Propaganda in Nazi Germany
The Nazis gained 52 per cent of the vote in the March 1933 elections. This government will
not be content with 52 per cent behind it and with terrorising the remaining 48 per cent, but
will see its most immediate task as winning over that remaining 48 per cent . . . It is not
enough for people to be more or less reconciled to the regime.
Goebbels at his first press conference on becoming Minister for Propaganda, March 1933.
Propaganda and the “Fuhrer Myth”: A central theme in Nazi
ideology and propaganda was the ‘Fuhrer Myth’. To disseminate from
the other parties of the day, the Nazis felt one man was needed as
the focal point of their campaign. This was to be the man on which
Germany’s hopes and dreams rested and Adolf Hitler emerged as
that man. His status as the ‘Fuhrer’ became the main focal point for
Germany and the Nazis to rally around. The leadership of one was
not lost upon Hitler himself. He realised ‘the most important part of
fascism was trust in a wise and able leader’. His projection as a
‘charismatic superhuman’, destined to lead Germany to greatness was
a significant fortes in German politics. It was not lost on the Party
that to procure a permanent position in the German parliament public
support was vital. Support for the ‘Fuhrer’ was paramount in all this.
Before 1933: After the ‘Munich Putsch’ of 1923, military action
was no longer viable in the current climate. To gain power the Nazis
had to pursue a peaceful political route. A campaign was fought to
perpetuate the Nazi Party, Adolf Hitler in particular, as the saviour
of Germany. It would be through the ‘Fuhrer’ alone that the Nazis
would be able to rid Germany of the grievances of the past and
procure a new and powerful state. A state free from economic
depression and safe from enemies at home and abroad. The ‘Hitler
Movement’, as it was known even on the ballots of the time, was a
carefully constructed propaganda coup. Images of the ‘Fuhrer’ were
designed to show a ‘man of the people’. One who possessed charisma,
heroism and respectability? It was all carefully crafted in such a
way so as to portray to the German public a sense of invincibility. His
simple attire portrayed in the visual material of the time however
was a purposeful move instructed by the Nazi propaganda network.
His role as the ex-serviceman helping Germany rise from the ashes
is prominent in many posters and visual documents of the day. In this
poster from the 1932 elections, “Hitler Becomes Reich President”,
(Fig2.0), we see Hitler dressed in an ordinary outfit. He wears a suit
and tie but still holds that mystique as he addresses the people
shouting, “We are taking the fate of the nation in our hands!” The
ordinary man leading his people is a common tool of early Nazi
propaganda.
“Hitler Becomes Reich President” (Fig2.0) 1932 election poster
Also in this portrait by Hermann Otto Hoyer, (Fig.2.1), Hitler again
features as the archetypical ‘man of the people’. Wearing his suit
and addressing the crowd with a vehemence and power, they look
upon him with adulation. His charisma and respectability are
emphasized by his stature and pose in the portrait. The ‘Fuhrer
Myth’ of early Nazi propaganda was all about displaying the ‘Fuhrer’
as the ordinary man, destined to fight and lead Germany to a better
future.
Hermann Otto Hoyer “In the Beginning Was the Word” (Fig 2.1)
1937
After 1933: The ‘Fuhrer Myth’ that began in the campaigns of the
1920’s and early 1930’s however paled in comparison to the image of
the ‘Fuhrer’ once the Nazis seized power. Hitler was transformed
from “the leader of a popular political party into the leader of all
Germans”. He no longer strived to change Germany with words; he
could now change Germany with actions. An inexorable amount of
time was put into transforming Hitler into a more powerful
figurehead than his previous portrayal. The simple attire of the exserviceman was forsaken and replaced by the militaristic style of a
man in power. His image was refined to portray the ‘Fuhrer’ as
Germany’s chosen saviour; a man destined by providence to lead
Germany on the road to greatness. The powerful military image of
Hitler was now imposed on the German nation. In the 1934 poster
“Yes Fuhrer, We Follow You”, (Fig.2.2), Hitler wears a military
uniform. The days of the simple suit are gone. Now it is all about
power and might. The masses jubilantly call at his beckoning and the
larger than life figure of Hitler epitomizes the ‘will of the people’.
The stature, the cold stare, all play upon the images of old. Hitler
often used the ‘Renaissance pose’ that mimicked the great leaders
of the past, men such as Napoleon Bonaparte, Friedrich the Great
and Otto von Bismarck.
“Yes Fuhrer, We Follow You” (Fig 2.2) 1934
This signature pose is also clear in other posters such as the famous
“One People, One Nation, One Leader!”, (Fig.2.3). It was this poster
that became the common image of Hitler displayed throughout
Germany once he came to power. Here again we have the
‘Renaissance pose’ and the cold collecting stare. In many homes
across Germany this image of Hitler became the equivalent to a
religious icon. It was held higher than the crucifix or a holy painting.
The portrait was put up in homes, classrooms and offices across the
country. The image of the Fuhrer was fast becoming the image of
the new messiah.
“One People, One Nation, One Leader!” (Fig 2.3) 1938
As a result the “Hitler Myth” became a kind of religion, Mein Kampf,
the new household bible. In fact over ten million copies of Mein
Kampf had been published by 1945. “Like the family Bible, it was
often unread, but its mere presence testified to its importance. The
idea of the Fuhrer as the new messiah appealed to many. In the
words of one German soldier, ‘Our Fuhrer is the most unique man in
history. I believe unreservedly in him. He is my religion. This is a
testament to the power and sway Adolf Hitler held. From now on the
visual representation of Hitler in poster design re-enforces this
notion. Post 1933 political posters are substantially different than
their predecessors. This is none more evident than in figure 2.4,
“Long live Germany”, where Hitler is now characterised as a religious
icon. The poster displays direct connotations with religious art and
folklore from the bible. Hitler is seen leading his people forward,
holding the banner of National Socialism. The rays of sunshine that
light his way re-enforce his metaphoric presence as a man of
destiny. The eagle in the background is in direct contrast to the
angel used in many religious paintings. A direct connotation is made,
substituting Hitler as a new messiah.
“Long live Germany” (Fig 2.4)
Russia’s Two Leaders, Iconography of the Vozhd’: The iconography
of the vozhd’ in Russian visual propaganda deals in much the same
way to that of the Nazis. A common theme to both dictatorships of
course was the ‘cult of the leader’ and this began in Russia in the
very early days of the Bolshevik revolution. The term vozhd’ was
originally a military term for leaders in the revolution but soon
became the standard term to describe all party leaders in the
Bolshevik hierarchy. As the decade progressed however the term
was more often applied to Lenin and later Stalin. The name held the
same connotations as ‘Der Fuhrer’ in Germany and was a title
regarded with honour. As with Nazi Germany, the “cult of the
leader” became a huge focal point for Russian propaganda artists.
The Worker in Nazi Society: The Nazi’s seizure of power in
1933 was more than a change of government it was the beginning of
radical ideological shift in German society. In accordance with Nazi
ideology the population of Germany was to be re-educated based on
National Socialist values and key to this was the creation of
Volksgemeinschaft, meaning ‘national community’. The so-called
‘national community’ was a restructure of German society bypassing
class, religion and regional loyalty. The creation of a racially pure
‘Aryan’ community Hitler believed would bring about a new
heightened national awareness. Inevitably it would be Nazi
propaganda that would become crucial in selling this view, as
‘Propaganda was intended to be the active force cementing the
national community together’. Subsequently poster design was one of
the main forces behind this venture. It was under the common
banner of the above-mentioned Volksgemeinschaft that labour
existed in Germany. Trade Unions were abolished, as Hitler believed
they displayed left-wing socialist connotations representative of the
class struggle. As a result the German Labour Front was set up in
1933 to act as an ‘honest broker’ between the classes’. The Labour
Front was formed so as to masquerade and hide the fact that
workers rights had been diminished. Posters proclaimed, ‘Workers
will stand side by side with employers’, trying in vain to appeal to the
emotions of the common man. In visual iconography of the time, the
German worker was predominantly male. He is often depicted in a
strong resolute pose characterising the ideals of the perfect ‘Aryan’
male. As in Russian propaganda the male worker is often shown as a
larger than life figure as shown in the 1932 election poster “We
Workers Have Awakened, We’re Voting National Socialist”, (Fig.3.0).
The figure stands tall above Germany’s supposed enemies, (Jews and
Marxists). Through the strength of German labour we are led to
believe the values of National Socialism will be withheld and pursued.
“We Workers Have Awakened, We’re Voting National Socialist” (Fig
3.0) 1932
Nazi propagandist’s also tried to evoke the values of ‘national
community’ by conveying that German workers were part of a
collective regardless of their standing in society. This is evident in
posters such as this one from the German Labour Front, (Fig.3.1),
where all German workers, just like soldiers, were comrades in the
eyes of Germany.
Linking the German Labour Front to WW1 (Fig 3.1) 1933
Felix Albrecht also displays this viewpoint in another 1932 election
poster entitled, “Workers of the Mind and of the Fist, Vote for the
Front Soldier Hitler” (Fig.3.2). The image combines both facets of
the industrial workers ‘of the fist’, and ordinary workers ‘of the
mind’. Interestingly the poster refers to Hitler’s military service in
the Great War, possibly as in figure 3.1 to promote the idea of
comradeship amongst all walks of German life; again the so-called
Volksgemeinschaft.
Felix Albrecht, “Workers of the Mind and of the Fist, Vote for the Front Soldier Hitler” (Fig
3.2) 1932
Women in Nazi Society: Women played a rather contrasting role in Nazi
society. On the one hand women were celebrated and viewed as the key in
providing Germany with a racially pure ‘Aryan community’, yet they were still
seen as inferior in the eyes of many leading Nazis. The Nazi party was
undoubtedly anti-feminist, in fact Hitler vowed in 1932 to remove 800,000
women from employment. He believed that women’s rights, and the term
emancipation was a slogan adopted by Jewish intellectuals to corrupt the pure
German nation. Hitler stated that for the German woman her ‘world is her
husband, her family, her children and her home’. Joseph Goebbels the Nazi
Propaganda Minister even proclaimed, “Women have the task of being beautiful
and bringing children into the world”. It is surprising how stark these comments
were considering the Nazi party needed female votes in early electoral
campaigns. Clearly the ‘new woman’, the ‘cigarette smoking, motorbike riding, silk
stockinged or tennis-skirted young woman’, who was free spirited and
independent did not coincide with Nazi ideology. Instead a woman’s role was the
family and the home, (Fig.3.7).
Women played a key role in Nazi thinking. The need for increased birth rates
due to the inevitability of war was a big part of Hitler’s overall plans. Hitler
believed ‘the woman has her own battlefield, with every child she brings into the
world; she fights a battle for the nation’. The focus of females in Nazi society
was on childbirth and domesticity. In this poster, (Fig 3.8), by the Nazi
charitable organisation the NSV, the role of women in Nazi Germany is clear.
The text reads ‘Support the assistance program for mother and child'; however
it is the visual layout that is striking. The woman is dressed idyllically in a blue
gown, cradling a baby in her arms. She epitomizes the ideal Aryan woman, blond
haired, who is strong and purposeful. The addition of the character ploughing in
the background imposes the role women should play. Their job is at home looking
after the family, not the workplace. This stereotypical role was compounded
when even leading Nazi women, such as Gertard Scholtz-Klink, head of the Nazi
Women’s League felt “the mission of women is to minister in the home”.
Enemies in Nazi Poster Design: A specific theme in early Nazi poster
campaigns was the grand notion that Germany’s enemies had
harnessed the so-called ‘stab in the back’. This miss-conception,
which Hitler called, ‘the greatest villainy of the century’ led many to
believe Germany had lost the Great War specifically due to enemies
at home. The poster shown below, (Fig 3.12), from a 1924 election
campaign for the German Nationalist People’s Party by Hans
Schweitzer conveys the sentiments of the ‘stab in the back’. It
vividly depicts a German soldier physically getting knifed from
behind and the enemy is evidently a Bolshevik due to the fact he is
dressed in red.
Hans Schweitzer, German Nationalist People’s Party election poster
(Fig 3.12) 1924.
This theme of connecting Germany’s defeat to Bolshevism after
World War One was common in early Nazi poster design as this
poster from 1919 entitled “The Danger of Bolshevism” clearly shows,
(Fig 3.13). The caption says it all, but it is the knife in the skull-like
figures mouth that subtly conveys the ‘stab in the back’ message.
Rudi Feld, “The Danger of Bolshevism” (Fig 3.13) 1919.
As one can see, the Bolsheviks were a key enemy figure in Nazi visual
imagery and it remained that way right throughout Hitler’s reign.
Obviously the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 kept this
theme running. And after the catastrophe of Stalingrad in 1943, the
Nazi Propaganda Office issued extreme directives concerning antiBolshevik propaganda, which declared Bolshevism as its main enemy.
This poster circa February 1943 entitled “Victory or Bolshevism”,
(Fig 3.14), shows quite clearly the choice Germany must face.
Hans Schweitzer, “Victory or Bolshevism” (3.14) 1943.
One enemy type in particular that faced special vilification in Nazi
propaganda was the Jew. Hitler’s belief in a worldwide Jewish
conspiracy, spurred on by Bolshevism, (Fig 3.15 shows a poster for
the film “The Eternal Jew” depicting the satirical image of a Jew
holding a map of the world displaying the Soviet emblem of the
Hammer & Sickle), meant Germany became the mainstay for antiSemitic imagery across Europe, albeit what began at first as antiSemitic rhetoric later turned into fullscale murder in the form of
the Holocaust.
Hans Staluter, “The Eternal Jew” (Fig 3.15) 1937.
‘All of Germany’s problems are the fault of the Jews!’ This quote
from Joseph Goebbels sums up Germany’s position on the Jewish
question. They became scapegoats for everything that was wrong
and later went wrong when Germany finally went to war in 1939. The
Jewish population were continuously characterised in satirical
fashion, and caricatures often portrayed them with a large nose and
top hat much like the capitalists portrayal in Stalinist Russia. The
poster below states, “He is to Blame for the War”, (Fig 3.16), and is
a typical depiction of a Jew in Nazi Germany at this time. Once again
this poster proclaims it is the fault of the Jews for starting the
war. In fact Nazi propagandist’s continuously blamed the Jews for
nonsensical and fanciful things such as the bombing of German cities
and the disastrous situation Germany faced at the front. Their
depiction as skulking figures, something beyond human became a
common tool in downgrading their status and made anti-Semitic
rhetoric easier to swallow. For Adolf Hitler eliminating the Jews
became a goal he obsessed over beyond even winning the war. Poster
campaigns demonising Jews and showing them as something beyond
human was a prelude to genocide and made the job of mass murder a
whole lot simpler.
Hans Schweitzer, “He is to Blame for the War!” (Fig 3.16) 1943
Enemies in Soviet Poster Design: Demonology of the enemy in Soviet
poster design consisted of two basic elements; internal enemies at
home such as the Tsar, Church and Kulak and external enemies
abroad, such as foreign capitalists or other unfriendly nations. As
previously discussed figureheads such as Lenin formed the basis for
heroism yet enemies were needed too. The Bolsheviks felt the
masses needed a clear indication of who to trust and who to follow.
As a result three key enemy figures soon emerged in Bolshevik
demonology. These were the Tsar, the priest (church) and the kulak,
(wealthy peasants who represented the ‘class’ struggle). A very early
example of this can be seen in the 1918 poster “Tsar, Priest &
Kulak”, (Fig 3.17). The Tsar is shown centre stage in-between the
priest and kulak. His crown and various other royal accessories
clearly distinguish him as royalty. The kulak, with cap and beard,
stands facing the tsar, (possible reference to the kulak being in the
tsar’s financial pocket). The priest stands left of the tsar and is
clearly recognisable by his skullcap and cross. The priest wears an
all-together more evil expression then either the tsar or kulak. His
snarling teeth portray him in a demonic light. The church is clearly
being noted for special vilification. It was through posters such as
this that the Bolsheviks pinpointed enemies of the state. While the
image of the priest or kulak changed with time, (sometimes
portrayed wearing differing styles of clothes, expressions etc.), this
1918 poster designated three specific internal enemies opposed to
the new regime and its future.