ch in t h e st u dy o f em o t io n . Seco n d , we review cla im s ab o u t t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n in a n t h ro p o logy, et h o logy, h ist o ry, p sych o lo gy, a n d so cio logy, h igh ligh t in g illu st ra t ive em p irica l ® n d in gs a n d co n cep t u a l issu es. We t h en a p p ly a so cia l fu n ct io n a l a n a lysis t o em b a rr a ssm en t , a n d co n clu d e w it h a d iscu ssio n o f n eed ed lin es o f em p irica l a n d t h eo ret ica l in q u ir y. We h o p e t h at t h is essay co nt rib u t es so m e cla ri® cat io n t o a growin g ® eld b y d ist in gu ish in g b etween so cia l fu n ction s at fo u r levels o f a n a lysis: (1) in d ivid u a l (in t rap erso n a l); (2) dya d ic (b etween t wo in d ivid u als); (3) gro u p (a set o f in d ivid u a ls t h at d irect ly in t era ct an d h a s so m e t em p o ra l co n t inu ity); a n d (4) 2 cu ltu r al (with in a la rge gro u p th at sh a res b eliefs, n o rm s, a n d cu ltu ra l m o d els). 2 O u r fr a m ewo r k wa s in ¯ u enced by Aver ill’s pro p osa l (1992) t ha t cla im s ab o ut em o tio n s ca n b e placed a t th e biologica l, p sych o logical, or so cial levels o f a n alysis. A lt h o u gh Averill’s so cia l level is clea r ly m o st r elevan t to th e pr esen t p aper, o u r r eview d ea ls with st u d ies th at d iffer in th eir u n it s o f a n alysis, m eth o d s, a n d p r efer red fo r m s o f d ata , b ut wo uld be cla ssi® ed a t th e so cia l level. We th erefo r e exp a n d ed Aver ill’s so cia l level in to fo u r d ifferen t levels. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 507 A s we d escrib e la t er, resea rch ers wo rk in g a t ea ch level d iffer in t h e syst em s t h ey refer t o, t h eir p refer red k in d s o f d a ta , a n d t h e t h eo ret ica l t r a d itio n s with in wh ich t h ey exp la in t h e o rigin s a n d d e® n in g ch a ra ct erist ics o f em o t io n s. O u r a im will b e t o sp ecify t h e d ifferen ces a n d sim ila rities in t h e a cco u n t s o ffered a t ea ch o f t h e fou r levels, a n d t o sh o w h ow t h ese levels ca n b e p u t t o get h er t o crea t e a m o re co m p let e u n d erst a n d in g o f t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n s. SOCIAL-FUNCTIONAL ACCOUNTS OF EMOTION F u n ct io n a l exp la n at io n s, a lth o u gh a b it m o re recent t o t h e ® eld o f em o t ion (Jo h n so n -L a ird & O a t ley, 1992; K elt n er & G ro ss, t h is issu e), h ave lo n g b een u sed in b io logy a n d t h e so cia l scien ces. F u n ct io n a l exp la n at io n s refer t o t h e h ist o r y o f so m e o b ject (e.g. b eh avio u r o r t ra it), a s well a s t h e regu la r co n seq u en ces t h at b en e® t t h e syst em in wh ich t h e o b ject o r t r a it is co n t a in ed . A s M ert o n (1968) st a t ed , fu n ct io n a l exp la n a t io n s h in ge o n ``in t er p ret in g d a ta b y estab lish in g t h eir co n seq u en ces fo r la rger st ru ct u res in which t h ey a re im p lica t ed ’ ’ . F u n ctio n a l a cco u n t s va ry a cco rd in g t o t h e k in d o f system b ein g a n a lysed . F o r b io logica l syst em s with in a n in d ivid u a l o rga n ism , a st ro n g fu n ct io n a lism t h a t sp eci® es wh ich fea t u res were sh ap ed o r select ed fo r t h e co n seq u en ces t h ey b r in g ab o u t is u sua lly a p p ro p r ia t e. F o r exa m p le, t h e h ea rt ca n o n ly b e u n d er st o o d a s a p u m p wo rk in g with in a circu la t o ry syst em ``d esign ed ’ ’ b y n a tu ra l select io n t o fu l® l a sp eci® c fu n ct io n Ð p u m p in g b lo o d a t va riab le r at esÐ w it h in t h at la rger syst em . A t t h e cu ltu r a l level o f a n a lysis, gr ea ter ca u t io n m u st b e o b served wh en m a k in g fu n ct io n a l cla im s. So m e in st itu t io n s a n d cu ltu ra l p r a ct ices m ay h ave b een d esign ed t o b en e® t t h e rich a n d p ower fu l, a s a M a rxist m igh t say, o r t o p erp et u a t e t h em selves, a s a m em e t h eo r ist m igh t say (D awk in s, 19 76). Bu t b eca u se t h ere is n o over-a rch in g select io n m ech a n ism cu llin g o u t in ef® cien t o r p o o rly a d a p t ed cu ltu res, o n e ca n n o t a ssu m e (a s M a lin o wsk i d id in h is ea rly p ro n o u n cem en t s), t h a t ever y p ra ct ice a n d every a rt efa ct serves a ``vit a l’ ’ fu n ct io n a n d ``rep resen t s a n in d isp en sab le p a rt with in a wo rk in g wh o le’ ’ (M a lin o wsk i, 1926, q u o t ed b y E m m et , 19 67). A s a co n seq u en ce, cu rren t cu ltu r a l a n t h ro p o lo gist s gen era lly em p loy a m ild er fu n ct io n a lism . T h ey lo o k a t cu lt u r a l fa ct s a n d p ra ct ices t o see h o w t h ey m ay p lay selfregu la tin g o r self-m a in t a in in g ro les wit h in la rger syst em s, with o u t a ssu m in g t h a t ever y cu ltu r a l p r a ct ice h a s a co n ser va t ive o r st ab ilisin g effect . Beca u se p eo p le h ave a gen cy in a wa y t h a t b io logica l su b syst em s d o n o t , it is n o w w id ely reco gn ised t h a t t h e b est-la id p la n s o f r u lin g elit es a re o ften co n t est ed a n d su b ver t ed b y t h o se t h ey a re m ea n t t o co n t ro l. F u n ctio n a l a p p ro a ch es t o t h e em o t io n s sh o u ld t h erefo re va ry b y level o f a n a lysis a s well. T h eo rist s wo rk in g at t h e in d ivid u a l a n d d ya d ic levels o f 508 KELTNER AND HAIDT a n a lysis, co n cern ed with t h e effect s o f em o t io n s with in t h e in d ivid u a l o r b etween in t era ct in g in d ivid u a ls (e.g. Bo wlb y, 1969; E k m a n , 1992; I za rd , 19 77; N esse, 1990, O h m a n , 1986; P lu t ch ik , 1980), esp o u se a fu n ctio n a lism t h a t is co n sist en t w ith a d a p t a t io n ist a rgu m en t s fo u n d in evo lu t io n a ry t h eo ry. T h ese t h eo rist s a rgu e t h a t em o t io n s were d esign ed b y n a t u r a l selectio n , a n d t h a t t h e co re co m p o n en t s o f em o t io n s a re b io lo gica lly b a sed a n d gen et ica lly co d ed . W ith in a n evo lu t io n a ry fra m ewo rk it ca n b e a ssu m ed t h a t em o t io n a l exp ressio n s a n d a ct io n t en d en cies were select ed b eca u se t h ey p ro d u ced co n seq u en ces t h a t im p roved t h e in d ivid u a l’s 3 in clu sive ® t n ess. M a ny t h eo r ist s wo rk in g a t t h e gro u p a n d cu ltu ra l levels o f a n a lysis, in co n t ra st, a re en ga ged in wh a t G eert z (1973) ca lled a n ``in t er p ret ive scien ce’ ’ in sea rch o f m ea n in g, r a t h er t h a n a n exp er im en t a l scien ce in sea rch o f laws a n d m ech a n ism s. E m o t io n s a re seen a s cu ltu ra l p ro d u ct s, co n str u ct ed b y in d ivid u a ls o r gro u p s in so cia l co n t ext s, a n d lin ked t o co n str u a ls o f t h e self, p a t t ern s o f so cia l h iera rchy, la n gu a ge, o r req u irem en t s o f so cio eco n o m ic o rga n isa tio n (L u t z & A bu -L u gh o d , 19 90). So cia l co n str u ct io n s o ft en h ave co n seq u en ces, bu t t h ere is n o eq u iva len t t o n at u r a l select io n , select in g t h e em o t io n a l co n st ru ct io n s with t h e b est co n seq u en ces. R a t h er, so cia lly co n st r u ct ed em o t io n s ® t w ith so cia l str u ct u res a n d o t h er cu ltu r a l fa ct s in ways t h a t m a ke sen se from a n in t er p ret ive viewp o in t , r at h er t h a n a n ef® cien cy view p o in t . D esp ite t h ese d ifferen ces, t h eo rist s a t a ll levels o f a n a lysis a d d ress a few co m m o n q u est io n s, su ch a s: W hy d o p eo p le h ave em o t io n s? W h a t a re t h e co n seq u en ces o f h avin g a n d exp ressin g em o t io n s, a n d h ow m igh t t h o se co n seq u en ces revea l wh at em o t io n s were d esign ed o r co n st ru ct ed t o d o ? In a n swer in g t h ese q u estio n s, t h eo r ist s a t a ll levels a lso sh a re a few a ssu m p t io n s. F ir st, so cia l fu n ct io n a l a cco u n t s o f em o t io n s a ssu m e t h a t p eo p le a re so cia l b y n a t u re, a n d m eet t h e p ro b lem s o f su r viva l in rela t io n sh ip s (e.g. L u t z & W h it e, 1986). Seco n d , so cia l-fu n ct io n a l a cco u n t s p o rt r ay em o t io n s a s m ea n s o f co -o rd in a tin g so cia l in t era ct io n s a n d rela t io n sh ip s t o a d d ress t h o se p ro b lem s (e.g. Aver ill, 1980; E ib l-E ib esfeld t , 1989; E k m a n , 1992; L u t z & W h ite, 1986; To o b y & C o sm id es, 19 90). E m o t io n s a re t h o u gh t o f a s rela tively a u t o m at ic, in vo lu n t a r y, a n d ra p id resp o n ses t h a t h elp h u m a n s regu la t e, m a in t a in , a n d u se d ifferen t so cia l rela t io n sh ip s, u su a lly (t h o u gh n o t a lways) fo r t h eir o wn b en e® t (Bo wlb y, 19 69; F ra n k , 1988; H a za n & Sh aver, 1987; L u t z & W h ite, 19 86; N esse, 1990; Jo h n so n -L a ird & O a t ley, 19 92). T h ird , em o t io n s a re p o r t r ayed a s dyn a m ic p ro cesses t h at m ed ia t e t h e in d ivid u a l’s rela t io n t o a co n t in u a lly ch a n gin g so cia l enviro n m en t 3 A lt h o ug h a ny p a r ticu la r featu r e m igh t h ave b egu n as an accid en ta l ``spa n dr el’ ’ (G o uld , 1996) o r as a ``ser viceable a sso ciated habit’ ’ (D ar win , 1872/1965), wh ich wa s lat er sh a ped b y selection p ressu r es. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 509 (C a m p o s et a l., 1989; L a za ru s, 1991; R o sa ld o, 1984 ), a lth o u gh t h e len gt h o f t im e t h a t em o t io n s a re sa id t o la st va ries fro m seco n d s o r m inu t es (E k m a n , 1992) t o week s o r yea r s (F rijd a , M esq u ita , So n n em a n s, & Va n G o o zen , 1991). G iven t h ese sh a red a ssu m p t io n s, t h ere is ever y rea so n t o b elieve t h at fu n ct io n a l a n a lyses o f em o t io n will b e ``co n silien t ’ ’ a cro ss levels (W ilso n , 1998); t h a t is, t h a t em o t io n t h eo rist s ca n lin k a n d in t er rela t e t h e fo u r levels o f a n a lysis. We o ffer su ch a m ult ilevel a cco u n t o f em b a r ra ssm en t n ea r t h e en d o f t h is essay. Bu t ® r st , we su m m a r ise t h e cla im s a n d ® n d in gs releva n t t o ea ch o f t h e fo u r levels o f a n a lysis. Social Functions of Emotions at the Individual Level of Analysis A t t h e in d ivid u a l level o f a n a lysis, resea rch er s gen era lly fo cu s o n t h e p a t t ern s o f ch a n ge o f in t r a -in d ivid u a l co m p o n en t s o f em o t io n . T h e in d ivid u a l o rga n ism is t h e syst em w ith resp ect t o wh ich t h e fu n ctio n s o f em o t io n s a re in t erp ret ed . R esea rch invest iga t es em o t io n -rela t ed ch a n ges in t h e en d o crin e, a u t o n o m ic, a n d cen t ra l n ervo u s syst em s (D avid so n , 1993; L eD o u x, 1996; L even so n , 1992) a n d em o t io n -relat ed a p p r a isa l, a ct io n t en d en cy, m em o ry, p ercep t io n , a n d ju d gem en t (C lo re, 1994; F rijd a , 1986; L a za ru s, 1991; Sch erer, 1984; Sch wa r z, 1990 ; Sm ith & E llswo rt h , 1985). T h e p refer red fo r m s o f d a t a in clu d e p hysio logica l m ea su rem en t , selfrep o r t s o f em o t io n p h en o m en o lo gy, a n d t h e effect s o f em o t io n o n m ea su res o f ju d gem en t , m em o r y, a n d so cia l p ercep t io n . A lth o u gh resea rch ers in t erest ed in em o t io n -relat ed p hy sio logy, exp erien ce, a n d co gn itio n h ave t en d ed t o fo cu s o n p a t t er n s o f in t ra p erso n a l ch a n ge, so m e o f t h ese ch a n ges a re u n d erst o o d a s p rep a ra t io n s fo r o r rea ct io n s t o sp eci® c p ro b lem s t h a t a rise in so cia l in t era ctio n . Sp eci® c b ra in st ru ct u res a n d n eu ro t r a n sm itt er system s u n d erlie em o t io n -relat ed p lay a nd d o m in a n t agg ressio n (P a n k sep p, 19 82). So m e em o t io n -rela t ed a ct io n t en d en cies a re m o t iva ted b y so cia l co n cer n s, su ch a s sh a rin g o r p rovid in g co m fo rt (F r ijd a & M esq u ita , 1994). T h eo r ist s h ave p ro p o sed t h a t em o t io n a l resp o n ses with in t h e in d ivid u a l serve t wo b ro a d so cia l fu n ctio n s (O at ley & Jen k in s, 1996 ). F irst , t h e co n scio u s feelin g o f em o t io n p ro d u ced b y a p p r a isa l p ro cesses is b elieved t o inform the individual ab o u t sp eci® c so cia l even t s o r co n d itio n s, t yp ica lly n eedin g t o b e a ct ed u p o n a n d ch a n ged (C a m p o s et a l., 1989). A ffect is a k in d o f in fo r m a t io n (C lo re, 1994; Sch wa rz, 1990). A s exa m p les, t h eo rist s h ave p ro p o sed t h a t t h e feelin g o f a n ger p rovid es a n a ssessm en t o f t h e fa irn ess o f even t s (So lo m o n , 1990), love in fo r m s t h e in d ivid u a l o f t h e level o f co m m itm en t t o a n o t h er (F r a n k , 1988), h a p p in ess m ay sign a l t h e rep ro d u ctive p o t en t ia l o f cer t a in so cia l a ct io n s (N esse, 1990), a n d sh a m e in fo r m s 510 KELTNER AND HAIDT t h e in d ivid u a l o f h is o r h er lo wer so cia l st a t u s (Ta n gn ey, M iller, F licker, & Ba rlow, 1996). A s co m p ellin g a s t h ese cla im s seem , few em p irica l st u d ies h ave d irectly exa m in ed wh et h er sp eci® c em o t io n s in ¯ u en ce so cia l ju d gem en t s (fo r a n excep t io n , see Wein er, 1993, o n t h e ro le o f a n ger a n d sym p a thy in p u n it ive ju d gem en t s). M o st stu d ies o f t h e effect s o f a ffect o n co gn itio n h ave exa m in ed m o re gen er a l p o sit ive a n d n ega t ive m o o d st a t es (Sch wa r z, 1990). Seco n d , it h a s b een cla im ed t h at cer t a in em o t io n -relat ed p hysio logica l (e.g. L even so n , 1992) a n d cogn it ive p ro cesses (C lo re, 19 94; Sch wa rz, 1990 ) prepare the individual t o resp o n d t o p ro b lem s o r o p p o rt u n ities t h a t a rise in so cia l in t er a ct io n s, even in t h e ab sen ce o f a ny awa ren ess o f a n elicit in g even t (O a t ley & Jen k in s, 1996 ). F o r exa m p le, em p irica l stu d ies sh ow t h a t a n ger invo lves a sh ift o f b lo o d away fro m t h e in t ern a l o rga n s t owa rd s t h e h a n d s a n d a r m s (L even so n , E k m a n , & F riesen , 1990), a n d h eigh t en ed sen sit ivit y t o t h e in ju stices o f o t h er’s a ct io n s (K elt n er, E llswo r t h , & E dwa rd s, 1993), which p resu m ab ly fa cilit at es resp o n ses t o t h rea t o r in ju st ice. M o re gen era lly, it fo llow s t h at em o t io n -relat ed p hysio logy a n d cogn itio n will b e ® n ely t u n ed t o t h e sp eci® c n a t u re o f so cia l even t s, a s evid en t in b r a in -im a gin g stu d ies sh o win g t h a t fa cia l exp ressio n s o f a n ger, d isgu st , fea r, a n d sa d n ess evo ke a ctiva t io n in d ifferen t b ra in regio n s in t h e p erceiver (fo r a review, see K elt n er & E k m a n , in p ress). It is a lso im p lied t h a t em o t io n a l resp o n ses with in t h e in d ivid u a l w ill ch a n ge in resp o n se t o ch a nges in t h e em o t io n -elicit in g even t . A recen t st u d y revea ls t h a t t h e effect s o f a n ger o n so cia l cogn itio n a pp ea r t o d im in ish wh en t h e a n gerp ro d u cin g in ju stice is red ressed (L ern er, G o ld b erg, & Tet lo ck , 19 98). Social Functions of Emotions at the Dyadic Level of Analysis A t t h e dya d ic level o f a n a lysis, resea rch er s fo cu s o n h o w em o t io n s o rga n ise t h e in t era ct io n s o f in d ivid u a ls in m ea n in gfu l rela t io n sh ip s. T h e in t era ct in g d ya d is t h e system with resp ect t o wh ich t h e co n seq u en ces o f b eh avio u rs a re in t erp ret ed . R esea rch er s h ere fo cu s o n t h e co m m un ica t io n o f em o t io n in fa cia l, vo ca l, a n d p o stu ra l ch a n n els (e.g. D eP a u lo, 1992 ; F er n a ld , 1992; F rid lu n d , 1992; K lin n ert , C a m p o s, So rce, E m d e, & Svejd a , 1983; O h m a n , 19 86; Sch erer, 1986), p ro p ert ies o f d ya d ic em o t io n s, su ch a s ``co n t in gen cy’ ’ , ``m a t ch in g’ ’ , ``lin k age’ ’ , a n d ``syn ch ro ny’ ’ (e.g. F ield , H ea ly, G o ld st ein, & U t h ert z, 1990; L even so n & G o t t m a n , 1983; Tro n ick , 1989 ), a n d h ow em o t io n s o p er a t e in o t h er so cia l in t er a ct io n s, su ch a s greet in g r itu a ls (E ib l-E ib esfeld t , 1989), d isco u rse (Bret h er t o n , F ritz, Z a h n -W a xler, & R id geway, 19 86), a n d a t t a ch m en t a n d ca regivin g (B owlb y, 19 69; H a za n & Sh aver, 1987). T h e p refer red fo rm s o f d a t a a re lab o r a t o ry a n d n at u r a list ic o b serva t io n s o f in t era ctio n s in h u m a n s a n d o t h er sp ecies, SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 511 a n d m a n ip u lat io n s o f em o t io n a l b eh avio u r a s so cia l stim u li (e.g. D im b erg & O h m a n , 1996). T h eo r ist s wo rk in g a t t h e dya d ic level o f a n a lysis h ave a rgu ed t h at em o t io n a l exp r essio n s help individuals know others’ emotions, beliefs, and intentions, t h u s r ap id ly co -o rd in a t in g so cia l in t er a ct io n s. T h u s, releva n t evid en ce in d ica t es t h a t t he co m m u n ica t io n o f em o t io n co nveys in fo r m at io n t o receiver s ab o u t sen d ers’ : C u rren t em o t io n s (E k m a n , 19 93; Sch erer, 1986), so cia l in t en t io n s (F rid lu n d , 1992), a n d o r ien t a t io n s t o wa rd s t h e rela t io n sh ip, fo r exa m p le, a s a d o m in a n t o r su b m issive in d ivid u a l (K nu t so n , 1996). T h e co m m u n ica t io n o f em o t io n a lso co nveys in fo r m a t io n ab o u t o b ject s in t h e enviro n m en t : b rief exp o su re t o a m o d el’s fea r fu l b eh avio u r t o wa r d s a p h o b ic o b ject (sn a ke) lea d s o b ser vers t o d evelo p sim ila r fea rfu l resp o n ses t o t h e p h o b ic o b ject (M in ek a & C o o k , 1993); a n d ch ild ren rely o n p a ren t s’ fa cia l em o t io n t o a ssess wh et h er a m b igu o u s sit u a t io n s, st im u li, a n d p eo p le a re sa fe o r d a n gero u s (K lin n er t et a l., 1983). Seco n d , em o t io n a l co m m u n icat io n evokes com plementary and reciprocal emotions in others t h a t h elp in d ivid u a ls resp o n d t o sign i® ca n t so cia l even t s. F o r exa m p le, resea rch h a s d o cu m en t ed t h a t a n ger d isp lays elicit fea rrela t ed resp o n ses, even when t h o se d isp lays a re p resen t ed su b lim in a lly (D im b erg & O h m a n , 1996 ). Sim ila r ly, d isp lays o f d ist ress elicit sym p a t hyrela t ed resp o n ses in o b servers (E isen b erg et a l., 19 89). In t u r n , em o t io n s evo ked in o t h er s a re a sso cia t ed with b eh avio u rs, su ch a s avo id a n ce, h elp in g, a f® lia t io n , a n d so o t h in g, wh ich h elp m eet t h e go a ls o f in t era ct in g in d ivid u a ls. T h ird , em o t io ns serve as incentives or deterrents for other individuals’ social beha viour (K lin n ert et a l., 1983). D evelo pm en t a l resea rch ® n d s t h at em o t io n a l resp o n ses rewa rd o t h ers’ sh ift s in a t t en t io n a n d go a l-d irect ed b eh avio u r (Tro n ick , 19 89), a n d t h u s p lay a n im p o r t a n t ro le in lea r n in g. In a sim ila r vein , st u d ies ® n d t h a t la u gh t er o ccu rs a t t h e en d o f u t t era n ces (P rovin e, 1993), su ggest in g t h a t la u gh t er rewa rd s d esir ab le so cia l b eh avio u r. Social Functions of Emotions at the Group Level of Analysis A t t h e gro u p level o f a n a lysis, resea rch er s fo cu s o n h o w em o t io n s h elp co llect io n s o f in t era ct in g in d ivid u a ls wh o sh a re co m m o n id en t ities a n d go a ls m eet t h eir sh a red go a ls, o r t h e su p ero rd in a t e go a ls of t h e gro u p. G ro u p s, su ch a s fa m ilies, wo rk gro up s, o r so cia l clu b s, a re t h e system s with resp ect t o wh ich t h e fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n a re in t erp reted . R esea rch er s fo cu s o n p h en o m en a su ch a s: T h e d ifferen t ia l d ist r ib u t io n o f em o t io n a cro ss gro u p m em b er s (e.g. C o llin s, 1990; K em p er, 1993); co llect ive em o t io n (D u rk h eim , 1915/19 54; d e W a a l, 1996); em o t io n d irect ed at o t h er 512 KELTNER AND HAIDT gr o u p s (e.g. F rijd a & M esq u ita , 1994); a n d ro le-relat ed im p licat io n s o f em o t io n a l exp er ien ce in gr o u p co n t ext s (e.g. C la rk , 1990 ). T h e p refer red fo rm s o f d a t a in clu d e t h e b eh avio u r o f gro u p m em b er s in n a t u r a list ic a n d exp er im en t a l co n t ext s (e.g. K elt n er, Yo u n g, H eerey, O em ig, & M o n a rch , 19 98), et h n o gr a p h ies o f sm a ll gro u p s o f p eo p le (A b u -L u gh o d , 1986; Br iggs, 19 70), a n d a n im a l gr o u p s (e.g. d e W a a l, 19 96), a lth o u gh su ch d escr ip t io n s ca n so m et im es b e p la ced a t t h e d ya d ic a n d cu ltu r a l levels o f a n a lysis a s well. A lth o u gh few em p irica l st u d ies ca n b e p la ced a t t h e gro u p level o f a n a lysis, t h eo rist s h ave m a d e severa l p rovo cat ive cla im s wo r t hy o f em p irica l st u d y. F ir st , em o t io n s h ave b een cla im ed t o help individuals de® ne group bo undaries an d identify group members (e.g. D u rk h eim , 1915 / 19 65). C o llect ive ecst a sy a n d awe m a y give gro u p m em b er s t h e sen se o f co m m u n a l id en t ity (H eise & O ’ Brien , 1993 ), wh erea s fea r, h at red , a n d d isgu st t o wa rd s n o n gro u p m em b ers m ay sh a r p en gro u p b o u n d a r ies (H eise & O ’ B rien , 1993; F rijd a & M esq u ita , 1994 ). C o n sist en t with t h ese sp ecu la t io n s, t h e exp erim en t a l in d u ct ion o f fea r o f d ea t h h a s b een sh ow n t o in crea se in gr o u p so lid a rity a n d o u t gro u p d ero ga t io n (G reen b erg et a l., 1990 ). So cia l a n xiet y a d d itio n a lly m o t ivat es in d ivid u a ls t o avoid b eh avio u r s t h at wo u ld o st ra cise t h em fro m gro u p s (B a u m eist er & T ice, 1990). W it h in gro u p s, t h e d ifferen t ia l exp erien ce a n d d isp lay o f em o t io n m ay help individuals de® ne and negotiate group-related roles an d statuses (e.g. C la rk , 1990; C o llin s, 19 90). C ert a in em o t io n s a re sa id t o relat e t o, o r co n stitu t e d ifferen t ro les a n d so cia l sta t u ses, fo r exa m p le, sym p at hy is p a rt o f p layin g a nu r t u r a n t ro le, a n d d isp lays o f em b a rr a ssm en t m a rk lo wer st a t u s. C o n sist en t w it h t h is view, em p ir ica l st u d ies h ave d o cu m en t ed a sso cia t io n s b et ween a n in d ivid u a l’s sta t u s in a gr o u p a n d d ifferen ces in jo k in g a n d la u gh t er (C o ser, 1960), a n d em b a rr a ssm en t , a n ger, co n t em p t , a n d fea r (K eltn er et a l., 19 98). Severa l cu ltu res h ave a wo rd t h a t d escr ib es b o t h a feelin g, rela t ed t o sh a m e o r em b a r ra ssm en t , a n d a d eferen t ia l a ct io n d irect ed at h igh -st at u s in d ivid u a ls (lajya a n d ha sha m; see lat er). A d d itio n a l resea rch n eed s t o est ab lish wh et h er t h e d ifferen t ia l exp erien ce a n d d isp lay o f em o t io n a ct u a lly est ab lish es a n in d ivid u a l’s ro le o r st a t u s in a gro u p, a n d wh et h er t h ese effect s a re in d ep en d en t o f in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in t h e p red isp o sitio n t o wa rd s cert a in em o t io n s. F in a lly, recen t a n im a l evid en ce su ggests t h at co llect ive em o t io n a l b eh avio u r m ay help group members negotiate group -related problems. In a su gg est ive stu dy, ch im p a n zee gro u p s were o b served t o en ga ge in exu b era n t , celeb r at o r y a f® lia t io n ju st p rio r t o t h e a llo ca tio n o f va lu ab le reso u rces (d e Wa a l, 1996). T h is b eh avio u r wa s b elieved t o so lid ify so cia l b o n d s t h at m igh t b e t h rea t en ed b y co n ¯ ict rela t ed t o d ist rib u t in g reso u rces. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 513 Social Functions of Emotions at the Cultural Level of Analysis A t t h e cu ltu ra l level o f a n a lysis, resea rch ers h ave fo cu sed o n h ow em o t io n s a re sh ap ed by h ist o rica l a n d eco n o m ic fa ct o r s, o n h ow em o t io n s a re em b ed d ed in cu ltu ra l in st it u t io n s a n d p ra ct ices, a n d on t h e cu ltu r a l n o r m s a n d scr ip t s fo r t h e p ro p er exp ressio n a n d exp er ien ce o f em o t io n s. T h e cu lt u re is t h e syst em w it h respect t o wh ich t h e fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n a re in t erp reted . C u lt u res a re so m et im es eq u a t ed with n a tio n s o r so ciet ies, b u t m o re o ft en a cu lt u re is rest r ict ed t o a co m m u n ity o f sh a red m ea n in gs, a s in D ’ A n d r a d e’s (1984, p. 116) t rea t m en t o f cu ltu re a s: ``lea rn ed system s o f m ea n in g, co m m u n ica ted b y m ea n s o f n a tu ra l la n gu a ge a n d o t h er sym b o l syst em s, h avin g rep resen t a t io n a l, d irect ive, a n d affective functions, a n d cap able o f crea t in g cu ltu ra l en t ities a n d p a r t icu la r sen ses o f rea lit y’ ’ (em p h a sis a d d ed ). C u ltu re n o t o n ly crea t es t h e so cia l wo rld , it gu id es p eo p le in t h e a ffect ive rea ct io n s n eed ed t o fu n ct io n in t h a t wo rld . So m e o f t h e m a in a rea s o f resea rch in clu d e: H o w cu ltu re sh a p es em o t io n b y sh a pin g t h e self (L u t z, 1988; M a rk u s & K it aya m a , 1991); t h e so cia l st ru ct u res with in wh ich em o t io n s a re exp er ien ced (A bu -L u gh o d , 1986; F iske, 1992 ); a n d cu lt u re-sp eci® c va lu a t io n s o f t h e exp er ien ce a n d exp ressio n o f em o t io n , fo r exa m p le in rela tio n t o gen d er, a ge, a n d so cia l st at u s (e.g. L u t z, 1990 ; Sh wed er & H a id t , in p ress). T h e m et h o d o logica l em p h a sis is in t erp ret ive, a n d t h e p refer red fo r m s o f d a ta in clu d e et h n ogr a ph ies a n d ``t h ick d escrip t io n s’ ’ (G eer t z, 1973 ) o f so cia l p ra ct ices; lin gu ist ic fo r m at io n s su ch a s em o t io n lexico n s (R u ssell, 19 91), a n d m et a p h o r s (L a ko ff, 1987); a n d h ist o r ica l d o cu m en t s a n d o t h er m ea n in g-la d en cu ltu ra l p ro d u cts, su ch a s et iq u et t e m a nu a ls (E lia s, 1978) o r cu ltu ra l m yt h s a n d legen d s (M iller, 1997). T h eo r ist s wo rk in g a t t h e cu lt u r a l level o f a n a lysis h ave a t t r ib u t ed severa l so cia l fu n ct ion s t o em o t io n , so m e o f wh ich o verla p with t h o se a t t h e gro up level o f a n a lysis. F irst , em o t io n s a re cla im ed t o play a critical role in the processes by wh ich individuals assume cultural identities. C u ltu re-sp eci® c co n cep t s o f em o t io n a l d evia n ce a re b elieved t o m o t iva t e cu ltu r a lly a p p ro p r ia t e b eh avio u r (T h o its, 1985). E m b a r ra ssm en t (G o ffm a n , 1967) m o t iva t es co n fo r m it y a n d t h e p ro p er p layin g o f o n e’s ro les, wh erea s d isgu st s m o t ivat es t h e avo id a n ce a n d sh u n n in g o f p eo p le wh o vio lat e key va lu es wit h in a cu ltu re (R o zin , H a id t , & M cC a u ley, in p ress). E m o t io n s a re a lso em b ed d ed in so cia lisa t io n p r a ct ices t h at help children learn the norms an d values of their culture. F o r exa m p le, d evelo p m en t a l (e.g. Bret h ert o n , et a l., 1986 ; D u n n & M u n n , 1985 ) a n d cro ss-cu ltu r a l st u d ies (e.g. W h ite, 1990) in d ica t e t h at em o t io n a l co n ¯ ict s en ga ge in d ivid u a ls in co nver sa t io n s ab o u t cu ltu r a l n o t io n s o f righ t a n d w ro n g a n d red ressin g wro n gd o in g. D isp lays o f d isgu st by p a ren t s, fo r exa m p le, a re likely t o b e 514 KELTNER AND HAIDT im p o r t a n t in t o ilet t ra in in g a n d n ega tive so cia lisat io n (R o zin et a l., in p ress). T h e em o t io n a l rea ct io n s o f p a ren t s a n d o t h er ``lo ca l gu a rd ia n s o f t h e m o ra l o rd er’ ’ (Sh wed er, M a h a p at r a , & M iller, 1987) m ay b e t h e m o st im p o r t a n t gu id es t h a t ch ild ren u se in ® gu r in g o u t t h e co n t o u r s o f t h eir m o r a l wo r ld . F in a lly, so m e t h eo rist s h ave a sser t ed t h at cu ltu r a l co n str u ct io n s o f em o t io n a l exp erien ce reify and perpetuate cultural ideologies an d power structures (e.g. H o ch sch ild , 1990). M u ch a s at t h e gro u p level, t h e select ive exp er ien ce a n d exp ressio n o f em o t io n fo r cert a in gro u p s ju st i® es t h eir p o sitio n with a cu lt u re. T h u s, d rawin g o n st ereo t yp es o f t h e em o t io n s o f su b or d in a t ed gro u p s, L u t z h a s a rgu ed t h a t cu ltu r a l d isco u r ses ab o u t fem a le em o t io n a lit y relega t e wo m en t o p o sit io n s o f su b o rd in a t e st a t u s (L u t z, 19 90). I t wo u ld b e in t erest in g t o d o cu m en t h ow gen d er st ereo t yp es o f em o t io n a re in d eed u sed t o ju st ify su b o rd in a t e p o sit io n s fo r wo m en , a n d wh et h er t h ese st ereo t yp es a ct u a lly creat e gen d er d ifferen ces in em o t io n a l resp o n se. CASE STUDY: THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EMBARRASSMENT We h ave reviewed evid en ce a n d t h eo r y ab o u t t h e m a ny so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n . E m o t io n s in fo r m peo p le ab o u t so cia l even t s a n d p r ep a re t h eir b o d ies a n d m in d s fo r a ctio n . E m o t io n s co -o rd in a t e so cia l in t er a ct io n s. E m o t io n s h elp in d ivid u a ls d e® n e t h eir id en t ities a n d p lay t h eir ro les with in gro u p s, a n d em o t io n s m a rk o r stren gt h en b o u n d a r ies b et ween gr o u p s. F in a lly, em o t io n s sim u lta n eo u sly crea te a n d a re sh ap ed b y cu ltu ra l p ra ct ices a n d sym b o l system s. A ll o f t h ese fu n ct io n s, in t erp ret ed with resp ect t o fo u r d ifferen t k in d s o f syst em s, ca n o ccu r sim u lta n eo u sly a n d in m ut u a lly in t er lo ck in g ways. A lth o u gh co n ¯ ict s o r in co m p a tib ilit ies a cro ss levels a re p o ssib le in p r in cip le, in p ra ct ice t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n at o n e level a re likely t o wo rk in t a n d em with t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f t h e a d jo in in g levels. To illu st r at e t h e co m p a t ib ilit y a n d co n silien ce o f t h ese va r io u s fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ives, we will wo rk t h ro u gh t h e ca se o f em b a r ra ssm en t in d et a il. In itia lly, m o st t h eo rist s ign o red t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em b a r ra ssm en t . D a r win’s a n a lysis o f em b a r ra ssm en t fo cu sed o n t h e b lu sh , wh ich h e p o sit ed wa s sim p ly a sid e-effect o f so cia l a t t en t io n (D a r win , 1872 /1965). A lth o u gh G o ffm a n (1967) h in t ed a t cer t a in fu n ct io n s o f em b a r ra ssm en t , h e p r im a r ily co n cen t ra ted u p o n it s ch a o t ic d isp la y a n d p a in fu l exp er ien ce. R ecen t st u d ies o f t h e ca u ses, ch a r a ct er ist ics, a n d so cia l co n seq u en ces o f em b a rr a ssm en t , h owever, h ave led resea rch ers t o cla im t h a t em b a r ra ssm en t ser ves a n a p p ea sem en t fu n ct io n , reco n cilin g so cia l relat io n s fo llo win g t ra n sgressio n s o f so cia l n o r m s (K elt n er & Bu swell, 1997 ; M iller & L ea ry, 19 92). A t SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 515 ea ch level o f a n a lysis, we see t h a t em b a r ra ssm en t serves t h is a p p ea sem en t fu n ct io n in a d ifferen t way. A t t h e in d ivid u a l level o f a n a lysis, self-rep o r t n a rr a t ive stu d ies h ave revea led t h at p ro t o t yp ica l fo rm s o f em b a r ra ssm en t t yp ica lly fo llow so m e d isr u p t io n in so cia l in t er a ct io n s (P a rro t t & Sm ith , 1991; Silver, Sab in i, & P a r ro t t , 1987). E m b a rr a ssm en t is d e® n ed b y t h e sen se o f p er so n a l fa ilu re a n d lowered st a t u s (e.g. Ta n gn ey et a l., 1996), wh ich m ay sign a l t o t h e in d ivid u a l wh ich so cia l a ct io n s t o avo id , t h u s m o t iva tin g p a r t icip a n t s t o st ay w it h in t h e b o u n d s o f a p p ro p ria t e b eh avio u r. C o n sist en t with t h is cla im , evid en ce in d ica tes t h a t p eo p le will fo rego p erso n a l ga in t o avo id em b a rra ssm en t , a n d o n ce em b a rr a ssed , t h ey en gage in co r rect ive b eh avio u r t h a t rest o r es t h eir so cia l sta n d in g (see K elt n er & Bu swell, 1997). So cia l t r a n sgr essio n s req u ire so m e fo r m o f a p p ea sem en t o r rep a ir. E m p irica l st u d ies a t t h e d ya d ic level o f a n a lysis in d ica t e t h at t h e d isp lay o f em b a r ra ssm en t b rin gs ab o u t reco n ciliat io n . E m b a rr a ssm en t is sign a lled b y b lu sh in g, a co n t ro lled sm ile, fa ce t o u ch in g, d o wn wa rd m ovem en t s o f t h e h ea d a n d eyes, a n d in h ib ited sp eech (K eltn er & Bu swell, 1997). T h ese b eh avio u rs h ave b een sh o wn t o sign a l t h e em b a rr a ssed p erso n’s co m m itm en t t o so cia l n o r m s, a n d t o p ro m p t fo rgiven ess in o t h er s (fo r a review, see K elt n er, Yo u n g, & Bu swell, 1997). T h eo r ist s wo rk in g at t h e gro u p level o f a n a lysis h ave p ro p o sed , co n sist en t with o u r gen er a l review, t h a t em b a rr a ssm en t h elp s est ab lish a n d m a in t a in gr o u p h ier a rch ies a n d n o rm s (e.g. C la rk , 1990). H ow m igh t t h is wo rk ? O n e p o ssib ilit y is t h a t em b a rr a ssm en t is em b ed d ed in gro u p p ra ct ices, wh ich h ave sp eci® c co n seq u en ces at t h e in d ivid u a l a n d d ya d ic levels o f a n a lysis. G ro u p p ra ct ices, su ch a s t ea sin g a n d sh a m in g, p ro d u ce d ifferen t levels o f em b a r ra ssm en t in gro u p m em b ers (K elt n er et a l., 1998). F o r in d ivid u a ls, t h e d ifferen t ia l exp erien ce o f em b a rr a ssm en t in gro u p co n t ext s m ay sign a l t h eir p o sitio n s in t h e gr o u p h iera rchy. D ya d ic in t er a ct io n s in t ea sin g a n d sh a m in g m ay lea d t o reco n cilia t io n a n d en h a n ced gro u p b o n d s. F in a lly, recen t eth n o gr a p h ies revea l h o w self-co n scio u s em o t io n s relat ed t o em b a rr a ssm en t a re invo lved in t h e a ssu m p t io n o f cu ltu r a lly a p p ro p ria t e id en t ities a n d t h e p er p et u a t io n o f cu ltu ra l n o r m s a n d va lu es. Awla d -A li Bed o u in s a n d O riya I n d ia n s h ave lo n g t r a d itio n s o f stro n g p a t ria rch a l a u t h o r ity in wh ich o p en exp ressio n s o f fem a le sexu a lit y b rin g d ish o n o u r a n d t h rea t en t o d est ab ilise m a scu lin e a u t h o rity. W h en in t h e p resen ce o f h igh -ra n k in g m en , it is co n sid ered a vir t u e fo r wo m en t o d isp lay hasha m a m o n g t h e Awla d -A li (A b u L u gh o d , 19 86) a n d t o d isp lay lajya in O r issa , In d ia (M en o n & Sh wed er, 1994). E xp ressio n s o f ha sham a n d lajya h o n o u r p a t ria rch a l id eo lo gies a n d h iera rch ies, a n d t h e p o ssessio n o f a wellcu lt ivat ed liab ilit y t o exp er ien ce a n d exp ress t h ese em o t io n s is a p a th t o fem a le h o n o u r a n d vir t u e in b o t h cu lt u res. R ecen t cro ss-cu ltu ra l wo rk d em o n st ra t es t ha t if lajya m u st b e eq u a t ed w it h a n E n glish em o t io n 516 KELTNER AND HAIDT wo rd , t h a t wo rd is em b a rra ssm en t (H a id t & K elt n er, in p r ess). H o wever, b eca u se N o r t h A m er ica n m id d le cla ss cu ltu re va lues h iera rchy less a n d t h e exp ressio n o f fem a le sexu a lit y m o re t h a n d o O riya s, t h e exp erien ce o f em b a r ra ssm en t ca n n o t b e eq u a t ed w it h t h e exp erien ce o f lajya. E m b a r ra ssm en t fo r A m erica n s seem s t o la ck t h e elem en t o f vir t u e a n d even p rid e t h a t ca n b e a sso cia t ed with t h e exp er ien ces o f lajya a n d hasha m. RESEARCH STRATEGIES FOR THE STUDY OF SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS We h ave a t t em p t ed t o p la ce m a ny lin es o f resea rch o n t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n in t o a t a xo n o m y of fo u r levels o f a n a lysis: I n d ivid u a l, dya d ic, gr o u p, a n d cu ltu r a l, a ll o f wh ich a re co m p lem en t a r y a n d in t er rela t ab le. In t h is ® n a l sect io n , we lo o k t o t h e fu t u re a n d a sk h o w a so cia l-fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ive, co gn isa n t o f d ifferen t levels o f a n a lysis, ca n gu id e resea rch . M o st gen era lly, we b elieve t h at in t egra t ive, cro ss-d iscip lin a ry wo rk m ay b e fu rt h ered b y wo rk in g a t m u lt ip le levels o f a n a lysis, lo o k in g t o a d jo in in g levels fo r id ea s a n d hyp o t h eses. In t er m s o f co n cret e resea rch q u est io n s, we b elieve a so cia l fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ive p o in t s t o t wo gen er a l issu es t h a t h ave o n ly recen t ly b egu n t o receive syst em a t ic a t t en t io n . F irst , so cia l fu n ctio n a l a cco u n t s a ssu m e t h a t em o t io n s so lve so cia l p ro b lem s. E m o t io n s a r ise in resp o n se t o so cia l p ro b lem s (e.g. in ju st ice, est ab lish in g a t t a ch m en t s, n ego t iat in g st at u s h ier a rch ies), a n d p resu m ab ly ch a nge a s t h o se p ro blem s (o r o p p o rt u n ities) a re m et . T h e d yn a m ic relat io n s b et ween elem en t s o f em o t io n a l resp o n se a n d ch a n gin g so cia l p ro b lem s m er it at t en t io n . A t t h e in d ivid u a l level o f a n a lysis, em o t io n s ca n b e lin ked t o sp eci® c k in d s a n d fea t u res o f ch a n gin g so cia l even t s (e.g. K em p er, 19 93). A t t h e d ya d ic level o f a n a lysis, resea rch sh o u ld co n t inu e t o exa m in e h ow sp eci® c em o t io n s em erge in resp o n se t o rela t io n a l p ro b lem s, a s h a s b een d o n e in st u d ies relat in g t h e em ergen ce o f a d o lescen t so cia l h ier a rch ies a n d t h e d evelo p m en t o f em b a rr a ssm en t , sh a m e, a n d so cia l a n xiet y (O h m a n , 19 86). F in a lly, it sh o u ld b e p o ssib le t o p red ict a n d m ea su re ch a n ges in t h e em o t io n a l life o f gro u p s a n d cu ltu res a s n ew so cia l p ro b lem s a rise. F o r exa m p le, a s in d ivid u a lism , co m m ercia lism , a n d ch a n gin g sex ro les sp rea d t h ro u gh t h e yo u n g gen era t io n o f a t r a d it io n a l so ciet y, d o eld er s t ry t o elicit m o re sh a m e, a n d en ga ge in m o re t ea sin g a n d sh a m in g r itu a ls? W ith so m u ch o f A sia ra p id ly a d o p t in g West ern m o d es o f co m m erce, d ress, a n d even h o u sin g, it sh o u ld b e p o ssib le t o d o cu m en t ch a n ges in t h e d ist r ib u t io n a n d va lu at io n o f em o t io n s (in clu d in g p a t t ern s o f u se, a n d em o t io n co n cep t s) over t h e co u rse o f a d eca d e. Seco n d , so cia l fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ives p o sit t h a t in feren ces ab o u t so cia l fu n ct io n s d erive fro m a n a lyses o f t h e syst em at ic co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n s. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 517 E a ch em o t io n sh o u ld h ave syst em a tic effect s o n o t h er in d ivid u a ls a n d feat u res o f t h e so cia l enviro n m en t t h a t , fo r t h e m o st p a r t , awa it d iscovery. M o d el resea rch a n d releva n t a n a lyt ic p ro ced u res fo r a scer t a in in g t h e so cia l co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n s h ave em erged in t h e st u d y o f m o re n a t u r a list ic em o t io n a l in t era ct io n s b etween sib lin gs (e.g. D u n n & M u n n , 1985 ), ro m a n t ic rela tio n sh ip s (L even so n & G o t t m a n , 1983), a n d p a ren t -ch ild in t era ct io n s (e.g. F ield et a l., 1990). E xp erim en t a l m a n ip u la t io n s o f em o t io n a l b eh avio u r, a s h a s b een d o n e in st u d ies o f t h e resp o n ses evo k ed b y d ep ressive m a tern a l style (e.g. C o h n & Tro n ick , 1983) a n d p o sed fa cia l exp ressio n s (D im b erg & O h m a n , 1996), h ave t h e p ro m ise o f m a k in g sim ila r co n t r ibu t io n s t o a n u n d erst a n d in g o f t h e so cia l fu n ctio n s o f em o t io n s. 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