The Turner Thesis: A Problem in Historiography
Author(s): Gene M. Gressley
Source: Agricultural History, Vol. 32, No. 4 (Oct., 1958), pp. 227-249
Published by: Agricultural History Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3740060
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TheTurnurThesis a Problemin Historiography
GENEM. GRESSLEY
reading,were
eraldosagesof widecollateral
When FrederickJacksonTurnerquietly
young
"worthy
all
for
it
prescription
ago,
White's
his frontierthesis60 years
announced
causedlittlemorethana ripplein historical men."
hisEvolutionas a methodin approaching
circles.Thirtyyearslater,not only was it
widelyacceptedas the primaryexplanation toricalthoughtwasslidingintothehistorical
historiog- sceneat nearlythe sametimeWhitewas at
growth,butAmerican
of American
of mono- work in Michigan.4Comtianpositivism
fromthousands
raphyhadbenefited
tomes soughtto applythe naturalsciencesto ferret
historical
other
and
articles
graphs,
whichemergedin a steadyflow from uni- out laws of historicaldevelopmentwhich
versities,historicalsocietiesand libraries. couldprovidethe sign postsfor a studyof
The fact thatthe frontierthesisproduced directevolution.Whilethe socialevolutiondown manya historltt e lmmec late reactlon IS not surprlslng. ist sent reverberations
before
a historian
find
to
hard
is
it
spine,
ical
school,
"germ"
the
The currentvoguewas
bestfosteredand developedin the seminars JamesHarveyRobinsonwho usedevolution
of HerbertBaxterAdamsat JohnsHopkins as the centralthemeof his work.5
andnationalistic
University.However,noschoolortheorywas It wasin thisevolutionary
historian
was in a milieu that the new "scientific"
well set: Americanhistoriography
nineteenth
the
of
quarter
latter
the
in
emerged
Ameriperiodof rapidchangeandferment.
werefaced
can historyas an academicdisciplinewasin century.The neurprofessionals
They could
itsincipientstages.As lateas1880,J.Franklin with two main alternatives.6
and
thattherewereonlyeleven eitherconverthistoryinto a sociological
remarked
Jameson
scienceor theycouldapply"sciof historyin the United States.1 evolutionary
professors
due to the tremen- entific"methodsto the writingof history.
Yet withina generation,
theprofesof thesepioneeruni- TheirGermantraininginfluenced
dousaccomplishments
andfinallyswayedhimto the
history sionalhistorian
American
andearlyhistorians,
versities
approach.
"scientific"
at the graduatelevel.
waswell established
had severaltra- CharlesKendallAdamsvas one of the
The new scholar-historian
at handfor
ditionswhichwereconveniently
back- 1AmericanHistoricalAsso.iation Committeeon the
in theimmediate
hisuse. Theromatics,
in America
of Research,HistoricalScholarship
ground,useda diderentfabricthanthe"scien- Planning
(New York, 1932), 4. J. FranklinJamesonin the
tific"historianto weavetheirhistoricaltale: Introduction.
in manyinstancesthey werejust as careful 2 For tracingthe backgroundof Americanhistoriogthe following are useful: Michael Kraus, The
in the use of theirsources.2A secondtradi- raphy
Writingof AmericanHistory(Norman,1935); Edward
tion was whatHarryStevenshas chosento N. Saveth, Understandingthe AmericanPast (Boston,
in- 1954); RichardH. Shyrock,"AmericanHistoriography:
approach,
call the "ethicaland spiritual"
A CriticalAnalysisand Program,"AmericanPhilosophitroducedby AndrewDixonWhiteat Michi- cal
Society Proceedings,87:35-46 (]944). H. Hale
gan.3 White,who, CarlBeckersaid,"prob- Bellot, American History and American Historians
Okla., 1952).
ably had a greaterinfluenceon the historv (Norman,
3HarryR. Stevens,"CrossSectionand the Frontier,"
of highereducationin the UnitedStatesin The
52: 446 (July, 1953).
SouthAtlanticQuarterly,
the nineteenthcenturythan anyoneelse," 4 RichardHofstadter,Social Darwinismin American
(Boston, 1955), 3-122; Merle Curti, The
at the Collegede Franceand Thoughl
matriculated
Growthof AmericanThought(New York, 1951), 574the Sorbonne.He alsoattendedthe Univer- 575.
sityof Berlinfora shorttime.Whitereturned 5 Henry Adams first ac.:eptedand then rejectedthe
conceptin history.
to theUnitedStatesin 1857andwashiredas evolutionary
eJohn H. Randall,Jr. and GeorgeHaines,IV, "Conof historyat Michigan.He began trollingAssumptionsin the Practiceof AmericanHisa professor
and Practicein HistoricalStudy: A
his visionof an academicpro- torians,"Theory
implementing
SocialSciReportof the Cotnmitteeon Historiography,
gram in the Historyand PoliticalScience ence ResearchCouncil Bulletin No. 54 (New
Yorkt
by liN 1946).
Department.Lectures,accompanied
.
.
.
.
.
..
227
228
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
firstto drifttowardthe"scientific"
procedure.whichwerebegunin 1882.Thesevolumes
A formerstudentof White,Adamsfollowed wonforthe editorthe appellation
of "Father
his mentoras professor
of historyat theUni- of Monographic
history.''1l
versityof Michigan
in 1869.Professor
Adams' In Adams'seminars
the Teutonichypothefirstseminarconsistedof discussions
in class sis wasdeveloped
to its fullestextent.Along
and an undergraduate
thesis.By 1882,with with MosesCoitTylerand AlbertBushnell
the establishment
of a Schoolof Political Hart,Adamsespousedthe beliefin the idea
Science(due largelyto Adams'efforts)the thatthe UnitedStateshadbeenthe recipient
seminarhad developedinto somethingakin of Teutonic"seeds"
broughtoverfromEngto present-day
graduateform. Two papers land, just as originallythese "seeds"were
fromthe 1882-1883
seminarwere published broughtto Englandfromthe Germanforest
in the firstvolumeof Papersissuedby the by the Anglo-Saxons.
Unitedwith the TeuAmericanHistoricalAssociationin 1886. tonic hypothesiswas the SocialDarwinist
Againfollowingin the stepsof his master, conceptionthatthese"seeds"hadproduced
Adamsarrivedat CornellUniversityin 1885 the democratic
institutions
of the New Englandtown,democratic
elementsin the govto takeoverthe presidency.7
While CharlesKendallAdamswas pio- ernmentsof New Englandstatesandfinally
neeringin a historicalseminarat Michigan, reachedits fruitionin theUnitedStatesConthe firstgenuinegraduateworkwas taking stitution.12
Adams'endorsement
of the Teuplace under Henry Adams at Harvard. tonic hypothesiswas put in an articleon
Adamstrainedthe firstHarvarddoctorsof the "GermanicOriginsof New England
philosophy
in history.8A moodyandeclectic Towns.''13ProfessorAdamswrotethat in
genius,Adamswas stoppedshortin his use the Germanforestwere"plantedthe seeds
of evolutionas a key to socialadvancement,of Parliamentary
orSelf-Government
of Comwhenhe wasunableto harmonize
the Grant monsandCongresses.
Herelaythegermsof
administration
withcosmicprogress!Restless religiousreformation
andof popularrevoluand unsatisfied,
AdamsresignedfromHar- tions,theideaswhichhaveformedGermany
vardin 1877,writing"Failure"
as the titleof and Holland,Englandand New England,
the chapterdealingwith this experience
in the UnitedStatesin the broadestsenseof
his autobiography.9
thatold Germanicinstitution."
A year previousto Adams'resignation, In 1889,a studenta thousandmilesfrom
JohnW. Burgesswasappointed
to a profes- his belovedWisconsinforests,enrolledin
sorshipof history,politicalscienceandinter- Adams'seminar.Bornandraisedin thefrollnationallaw at ColumbiaUniversity.Bur- tiercommunity
of Portage,Wisconsin,
Fredgess, a graduateof AmherstCollege,had erick JacksonTurner found the "germ"
studiedat Leipzig,Gottingenand Berlin.
Fouryearsafterhis arrivalat Columbia,
Bur- 7 C. F. Smith,CharlesKendall Adams (Madison,1924)
A. S. Eisenstadt,Charles McLean Andrews (New
gess persuadedthe trusteesto establisha and
York, 1956), 3-28.
Schoolof PoliticalScience.He originateda 8 HenryCabotLodgeand EdwardChanningweretwo
programof threeyears'studynwhich ulti- of thenl.
9HenryAdams,Edscation of Henry Adams (Boston,
mately culminated in a doctorate of 1918),
299-313.
philosophy.l°
1O
John W. Burgess,Renziniscencesof An American
(New York, 1934), 191-244.
In thesameyearthatBurgessbecamea pro- Scholar
11For Turner'sand Adams'relationshipsee Fulmer
fessorat Columbia,
HerbertBaxterAdams- Mood,"TheHistoriographic
Settingof Turner'sFrontier
age2Wreceiveda fellowshipfromthe Johns Essay,"AfgriculturalHistory, 17:154 (July, 1943).
l2EdwardN. Saveth,American Historians and EuroHopkinsUniversity.As were manyof the pean
Immigrants, I875-Z925,
Studiesin History,Eco"scientific"
historians,
Adamswas trainedin nomics
and PublicLaw, ColumbiaUniversity,No. 540
Germanuniversities.QuicklyAdams de- (New York, 1948), 13-21; Randall and Haines,
"ControllingAssumptions,"31-34; Hofstadter,Social
velopeda historicalseminarthat was pat- Darwinitm,
170-200; Edward N. Saveth, "Race and
ternedby universitiesover the land. The Nationalismin AmericanHistory," Political Science
annualyieldsfromtheseseminarswerepub- Quarterly, 54: 421-441 (September,1939).
13 Herbert B. Adams, "GermanicOrigins of New
lished in the ZohnsHoptins University England
Towns,"Thaetohns Hoptins University Studies
Stadies in History and PoliticalScience, in Historical and Political Science, 1: 5-38 (1883).
THE TURNERTHESIsSA PROBLEMIN HISTORIOGRAPHY
229
theorywantingin explainingAmericaninTwo majorquestionshavereceivedmuch
stitutionalgrowth. Turnerwas emotionally attentionfromscholarsin Americanhistoriandintellectually
interested
in the American ography:One, into what magicbarrelor
scene;the remote"seed"of the Teutonic barrelsdid Turnerdip for his ideas? Two,
theoriststoodin a poorsecondplacein his what are the reasonsfor threedecadesof
ideason the Americandevelopment.14
As almostunqualifiedacceptanceof Turner's
he wrote in his autobiographic
letter to theories?Obviouslymanyof Turner'sconConstance
Skinner,
ceptshavebeenfloatingaroundin thehistorMypeopleon bothsidesmovedat leasteverygen- icalmist. ButTurnerdidwhathisprecursors
eration,and builtnew communities.... My father did not do: he unifiedand dramatized
the
s^asnamed Andrew JacksonTurner at his birth materialon the frontier.One might list a
in 1832by my Democraticgrandfather,
and I still
rise and go to bed to the strikingof the old clock hostof nameswhoseideascanbefoundsomewritings.21
To attemptto
thatwasbroughtintothehousethedayhe wasborn, wherein Turner's
line
at the edge of the Adirondack
forest. My mother's link Turnerin directhistoriographic
ancestors
werepreachers.
Is it strangethatI preached with thesenamesis neitherfruitfulnor peron the frontier?
tinet.Thisis notto saythatthe studyof the
Very sincerelyand apologetically
yours,
FREDERICK
J. TURNER frontierconceptbeforeTurneris not profitP.S. Of coursethis is for yourpersonalinforma- 14 In his formativeyears Turnerdid not reject the
tionandnot for publication.
Don'tsmile,please. . .15 Teutonictheoryentirely. He was very much interested
in the social evolutionaryapproachthroughouthis life.
the reviewby Turnerof TheodoreRoosevelt'sWinTurnerwaslookingfora historical
summit See
ning of the Westin Dial, 10:71-73 (August, 1889);
fromsvhichto viewAmerican
historyandby Merle
Curti,'4TheSectionand the Frontierin American
1893whenhe deliveredhis addressin Chi- History:The Methodological
Conceptsof FrederickJackTurner,"in Methods
in Social Science, edited by
cago,he had discovered
that vantagepoint. son
A. Rice (Chicago,1931), 353-367.
In one famoussentence,
Turneroutlinedthe Stuart
15 Constance
L. Skinner,ed., "Turner'sAutobiographic
nextstagein American
historiography;
"The Letter,"Wisconsin Magazine of History, 19: 101-102;
two articlesby FulmerMood providea brilliantbackexistenceof an areaof freeland,its contin- drop
for understanding
Turner'sformativeperiod. Fuluousrecession,
andthe advanceof American mer Mood, "Turner'sFormativePeriod,"in
the Early
settlementwestward,explainAmericande- Writings of Frederict tactson Turner (Madison,1938),
Fulmer Mood, "The Developmentof Frederick
velopment."Turner then stated that the 3-39;
JacksonTurneras a HistoricalThinker,"in the Pro.
emerglng
.
.
po. .ltlcal
*
.
.
lnstltutlons
.
*
ln
.
Amenca
-
ceedings of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts,34:
281-352 (1943). See also:FulmerMood,"TheHistorioweredueto environmental
conditions
andnot graphic
Settingof Turner'sFrontierEssay,t'Agricultural
to raceas the Teutonists
claimed.l6
History, 17: 153-155 (January,1943); Fulmer Mood,
That most important"areaof free land" "FrontierConcept, 1871-1898,"Agricultural History,
19:24-30 (January,1945); Donald J. Berthrong,"Anprovided
theatmosphere
whereintheindivid- drew
Turner, Workhorseof the Republican
ualfrontiersman
unchained
himselffromthe Party,"Jackson
WisconsinMagazine of History, 35: 77-86 (WinEuropeansocialrigidityand boundedforth ter, 1954).
16Fora discussionof evolutionarythoughtsee, Stow
to enjoyeconomicequality,socialmobility Persons,
Erolutionary
in America (New Haven
and democracy.17
In a word,wroteTurner, 1950); RalphHenryThought
Gabriel,The Course of American
"freelandsmeantfreeopportunity."
18 From Democ>atic Thought (New York, 1956).
17 FrederickJ. Turner, The Frontier in Amensan
the impactof the frontieron the individual History
York, 1921), 259.
18 Ibid.,(New
259-260wasforgedtheAmerican
character.
ForPro- 19 Ibid., 358.
fessorTurnerthismeantthepioneerwasnaHow Turnerevolvedthe sectionalapproachis given
tionalisticyet individualistic
and that above in2°Max
Farrand'sintroductionto Turner'sThe Signifiall he hada passionate
beliefin democracy.19
cance of Sections in American History (New York
1932), iii-v; FulmerMood,"Origin,Evolutionand ApWith the passingof the frontier,Turner plication
of the Sectional Concept, 1750-1900," in
discerned
the advancement
of a socialhomo- Regionalism
in Smerican History, edited by Merrill
genitywhichin turn launchedhim on his Jensen(Madison,1952), 5-98.
21 DavidA. Wells,HoratioSeymour,
S. Sato,C. Wood
next searchfor factorexplainingthis phe- Davis,
RichmondMayo-Smith,RichardT. Ely, Waynomenon.Finally,he settledon the section land Lamoreux,Achille
Loria,C. F. Emerick,Thomas
as the agentwhichwouldaidin the compre- Donaldson,ErastusWiman,Henry Gannett,John BasWilliamF. Allen, E. L. Godkin,RalphW. Emerhensionof the forcesat workon the closing com,
son, WashingtonIrving,ThomasB. Macaulay,G. W. F.
of the frontier.20
Hegel, JusiinWinsorand B. A. Hinsdale.
230
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
of
able. Indeed,it may be extremelyworth- bo West. Turner'scalm announcement
of Census'observation
while,as the MoodandBensonstudieshave the Superintendent
thatthefrontierwasgonejoltedmanyscholdemonstrated.22
28
FulmerMood,who has producedthe best arsinto revisingtheirattitudes.
of the
earlylife,tracedthe evolu- Anotherreasonfortheendorsement
workon Turner's
tion of the frontierconceptamongcensus frontierschoolis oftenoverlooked.Muchof
Moodpointsout whatthe frontiertheorizers
wrotewas well
analyzersandstatisticians.
Butthe
a longheritageof written,stimulating
andprovocative.
thatTurnerhadavailable
men who had workedwith and developed, majorreasonfortheassentgivento Turner's
in part,the ideas that Turnerso forcibly conceptswasthe streamof graduatestudents
turnedout.23
whomTurnertaughtoverthe years.There
graduate
thatDr.Turner's
Why Turner'sideas were unilaterally is ampletestimony
hascaused seminarsbecamelaboratories
for testingthe
profession
bythehistorical
adopted
and so far no one stimulating
ideasof masterandstudent.The
muchmorespeculation,
diagnosishas provencompletelyvalid.24A resultsthenspreadto the fourcornersof the
arereadilyapparent. UnitedStates.Seldomhasa teacherincurred
myriadof explanations
histhesis, deeperdevotionfromhis students.A high
At thetimethatTurnerannounced
bytwoprin- percentage
theirlivesto
of themconsecrated
historywasdominated
American
ciple themes:the Teutonichypothesisand 22 Lee Benson, "HistoricalBackgroundof Turner's
the obsessionwith the slaverycontroversy.25
FronticrEssay,"Agaic?>lturalHistory, 25: 59-82 (April,
explana- 1951).
The Age wasripefora nationalistic
Concept,1871-1898,"Ag2S FulmerMood, "Frontier
growth.Younghistorians ricaltus-al
tion of America's
History, 18: 24-30 (January,1943); Fulmer
who werecastingaboutfor somethingmore Mood, "Noteson the Historyof the Word Frontier,"
1948); Rudolf
thantheTeutonicschooladopted Agricultaral Histo7^y,22:78-83 (April,
"American"
AgriFreund, "Turner'sTheory of Social Evolution,^'
of
uniqueness
the
to
a
solution
the thesisfor
cultural History, 19: 78-87 (April, 1945); Herman
Americanhistory.By followingTurnerone Nixon, "The Precursorsof Turnerin the Interpretation
Frontier,"South Atlantic Quarterly,
move- of the American
couldbe in theyeastof theProgressive
28: 83-90 (January,1929).
The 24 In 1956, a Norwegianand former Curti student,
mentbutstillnotbe labelleda Marxist.26
thesiswas in the mold of the JedersonianSveaasAnderson,analyzedthe genesisof Turner'sideas
by using six "activeconcepts":the frontier,free land,
of a centuryearlier.
democracy
the idea of nature,the idea of evolutionand the ecoof the late nomicthoughtcomplexof land and trade. Takingthese
Otherfactorsin thebackground
con- six concepts,the authorinvestigates,in reversechronandearlytwentiethcenturies
nineteenth
how each idea developedin 12 of Turner's
tributedto the acceptanceof the frontier ology,
articles. SveaasAnderson,Westward Is the Coxrse of
thesis. There was wide receptiongiven to Empires (Universityof Oslo Press,1956).
and slavery see Thomas J. Pressly,
doctrines.In additionto this, 25For Turner
evolutionary
Interpret Their Civil War (Princeton,1954),
increasein countyhistories,statehistorical Amewflicans
163-192.
the 26Saveth,Understanding the American Past, 18. Reacultivated
andmuseums
libraries
societies,
sons for the frontierthesis'adoptionare to be found in
intellectualclimatefor the Turnerthesis. the
following:W. Stull Holt, "HistoricalScholarship"
in hisownbailiwickwas in Ame1ican Scholarship in the Twentieth Centary,
Now,eachhistorian
theoryuponwhich edited by Merle Curti (Cambridge,1953), 83-110;
witha historical
proxrided
Henry Nash Smith, "The West as an Image of the
and in so American
to test his personalobservations,
Past,"The University of Kansas City Review,
doinghe wasgiventhefeelingof contributing18: 29-40 (Autumn,1951); HenryNash Smith, Virgin
Mass.,1950), 250-260; RichardHofLand (Cambridge,
of his nation.
to the interpretation
Social Darwinism, 174-175; Henry S. Comstadter,
Besidesthe frontierthesis,the attentionof mager, Americvn Mind, 199-309; Lee Benson, "The
wasfocusedon thefron- Historical Backgroundof Turner's Frontier Essay,"
theselocalhistorians
History, 25: 54-82 (April, 1951).
changesthat were Agricultral
tier by the revolutionary
27EarleD. Ross, "A Generationof PrairieHistorioggoingon in thelastquarterof thenineteenth raphy,"MisszssippiValley Historical Reriew, 33: 391-410
Lee Bensonoutlinedtheseas (1) (I)ecember,1946).
century.27
28 Lee Benson, "HistoricalBackgroundof Turner's
revolutionwhichriveted Frontier
the communication
Essay," Agricultaral History, 25: 59-82 (April,
on the publicdo- 1951); HermanAusubel,Historians and Theiw-Craft:
the attentionof Americans
of AmerYcanHismainof theWestand(2) thegeneralbeliefin A Study of Presidential Sddresses
History,EcoStudies
I884-I945,
Association,
torical
of publiclands. There nomics and Public Law of ColumbiainUniversity,
the inexhaustibility
No.
always
could
one
that
was a generalfeeling
569 (New York, 1950), 211-213and 326-329.
THE TURNER THESIS-A
PROBLEM IN HISTORIOGRAPHY
231
theunknownsof the"hitheredge." processof Americanization.
exploring
Dr. Beard-adTurnerhadneverwrittena word mittedthattherewasa certainplausibility
If Professor
to
his conceptswould have been well-known the thesis,buthe proceeded
to citethe cohethrough the publicizing powers of his sivenessof the frontierGermansof Pennsylstudents.
to theircustoms
vaniawhoclungtenaciously
As earlyas 1905,Turner'sstudentswere long afterthe frontierwas passed.Third,
overtheUnitedStates.JosephScha- Professor
scattered
Beardtookexceptionto the phrase
ferwasat Oregon,EdmondMeanyat Wash- thatlegislationwasconditioned
by the fronington,Clarkat Texas,Hibbardat Ames, tier. He maintained
thatlegislationwas"inby the fronbutnot "conditioned"
Libbyat NorthDakota,Beckerat Kansas.29 fluenced"
yearsthesenewlytrainedhis- tier. Fourth,Beardfoundlittle evidenceto
In succeeding
torianswould be followedby a score of supportTurner'scontentionthat looseconas the
increased
others.30When one furtherconsidersthat structionof the constitution
manyof thesestudentswerethe firsttrained
in theirvariouslocales,the wonder 29 Merle Curti and VernonCarstensen,The Uni2werhistorians
of the frontierthesis sity of Wisconsin (2 vols., Madison,1949) 1: 643.
acceptance
of unilateral
30GeorgeM. Stephenson,ArthurP. Witaker,Samuel
continuesto diminish.31
F. Bemis, JamesB. Hedges, FrederickMerk, John D.
of Turnerandthefron- Barnhart,James Phinney Baxter, Merle Curti, Avery
The earlycriticism
Craven,WilliamO. Lynch,Homer C. Hockett,Louise
andusually Kellogg,
tierthesiswassketchy,ill-defined
L. Skinner,E. E. Dale and E. E.
directedat one or two pointsof the thesis, RobinsonConstance
were on the rolls of Turner'sseminars.
whichpointsthe critics,fromtheirpersonal 31Anexampleof a beautifullywrittenappreciationof
Turneris Carl Becker's"FrederickJacksonTurner"in
Curi- Af
believedto be inaccurate.32
experience,
merican Masters of Social Science, edited by Howard
ouslyenough,the firstpublishedcriticismof Odum (New York, 1927), 273-318. There are many
the frontierthesiscamefroma Turnerstu- others such as E. E. Dale, "Turner The Man and
The Uni2oersityof Kansas City Review, 18:
of Teacher,"
dent,EdmondS. Meany,at theUniversity
of Fred18-28 (Autumn,1951); E. E. Dale, "Memories
Washington.In a paperpublishedin the erick JacksonTurner,"Mississippi Valley Historical Re1943); Max Farrand,
Annual Report of the AmericanHistorical view, 30: 339-357 (December,
"FrederickJackson Turner at Huntington Library,"
for 1909,Meanytook exception Huntington
Association
Library Bulletin, 3: 157-164 (February,
that"Thetradingposts 1933); Max Farrand,"FrederickJacksonTurner. A
statement
to Turner's
Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings,
becamethe nucleiof later settlement;the Memoir,"
65:432-440 (1935); LouisePhelpsKellogg,"The Passtrader'strailsgrewinto the earlyroads,and ing of a Great Teacher FrederickJacksonTurner,"
theirportagesmarkedout the locationfor The Historical Outloot,23: 270-272 (October,1932);
JacksonTurner,"Minnesota
GraceLee Nute, "Frederick
wasunder- Hg'story,
canals.Littlebylittlethefur-trade
13:159-162(June, 1932); EdgarE. Robinson,
mining the'Indiansocietyand pavingthe "FrederickJacksonTurner,"North Datota Historical
Schafer,"The
33Meany Quarterly,6: 259-261 (July,1932); Joseph
of civilization."
wayfortheentrance
Authorof the 'FrontierHypothesis',"Wisconsin Magaconcededthe validityof thisevolutionwhen zine of History, 15: 86-103 (September,1931); Joseph
usedeastof the divide,but he statedthatit Schafer,"Deathof ProfessorTurner,"Wisconsin Magaof History, 15:495-499 (June,1932); ThomasHart
couldnot be employedforthePacificNorth- zine
Benton, "AmericanRegionalism,"The University of
thatthe Kansas City Review, 18:41-75 (Autumn,1951); WilMeanydemonstrated
west. Professor
nuclei for early settlementin the Pacific bur R. Jacobs, "FrederickJackson Turner Master
Pacifiic Historical Review, 23: 49-58 (FebruNorthwestwere usuallysawmills,available Teacher,"
ary, 1954); UlrichB. Phillips,"The Traitsand Contriwaterpower,a mineor a crossroad.As far butions of Frederick Jackson Turner," Agricultural
as can be detected,Meany'scriticismmade History, 19: 21-23 (January,1945).
which surveythe
32 Two shortand generaltreatments
profession.34literature
on thehistorical
littleimpression
on the criticsof the frontierschoolare R. L.
Twelveyearselapsedbeforethenextattack Lokken, "The TurnerThesis:Criticismand Defense,"
St«ldies, 32: 356-358 and 363-365 (December,
on Turnerwas recorded.CharlesA. Beard Social
1941) and J. A. Burkhart,"The Turner Thesis: A
hisassaulton thefrontierthesisalong Historian's
directed
Wisconsin Magazine of HisControversy,'8
fourlines. First,the AgrarianWest,slavoc- tory, 31:70-83 (September,1947).
33FrederickJacksonTurner,Rise of he New West,
togetherexplained I8I9-I829.
racy,laborandcapitalism
Smerican Nation: A History (28 vols.,
notfree New York, The
butcertainly
development,
American
1904), 14: 113-114.
land and the WestwardMovementalone. 34Edmond S. Meany, "The Towns of the Pacific
WereNot Foundedon the Fur Trade,"AnSecond,Beardobjectedto the reasoningthat Northwest
nual Repout of the AmericanHistoricalAssociation,
the frontieris themosteffectivefactorin the 1909 (Washington,1911), 165-172.
232
HISTORY
AGRICULTURAL
and culturalartscontinuedto adnationmarchedWestward.Beardsaidthere facturing
after1890.Parishheld
progression
in
vance
between
that
than
wasno periodmoreloose
"ancientspirit"of the
the
that
opinion
the
hundred
a
furthermore,
and
1789and 1795,
alive by the twin
kept
be
and frontierwould
in Colorado
laterWesterncapitalists
years
as it migrates
change
to
culture
of
tendencies
werea long way fromlooseconCalifornia
sectionalism.39
of
strength
continued
the
and
whenit cameto incometax legislastruction
Withthe adventof the 1930's,criticismof
tion. Dr. Beardclimaxedhis argumentby
to paymore Turnerand the frontierthesisincreasedin
profession
thehistorical
invoking
to the conflictbetweencapitaland force. Some reasonsfor the high pitch
attention
of these criticismswere clear,otherswere
labor.35
The sameyearthat Beardfirstregistered opaque.The 'thirtieswas a periodof disilwas havingreThe depression
hisdissentwith the Turnerthesis,Clarence lusionment.
of
amongall strata society.The
W.Alvordrejectedone aspectof thefrontier percussions
critics,academicians,
thesis.Alvord'sparticularpique was with intelligentsia-literary
andpolitical
"technocracy"
new
the
of
leaders
the famoussentencein whichTurnerdesremedythe
to
desire
a
reflected
reformers
"Each
cribesthe migrationfrom the East.
holeconomic
this
brought
had
that
"system"
contithe
across
waves
passedin successive
vogue
intellectual
Gapand watch ocaustupon them. The
nent. Standat Cumberland
of the "robber
single wasforblanketcondemnation
marching
of civilization,
theprocession
wealth.The
great
of
malefactors
and
file-the buffalofollowingthe trail to the barons"
"newdeal."
a
demanding
was
large
at
country
and
salt springs,the Indians,the fur trader
of tar(groups
"Hoovervilles"
lines,
Bread
farmerpioneer
the
hunter,the cattle-raiser,
masses
homeless
by
inhabited
shacks
papered
Professor
by."36
passed
has
and the frontier
the
and
peddlers
apple
theopinionthatthedivision of shiftingpeoples))
Alvordexpressed
varbe
to
appeared
shovel-leaner
ubiquitous
of classeswasnot as distinctas this sentence
folklore.
wouldlead one to think. Did not Richard nishedontoAmerican
wrotein 1936,"The
Fortune
of
editors
The
Alvord
?
Boone
Daniel
accompany
Henderson
is fatalistic....
generation
college
day
present
be
would
migration
frontier
believedthat
be truth,it
to
average
mean
by a flood not by successive If we takethe
characterized
generaunadventurous
subdued,
cautious,
a
is
Alvord
waves.In the samearticle,Professor
to
afraid
heaven,
storm
to
unwilling
tion,
hammer
observedwhatlatercriticswereto
its
dramatize
to
unable
itself,
of
fool
a
make
the
of
role
the
at to wit, Turnerignored
How would a thesisthat
predicament."40
landspeculator.37
of America'spast,the
benefits
FouryearsafterBeard'sand Alvord'sat- extolledthe
way of life,
American
the
of
uniqueness
tacks,JohnC. Almackpublishedone of the
stand
opportunity
equal
and
individualism
with the whole
first generaldiscordances
forgotten
was
All
onslaught?
this
against
up
thesis
Turner
thesis.Afterwritingthat the
or somebody.
wasnotbaseduponfacts,Almackstatedthat in therushto blamesomething
he did not believethatthe frontierwas the
35CharlesA. Beard,"The Frontierin AmericanHismotivatingforcebehindsuchgovernmentaltory,"
New Republic, 25:349-350 (February16, 1921);
schools,direct Charles
reformsas freetax supported
A. Beard,"Cultureand Agriculture,"Saturday
(October20, 1928).
civil servicereformand primary Reviezu of Literature, 5: 272-273
legislation,
J. Turner,"The Significanceof the Fron36Frederick
was
labor
that
noted
Almack
nominations.
tier in AmericanHistory,"The Frontier in American
the primemoverbehindmanyof thesere- History (New York, 1947), 12.
37C. W. Alvord, "sKeviewof FrederickJ. Turner's
forms. ProfessorAlmackendedby saying Frontier
in American History," Mississippi Valley Histhatthe frontierwasnot unique.38
torical Review, 7: 403-407 (March,1921).
A fellow Californianof Almack's,John 38JohnC. Almack,"The Shibbolethof the Frontier,"
16:197-201 (May, 1925).
outloo4J
on thefron- HistoricalCarl
CarlParish,focusedhiscriticism
of the Westward
"ThePersistence
Parish,
39John
tierthesisin anotherquarter.Writingin the Movement,"Yale Review, 5: 461-477 (April, 1926);
of the
in 192d,Parishofferedthehypo- reprintedby John Carl Parish,The Persistence
YaleRevie«lo
Other Essays (Berkeley,1943),
and
Movement
Westward
perMovement
thesis that the Westward
1-25.
sistedafterthe 1890's.New frontiersof con- 40Editorsof Fortune,"Youthin College,"Fortunc,
intensivefarming,banking,manu- 13:99-103 (June, 1936).
servation,
THE TURNERTHESIS-A PROBLEMIN HISTORIO&RAPHY
233
The depressionelementin the criticismof industry;oncehavingservedto developthe
both
Had nation's capital, it couldbe abandoned
the 'thirtiescan be overwmphasized.
Finally,Hacker
andeconomically.
the frontierthesis politically
therebeenno depression,
theory
adherence
to thesafety-valve
wouldstill have comeundersearchingand expressed
labor.Byconminuteexamination
in the light of gigantic andits evileffecton American
to freelands
regi- tinuingto drawoWworkingmen
stridesbeingmadein industrialization,
mentationof laborforcesand urbanization.the Americanlabormovementwas robbed
openedwitha pro- of preservinga corltinuousrevolutionary
The 1930'sdisputations
at HarvardUniversity, tradition.42
fessorof government
thegrowth CharlesBeardrenewedhis chargesin the
Benjamin
F. Wrightquestioning
of democracy
on the frontier.Dr. Wright yearthatsaw the beginningof FranklinD.
of the Roosevelt's
secondterm. Againhe was perthoughtthatthe greatestshortcoming
was "its tendencyto plexedby the neglectof the Turnerians
frontierinterpretation
to
isolatethe growthof Americandemocracydealwiththe<<democratic
in Eastern
impulses
Professor
of thelabormovement.43
fromthe generalcourseof WesternCiviliza- idealism"
whether Beardassertedthatco-operation,
tion."Ptrofessor
Wrightquestioned
as muchas
was in evidenceon the frondemocracy
cameout of the Americanforest; individualism,
he thoughta bettertruismwouldbe that it tier. Bearddid not believethat the frontier
camefromthe Eastandfoundin theWesta had as muchinfluenceas Turnerians
imaguponwhichto nurture. ined, but he was desirousin knowingjust
congenialatmosphere
thefronIn a succeedingessay Wrightdeveloped whatkindandhowmuchinfluence
anotherareaof dissent.He wasnoteoncerned tierdid have.44
with institutionalgrowthas found in the When the migrantsweretrekkingacross
eonstitutional
historyof the new West. So Southwestern
United Statesin the middle
there 'thirties,thereoccurredthe mostimportant
faras Dr.Wrightwasableto determine
desireon the part of andthoroughresearch
thathasbeendoneby
was no considerable
the menwho framedthe earlyWesterneonBenjaminF. Wright, "AmericanDemocracyand
stitutionsto diGerfrom thosealreadylong the Frontier,s'Yale ReriewJ 20: 349-365 (December,
established
in the East. Fromhis research, 1930); BenjaminF. Wright,"PoliticalInstitutionsand
Frontier,"Sources of Culture in the Middle West,
ProfessorWrightfound that the frontiers-the
edited by Dixon R. Fox (I!lew York, 1934), 15-38;
menwereimitative,
notcreative.Futhermore,BenjaminF. Wright,"Reviewof FrederickJ. Turner's
History," New
Dr. Wrightwanteda betterdefinitionof the Significance ot Sectons in AMmericozn
Quarterly}6: 630-634 (September,1933).
frontierthanTurnerhadprovided;hadnot Engbnd
The Nation,
42LouisM. Hacker,"Sectionsor Classes,'}
Turner over-emphasizedthe geographie 137:108-110 (July, 1933). Dr. Hackermuted his diswith the frontierthesisto a greatdegreeby 1947.
factorsand minimizedethnicand cultural gust
While he was still not willing to acceptthe frontieras
faetors
?41
the full explanationof AmericanIife, he was willing to
DifferingfromWright,LouisHaekerap- concedethat the frontiertheorywas a partialexplanaLouis M. Hasker,The Shaping of the American
fromes- tion.
proaehedthe Turnerinterpretation
Tradition (2 vols., New York, 1947) l:xv-xxiv.
sentiallya Marxianangle. Dr. Hackersaw 43Beardbelievedthat Turnerliimselftook a broader
"amazingerrors"in the frontierthesis. Of view of Americandevelopment,althoughhe could find
exemplification
for this belief in Turner'swritings.
and little
theuniqueness
of thefrontierexperienee
qCharlesA. Beard,C'TheFrontierin AmericanHisdifferences,
Hacker tory,"AVcwRepublic, 97.359-362(February,1939). Rethecontinuity
of sectional
in MalcolmCowleyand BernardSmith,Boots
said,"Merelyto mentiontheserathernaive printed
That Cha?agedOur Minds (New York, 1939), 61-71.
ideas,as I haveis enoughto refutethem." Fora greatdealof insightintoBeard7sintellectualcosmos
In agreementwith lzrofessorWright,Dr. see Charles 24. Beard} An Appraisal edited by Howard
Beale(Lexington,Kentucky,1954). Beardwas probHackerclaimedthat exeessivestresson the K.
ablythe mostwidelyreadhistorianof his day. All told,
and sec- his volumeshad sold 11,352,163copiesas of 1954. For
uniqueness
of Americanexperience
his- a criticalapproachto Beard see SamuelE. Morison's
tionaldevelopment
hadturnedAmerican
By Land and By Sea (New York, 1953), 328-345. A
toriography
inwarduponitself,whereas"all professor
at MichiganStateUniversity,RobertE. Brown,
eyes should have been on events going has delivereda scathingattackon Beard'sanalysisof
Brownclaimsthat
borders."Professor the Constitution.Contraryto ENeard,
on beyondthe country's
Constitution
was adoptedby middle-classdemocratic
Hackerenuneiatedthat agricultureof the the
society. RobertBrown, Charles Beard and the Constiof tution (Princeton,1956).
Westernregionwas reallythe '<catspaw"
41
234
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
the criticsof frontieron Americandevelop- confirmedthatmanypotentialvagewarners
ment. Thesescholarsconcentrated
theirin- left forthe Westernlands.Hence,therewas
tellectual
diligenceon thesafety-valve
theory. a safety-valve
for the farmerratherthanthe
The safety-valve
conceptwasnot an integral wagewarner
which seemedto operatebest
part of the Turner thesis, althoughDr. fromstatescontiguous
to the frontierland.49
GeorgePiersoncommented
thata gooddeal
The GoodrichandDavisonstudytouched
of the charmand optimismof the frontier otSa fastandfuriousraceamongscholarsto
thesiswas derivedfromthe notionthatthe presenttheirvariedfindings.In July,1936,
GoldenWestwas a landof opportunity.45 justthreemonthsaftertheGoodrich-Davison
Theopeningsalvoin thesafety-valve
contro- study,Professor
FredA. Shannonpublished
versywasfiredbyProfessors
CarterGoodrich the resultsof his researchin the Afmerican
and Sol Davisonof ColumbiaUniversity.46HistoricalReview.8°Dr. Shannondiscovered
In theirstudy,Davisonand Goodrichmade thatbecauseof the manyweaknesses
in the
little use of the manuscriptcensusof the HomesteadAct, the Act failed to aid the
GeneralLandOfiicerecords.4'The method- emigrant.Second,Shannonsaid that the
ologicaldifficultiesencounteredwith these Westwasmerelybeginningto fillup by 1890.
two sourceswere that the Censusdid not In addition,ProfessorShannonwas conshow wherethe workerSrst practicedhis vincedthatif anymovement
occurred,
it was
occupation
and the Homesteadentrieswere fromfarmto farmor fromfarmto city,but
of littleuse sincethe information
contained rarelyfromcityto farm.
on occupations
wasmentioned
onlyoccasion- lSwomonthsafterShannon's
findingswere
ally. Theirchiefsourceof information
was announced,MurrayKane presenteda stathe filesof contemporary
newspapers.
tisticalanalysisof selectedcountiesin MichiOn the basisof availability
of newspaper ganandMassachusetts.
Dr. Kaneascertained
files,Goodrich
andDavisonchoseFallRiver, thatin timesof depression
therewas an inMassachusetts,
fortheirpilotstudy.Theydis- creasein the population
of thesestatesand
coveredthat a numberof workerswent simultaneously
a declinein industrialemWest.48Butof theemigrants
thatwentWest, ployment.This led Kaneto deducethat a
sevenout of ten returnedto the East. After
W. Pierson,"RecentStudiesof Turnerand
quicklysurveying
thetownrecords
of Lowell 46George
FrontierDoctrine,"Misslssippi Valley Historical ReandSpringfield,
Massachusetts,
the investiga- the
view, 34: 453-458 (December,1947).
torsoderedtheirconclusion.First,the most 46Whilethe safety-valvecontroversywas in its instages,an Illinoisscholar,EarlW. Hayterapplied
seriousobstacleto Westernmigrationwas cipient
the froniierthesis to his state'searly culture. Hayter's
the lackof capital;second,therewas a def- researchled him to concludethatthe froniiermadeonly
inite move to overcomethis handicapby slightmodificationson the economic,pioliticaland social
institutionsof pioneercommunitiesin Illinois. Earl W.
groupcolonization
enterprises,
whichon oc- Hayter,
"Sourcesof EarlyIllinoisCulture,"Transactions
casionweresupported
byphilanthropic
funds. of the Illinois State Historical Society, 36:1-16 (1936).
&Carter Goodrichand Sol Davison, "The WageWhile migrationprojectsmay have raised Earner
in the WestwardMovement,"Political Science
the percentage
of industrialworkerstravel- Quarterly,
50: 161-185 (June, 1935) and 51: 61-116
ing WestSGoodrichand Davisonconclude (March,1936).
Coloradowas the destinationof some Fall River
that,"themovement
of Easternwageearners emigrants.
See J. F. Willardand ColinB. Goodykoontz,
to theWesternlandswassurprisingly
small." Experiments in Colorado Colonization, I869-I872, HisToo few industrial
workersreachedthefron- toricalCollectionsof the Universityof Colorado,3:160(Boulder,Colorado,1926).
tierto attractnoticein theamountsof settle- 180One
of the best works on internalmigrationis
ments.Whatis morestriking,toofew wage- LewisD. Stilwell,Migrationfrom Vermont (Montpelier,
earnerslefttheindustrial
centersto exertany 1948). Stilwellprovidesthe historianwith motivations
Vermonters'treks to other sectionsof the United
markedeffecton thelaborsituation.Having for
States. Exploitation
of the soil, climateand topography,
and the educationalsystemwere
statedthis conclusion,ProfessorsGoodrich lack of industrialization
by Stilwell as causesof emigration.In the
and Davisonemphasizedthat there was suggested
same area as Stilwell's study is Stewart Holbrook,
nothing in the presentstudy that would Yantee
Exodus (New York, 1950).
throw doubt upon the doctrinethat the 5°Fred A. Shannon,"The HomesteadAct and the
Surplus,"American Historical Reuiew, 41: 637growthof industrial
Americawasdelayedby Labor
651 (July, 1936). See also Fred A. Shannon,The
the presenceof the frontier.Theiranalysis Farmer's Jasr Frontier (New York, 1945), 53-58.
48
49
THE 1'URNER THESIS-A
PROBLEM IN HISTORIOGRAPHY
235
minorpartof the workersreturnedto the optimumsteam;he wonderedwhetherthis
from which they laborunrestwouldhavecomeaboutif wages
communities,
agricultural
had been recruited,but that they did not had beenbuoyedup by a scarcityof labor?
mfgrateto freelandon the frontier.Usually ProfessorShannongeneralizedthat if there
when the citiescapturedthe farm laborers, wereanysafety-valve,
it wasthecity.86
tendencyto
they manifesteda remarkable
In spiteof Shannon'sedortsto burythe
hold them.81
the lid on the coffinblew off
safety-valve,
of the safety- with volcanicforceat the fifty-firstannual
A replyto thesedetractors
valvewasmadeby a Turnerstudent,JoseF)hmeetingof the Mississippi
ValleyHistorical
Schafer,in a seriesof threearticlesbetween Association,
April,1958.Norin Minneapolis,
December,1936and December,1937.52In manJ. Simlerof the Collegeof St. Thomas,
answerto GoodrichandDavison,he pointed St. Paul,believedthatcriticsas well as the
out thateventheyadmittedthatthe frontier advocates
had overlooked
of the safety-valve
tendedto hold up the level of industrial a majorpointin the wholecontroversy.56
wages.He tookissuewiththemon themeth- Utilizingeconomictheory,Simlerargued
Dr.Schaferclaimed thatmoregermanethanwhetherthe safetyodologyof theirresearch.
the materialwasthereif youcaredto dig for valve performedperfectlywas whetherit
notmade operatedat all. Simlerbelievedthanan ecoit. WhyhadDavisonandGoodrich
majorpoint nomic safety-valve
? Schafer's
useof countyhistories
was certainlyat work.
effectthe frontierland He wasquitewillingto agreewiththe social
the psychological
ssras
threat safety-valveadherentsviewpointthat "the
had.Theselandswerean omnipresent
and West,by and large,ofleredno easyavenue
a hopefortheunemployed
to employers,
a constantagentin the mindsof the general of escapefor propertyless
wage-earners."
public. So whetherthe peoplemigratedor
Hosvever,Simlerstatedthis did not deny
not to freelandin the Westwas not as im- that arl economicsafety-valve
of sometype
portantas the fact that they thoughtthey wasfunctioning.Indeed,his workwithecocould.
on the SafetyMurrayKane, "SomeConsideration
A yearanda halfafterSchaferfinishedhis Valve
Doctrine,"Mississippi Valley Historical Review,
rebuttal,Goodrichand Davisonwrotea re- 23: 169-188(September,1936).
52JosephSchafer,"SomeFactsBearingon the Safetyoverthe use of
joinder.Theystilldisagreed
Wisconsin PwIagnzineof History, 20: 216-232
census. Second,they were Valve,"
the manuscript
(December,1936); Joseph Schafer, "Concerningthe
interestedin easternmigration,not the im- Frontieras a Safety-Valve,"Political Science Quarterly,
102:407-420 (September,1937); JosephSchafer,"Was
migrantfromabroad.Third,they accepted the
West a Safety-Valvefor Labor?"Mississippi Valley
edectof Historical Review, 24: 299-314 (December,1937).
pointon the psychological
Schafer's
thatthiselement 63CarterGoodrichand Sol Davison, "The Frontier
thefrontier,butcommented
Political Science QuarA Rejoinder,"
as a Safety-Valve:
wasnot measurahle.53
terly, 53: 268-271 (June, 1938).
SevenyearsandoneWorldWarlater,Fred 5+FredA. Shannon,"A Post Mortemon the LaborTheory,"Agncultural History, 19: 31-38
to nailthe coffinlid Safety-Valve
A. Shannonendeavored
(January,1945)
myth."54After a
shut on the "safety-valve
66Anotherwriterwho has chosento ignoreProfessor
detailedstatisticalinquiry,Shannonwrote Shannon'sinjunctionsis SamuelLubell. Lubell,in his
of American Politics (New York, 1952), llas
that20 farmersmovedto urbancentersfor Fture
made use of the safety-valveconceptin his analysisof
workerthatwentto thefarm. Urbanism.Prognosticator
everyindustrial
Lubellsaw the urbanfrontier
hewers advancingalong the "Old TenementTrail,"from subIn addition,10sonsof theagricultural
urb to suburb,being driven by the hunger for social
wentto thecityforeverysonthatbecamethe status.
For thoughtssomewhatin line with Lubell's,
Shan- see CharlesMorrowWilson,"The SurzZiving
proudownerof a newfarm.Professor
American
Current History, 34: 189-192 (May, 1931).
non debatedthe conclusionthatimmigrants Frontier,"
MNormanJ. Simler,"The Safety-ValveDoctrineRemovedon to the farmsafterservinga tenure evaluated"
(Presentedto the Fifty-firstAnnualMeeting
Moreoften,Dr.Shan- of the MississippiValley HistoricalAssociation,April,
underthesmokestacks.
1958). I am indebtedto Dr. Simlerfor sendingme a
a drag copy
theystayedon,becoming
nonreported,
of his paper,which appearsin this issue of Agrito
attested
Dr.
Shannon
market.
labor
on the
cultural History. As can well be imagined,this session
the fact that when industrialviolencewas of MississippiValley HistoricalAssociationwas one of
most stimulatingof the entire meeting. Professors
reachingits peakduringthe 1870'sand1880's the
Shannonand Kanewereon hand to presenttheirvigorblowingits ous rebuttals.
was supposedly
the safety-valve
51
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
236
nomictheorydefinitelyshowedthe operation withtheurbanpopulation
whichhadgrown
of someeconomicsafety-valve.
Simlerpointed 139-fold.In light of this, Dr. Schlesinger
outthatafterall theWestwaspopulated
and wrotethatthe historicannouncement
in the
"it clearlydid not get that way by sponta- 1890censuswaslessa prophecy
of an endto
neousgeneration."
an old civilizationthan a long overdueadThe nextcriticism
shiftedfromtheMiddle missionof the arrivalof a new one.
West to the South Atlanticsection. Dr.
SixteenweeksafterSchlesinger's
articlewas
ThomasAbernethy
of the Universityof Vir- published,MurrayKane launchedhis disginawrotethatthefrontierdidnotgivebirth agreementwith the frontierthesis. Kane's
to democracy
butto opportunism,
crudityand primaryconcernwas with Turner'sinteraristocracy.The land speculator-politician
pretativeability.ProfessorKanefindsTurdomirwated
the frontierscene.57Abernethy ner'shistorical
interpretation
dominatedby
saw the speculator
as the orgininator
of sep- anthropological
and
geographical
determinaratistmovements.
"Socloselydiddemocracy
ism. Not only does Turnermisplacethe
cling to its leadersand so tenaciously
were
and geographicalelements
voting habitsand politicaltraditions,that anthropological
but
he
over-accentuates
themin his historiwe find the strangephenomenonof men
votlngagasnstt zelr own econom1c
1nterestscal structure.Accordingto Dr. Kane,this
has the consequenceof makingProfessor
withoutregardto changingissues."
58
The disapprobations
on the frontierthesis Turner'stheoriesa statisticalinterpretation
duringthe 1940'sand1950'sin somemeasure of historyratherthana historical
interpretaformeda continuousline with thosevoiced iion of statistics.Kaneregistered
agreement
in the1930's.A generaltrendmaybenoted- with Dr. Turner for
stressingeconomic
the vehemenceof the argumentsdeclined.
Insteadof justcriticizingthe frontierthesis, 67 The land speculator'srole has been the subjectof
thedissentors
startedofferinga thesisof their a numberof scholars,with Paul W. Gates probably
the most prominent(Hedges, Whitaker,F;vans,
own to supplantthe frontierthesis. The being
Carpenter,
Overton,Billingtonand Hulbertare others).
urban-industrial
thesisreceivedincreasing
ex- Gatescreditsthe land speculatorsas important
in five
aminationoverthe next two decades.This areas:(1) they influencedthe formationof tenancyin
the
United
States;
land speculators
had a nationalhadthe beneficial
resultof providingthe his- izing influence on(2)public
lands for example, they
toricalprofessionwith new pocketsof un- favoredinternalimprovements;
(3) locaiionof county
seatsand capitals;(4) the successfulland speculatorof
mineddata.
onegenerationbecamethe bankerof the next; (5) culArthurM. Schlesinger,
Sr., an apostleof turalfields. Paul WallaceGates, "Role of the Land
urbanism,
initiated
Speculatorin Western Development,"Pennsylvania
thecriticism
of the1940's.59
of History nnd Biography, 66: 314-333 (July,
Dr. Schlesingerenunciatedthat American Magazine
Paul WallaceGates,"LandPolicy and Tenancy
historywaslongoverduefor a new interpre- 1942);
in the PrairieStates,"tournal of Econonzic History, 1:
tation.It wasProfessor
(May, 1941); Paul WallaceGates, The Illinois
Schlesinger's
aimto 60-82
Railroadand Its Colonization Wort
(Cambridge,
remedythissituation.I)r. Schlesinger's
most Central
1934);Paul WallaceGates Fifty Million Acres: Conforceful
exposition
of hisviewswerepresented flicts
02verKansas Land Poiicy, 1854-l890 (Ithaca,New
in an acticlein the MississippiValley His- York,1954). Surveyof the literatureon the land specis given in Ray A. Billington,"TheOriginof the
torical Review. ProfessorSchlesingersaid ulator
LandSpeculatoras a FrontierType,"lournal of Illinois
thatby 1820the migrationto the citieswas StateHistorical Soct'ety,43: 28-45 (January,1950).
fasterthanto the frontier.Andby 1860,one 68ThomasP. Abernethy,Frontierto Plantation (Chapel
1932), 362; ThomasP. Abernethy,Western Lands
outof everysix personsin the UnitedStates Hill,
andthe American Revoltation (New York, 1937), 367;
waslivingin population
centersof 8,000or ThomasP. Abernethy,Three Virginia Frontiers (Baton
1940); ThomasP. Abernethy,"Democracy
more.Dr. Schlesinger
and
statedthatin the pre- Rouge,
theSouthernFrontier,"
CivilWarperiodmosthumanitarian
impulses 3-13(February,1938). lournal of Sotthern History, 4:
centered
in the cities.Furthermore,
the cul- 69ArthurM. Schlesinger,"The City in AmericanHisturallag betweencity and ruralareashigh- tory,"Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 27: 43-67
1940). Seven yearsearlier,Dr. Schlesingerdelightedthe differences
betweenthe two ways (June,
scribed
the importanceof the urbanviewpointin the
of life. Between1790and 1890,Professor Riseof the City. However,
he seemedto acceptmuch
the frontierargument.ArthurM. Schlesinger? The
Schlesinger
notes,the population
growthof of
of the C*y, I 878-1898.
A History of American
thenationas a wholewas16-fold,contrasted Rise
IGfe(12 vols., New York, 1933), 10: 55, 423.
*
.
.
.
.
THE TURNER THESIA
PROBLEM IN HISTORIOGRAPHY
237
factors,
butfeltthathetradedtheterminology videdlucidexposition
of the urban-industrial
of theeconomist
forthatof thegeographer.60thesis.Schlesinger,
Jr.expounded
histheories
winningvolume,The
A prolificcriticof the frontierthesisis in the Pulitzer-prize
GeorgeW. Pierson.In a succession
of articles Sge of tactson.
Schlesinger
soughtto prove
democracy
was
from1940to 1942,Piersonundertook
a broad- two maintheses:Jacksonian
gagueoverhauling
of Turnerandthefrontier betterunderstoodin termsof classesthan
thesis.First,Piersonwonderedwhy Turner sectionsand liberalism
in the UnitedStates
had neglectedsuchaspectsof natureas cli- has most commonlybeen a movementof
mate, crops,animalsand disease.Second, other"sections
of societyto restrain
thepower
Turnerover-stressed
the freeholdphaseof of thebusiness
community."
Dr.Schlesinger's
the frontier.Third,Turnerexaggerated
the tome had not been publishedlong before
uniformityof the frontier experiences. criticismappeared.These critics will be
Fourth,ProfessorPiersonwas disturbedby treatedlaterin this paper.65
thelackof a consistent
definition
of keyterms In the sameyearthatThe Sge of Jactson
-"frontier"and"democracy."
62 Dr. Pierson waspublished,
Dr. CarltonJ. H. Hayespresummarized
his articlethus,
6°MurrayKane,"SomeConsiderations
on the Frontier
Conceptof FrederickJacksonTurner,"Mississippi Valley Historical Reriew, 27: 379 400 (December,1940).
Also, RichardW. NTanAlystyne,"The Significanceof
the MississippiValleyin AmericanDiplomaticHistory,
I686-1890,"Mississippz Valley H1sto>^icalReview, 36:
216-238 (September,1949).
e3Piersonadmittedthaton the secondand thirdpoints,
this emphasiswas somewhatcorrectedby Turner in
his sectionalconcepts.
62In1941,Dr. Piersonpolledhistorians
on the frontier
to historians,
A year later Dr. Piersonpresentedhis thesis.ProfessorPiersonsent questionnaires
whom 106 replied.The criticismsthatmost historians
maturingideasin the New England Quar- of
found acceptablewere that the frontierexplanationwas
terlv. ProfessorPiersonconcededthat the too all-inclusiveand simple;the definitionof the term
"frontier"was too shiftingand vague; the theorywas
frontieroGerednovelproblems,
butits influ- not
sufficientlyrevisedwith the discoveryof new eviencewasstrengthened
by repetition-copyingdence.
becameeasy. Whathappensto originality? In defense of Turner and the frontierthesis tnost
agreedthat the criticswere habituallyemphaWas the socialand democratic
legislationof historians
sizing minor inconsistencies
while ignoring the main
the Populistsand progressive
refortnersto observations.The theorywas a large step forwardin
its day and couldnot be fairlylistedagainstmodernday
be ascribedto the frontier?Whataboutthe research
and information.The critics confusedwhat
evolutionof Parliament,
coloniallegislatures,Turnerwrote
with what his studentshave written.The
too literally,and
New Englandtownmeetingsandself-govern- criticstook the poetic interpretations
has still the best theoryfor interpretingour growth.
ment of Congregational
churches?Pierson it Pierson
found that criticsand championsprettygenthought Turnerwas deterministicalmost erally agreedon four opinions: ( 1) Turner was less
fatalistic.ProfessorPiersondoes not credit dogmaticas a professorthan as an essayist;(2) all
agreedthat the truestview of Turnercouldbe foundin
Turnerwith inventingthe "escapeconcept" his
frontieressays,yet when they mentionedamendment
thatPiersonseesinherentin the safety-valve.or correctiontherewouldbe a referenceto what Turner
"Yetif todayour leadersstill hitchour star said in class; (3) the criticsand defendersagree that
the thesis shouldbe judged on its meritsand on the
to a coveredwagon,the frontiertheorymay basis
of frontierevidence;(4) finally, many historians
sharethe responsibility."
Piersonendedby pleadedignorance.GeorgeW. Pierson,"AmericanHistoriansand the FrontierThesis in 1941," Wisconsin
writingthat the frontiertheoryin its "full Magazine
of History, 26: 36-60 and 170-185 (Septemdevelopment"
does not hang together.Na- ber, December,
1942).
ttonalsmcontrac
lctSsectlona.
blsm,
lnnovatlons 63GeorgeW. Pierson,"The Frontierand the Frontiersmenof Turner'sEssays,"Pennsylvania Magazine of
aresecuredby repetition,
materialism
winds History
and Biography, 64: 478 (October,1940).
its way into idealism."In whatit proposes, 64GeorgeW. Pierson,"The Frontierand American
the frontierhypothesis
needspainstaking
re- InstitutionsA Criticismof the TurnerTheory,"New
Q>arterly, 15:224-255 (June, 1942); see also
vision.Bywhatit failsto mention,thetheory Engla11d
GeorgeW. Pierson,"RecentStudiesof Turnerand the
disqualifiesitself as an adequateguide to FrontierDoctrine,"Mississippi Valley Historical Review,
24: 452-458 (December,1947).
Americandevelopment."
64
66Arthur M. Schlesinger,Jr., The Age of lactson
In 1945, ArthurM. Schlesinger,
Jr. pro- (Boston,1945).
It shouldbe observedthata largequarterof the
thirteenessaysstill remainunanalyzed,and that in
any case,priorto trial,doubtsmustnot be stretched
into establishedproof. Notwithstanding,
it would
alreadyseemreasonableto recognizethat Turner's
"frc)ntier"
was hazy and a shiftingconcept,riddled
with internalcontradictions,
overlaidwith sectional
bias,and saturatedwith nationalistic
emotion.63
.
.
.
*
s
.
.
.
238
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
sentedhis presidential
addressto the Ameri- the needleof Americanaspirations
would
can HistoricalAssociation.Dr. Hayes en- point."
d°
titledhis remarks,"TheAmericanForntier In concluding
his comments
on theTurner
Frontierof What?" Actually,Professor thesis,Professor
Potterwaswillingto admit
Hayes'titlesummarized
his address.He be- thatTurner'sgeographical
determinism
had
lievedthat the obsessionof the American somevalidity.In support
of hisviewpoint,
he
Peoplewith sectionaland localhistoryhad citedWalterP. Webb'sThe GreatFrontier.
led to an extremeself-centeredness
andisola- However,PotterdivergedfromWebbwhen
tionism.Dr. Hayesthoughtthiswas"unreal- thelatterclaimedforthefrontieran exclusive
istic, contraryto basichistoricalfacts,and domainin theproduction
of Americanabunhighlydangerous
forourcountryat the pres- dance. This, wrote ProfessorPotter,was
ent andin the future."Whatwasdemanded not takingcognizanceof technology.After
of Americanscholarsand citizenswas a all, hadn'ttechnological
revolutionshistoribroaderknowledgeof Europe.
66
cally precededperiodsof discoveryand
JamesC. Malin,a yearafterDr. Hayes' experience
?
address,presenteda tightlyreasonedcase, Contemporary
with ProfessorPotter,two
which ThomasLe Duc has calledMalin's historiansHenryNash Smithand Richard
"ideasto action"analysis.67
Malinbasedhis Hofstadter,were writingaboutwhat they
disagreement
withTurneron whathe chose believedto be basicdiscrepancies
in Turner's
to designateas Turner's"peculiarabsorp- theories.Smith interpretedTurneras betion"with the closedspacedoctrine.Profes- lievingthe highestsocialvalueswereto be
sor Malin declaredthat if mobilityis the foundin "therelatively
primitivesocietyjust
trueanswerto opportunity
for the individ- withinthe agricultural
frontier."Smithreaual, thereshouldbe no occasionto worry sonedthatTurner,in juxtaposition,
heldthe
abouta substitutefor the frontier.For so opinionthatsocietyevolvedthroughvarious
long as the communication
revolutioncon- stagesto an eventualindustrialcivilization.
tinuesindefinitely,mobilityin spaceis as- Professor
SmithsawTurneras waveringbesured.Malinhastenedto pointout that he tweenthesetwojudgements.
Smiththentook
was norsurethateitherof the abovepoints cognizanceof a secondinconsistency.
The
werevalid.68
frontierhasnourished
an "agrarian
myth"71
DavidM. Potter,a colleagueof Pierson's whichhastendedto diverttheattention
from
atYale,foundthefrontierthesisof littlehelp Americanindustrialization
and promotea
in explainingthe Americancharacter.Dr.
Potter,in a seriesof provocative
lecturesde- yCarltonJ. H. Hayes,"AmericanFrontier
liveredat the Universityof Chicagoin 1953 of What?" American Historical Reriew, 51: Frontier
199-210
1946). For a discussionsimilarto Hayes'see
(the CharlesG. WalgreenLectures),delved (January,
WilliamA. Williams,"TheFrontierThesisand Ameriintotheedectof abundance
on the American canForeignPolicy,"Pafis Historical Review, 24: 379395 (November,1955) .
character.
69
ThomasLe Duc, "An EcologicalInterpretation
of
Concerning
the TurnerthesisPotterhad Grasslands
History," Nebrasta History, 31: 226-233
severalobjections:(1) Turner,by his over- (September,
1950).
emphasis
on the benefitsof the frontier,had a8JamesC. Malin,Essays On Historiography (LawKansas,1946), 1-44. The articleswhich divulge
inducedapprehension
and pessimismas to rence,
Malin'sideas are: JamesC. Malin, "The Turnoverof
thestateof societyin the post-frontier
era; FarmPopulationin Kansas,"Kansas Historical Re2wiew,
339-372 (November,1935); JamesC. Malin, "Be(2) Turner'sobsessionwith the beneficial 4:
ginningsof Winter Wheat Productionin the Upper
efTects
of agrarian
milieucausedhimto over- Kansas
and LowerSmokyHill RiverValley:A Studyin
lookthe circumstances
to Geographical
in the Americanen- Adaptation
Environment,"
Kansas Hi.Re:view, 10:227-259 (August, 1941); JamesC.
vironment
whichwereoperating
forconstant totical
Malin,
"An Introduction
to the Historyof the Bluestem
changeand experimentation;
(3) "Turner PastureRegionof Kansas:A Study in Adaptation
to
didnot recognizethat the attraction
Environment,"
Kansas Historical Reriew,
of the Geographical
12:
3-28
(February,
1942).
frontier
was simplyas the most accessible 70
69David
M. Potter,People of Plenty (Chicago,1954).
Ibid., 158.
formof abundance,
and thereforehe could
notconceivethatotherformsof abundance The term "agrarianmyth" connotesthe inherent
mightreplaceit as the lodestoneto which valuesof democracywhich are best achievedin agrar07
7t
an
soclety.
THE TURNER THESIS A PROBLEM IN HISTORIOGRAPHY
239
one sided view of Americandevelopment. faceof muchexploitation
andunderunfavor4
myth"has had a pronounced ablemarketandpriceconditions."
The "agrarian
effecton Americanpolitics.Distrustof the
A Swissstudent,RolandH. Beck,disand abetted cernedrelationshipsbetweenthe Turner
city has impededco-operation
on thepartof bothurbanandrural writingsand the romantics'outpouringof
ignorance
CarltonJ. H. Hayes' the earlynineteenthcentury,alongwith an
Reiterating
population.
of scientificand evolutionary
contention,ProfessorSmitharguesthat the undercurrent
Beck
agrariantraditionhas madeit difiicultfor concepts
of thelatterpartof thecentury.
Americansto think of themselvesas effec- was criticalof Turner'sconceptsin general,
Butthe but was willingto concedesomeusefulness
of a worldcommunity.
tivemembers
foremostdi;culty of the agrariantradition mightresultfromapplyingthefrontierthesis
is "thatit acceptedthe pairedcontradictoryto theperiod1775-1830
of ourhistory.75
ideasof natureand civilizationas a general In tracingthe historiographical
trendsof
principleof historicaland socialinterpreta- the frontierschoolI havechosento include
systemwasrequisite personal
tion. A newintellectual
of Turnerandhismethobservations
beforethe West couldbe adequatelydealt odology(since both criticismand defense
with in literatureor its socialdevelopment havebeenbasedon this),chargesagainstthe
72
and specific
couldbe fully understood."
interpretation
urban-industrial
myth"wasalsoexploredby rebuttals.Muchof the defenseof the fronThe "agrarian
of
RichardHofstadter.Dr. Hofstadterwrote tierthesiscenteredaroundthe personality
agriculture Turnerratherthanaroundthe thesisitself.
that the triumphof commercial
myth," Just as much of the attackconcernedthe
hadspelledthedoomof the"agrarian
of the thesis.As a whole,Turcom- progenitor
of
victory
the
time
same
the
at
but
revealedthe idea of the ner'sstudentsweredevotedto theirteacher
mercialagriculture
and manybecamehighlyincensedoverthe
man.
self-made
emoUnfortunately,
The sameforcesin Americanlife that had made natureof the criticisms.
possibleand had given tionalismon the partof both skepticsand
Jacksonianequalitarianism
to the equalitariantheme in agrarianromanceits discipleshas coloredand distortedmany
rnostcompellingappealhad also unleashedin the phasesof the controversy.
zeal probablywithout
nation an entrepreneurial
The earlycriticismsof the frontierthesis
precedentin history,a ragefor business,for profits,
arousedfew attemptsat refutation.It is posfor advancement.73
for opportunity,
felt the way their
siblethatmanyadvocates
The masterdid whenAlmack'sarticlewas pubThenextstagewasthelandspeculator.
landvaluesin thenewareasincited
increasing
1950),
Land(Cambridge,
quick liquidationand frequentmigration 72 HenryNashSmith,Virgin
Henry N. Smith, "The West as an Image of the
in the roleof 260;
castingthe smallentrepreneur
AmericanPast,"The Universityof KansasCity Review,
a landspeculator.Accordingto Hofstadter, 18:29-40 (Autumn, 1951); Henry N. Smith, "Rain
the Plains:The Notionof IncreasedRainfallfor
the huge publicdomaindid moreto create Follows
the GreatPlains,1844-1880,"HuntingtonLibraryQuara gamblingspiritthan a freeholdingidea. terly, 10 169-193 (February,1947).
Hofstadter,The Age of Reform(New York,
73 Richard
societybecameattractedto
The agricultural
39.
landvaluesinsteadof to the soil per se. Dr. 1955),
nzyth''andHofstadtermay
on the "agrarian
74 Material
into one be locatedin RichardHofstadter,The Age of Reform
gatheredhis perceptions
Hofstadter
theUnitedStatesdidnotpro- (New York, 1955); RichardHofstadter,"Turnerand
,eneralization:
Frontier Myth," American Scholar, 18:433-443
ruralculture(if youtake the
ducea distinctively
(Autumn,1949); RichardHofstadter,SocialDarwinism
soil
centered
as yourcriteriona pre-capitalist
in AmericanThoaght (Boston, 1955); RichardHofTradition(New York,
led Hofstadter stadter,The AmericanPolitical
viewpoint).This observation
A. WhitneyGriswold,FRrmingand Democracy
agri- 1948);
to weavehis analysisinto interpreting
(New Haven, 1948); Louis B. Wright,Cultureon the
culturediscontentand the Populistmove- MovingFrontie}(Bloomington,Indiana,1955); Lowry
AmencanFarmLife (Cambridge,1954); Luther
ment. He foundthatPopulismcan be best Nelson,
of Documentationof the
H. E^ans,"The Preservation
not as a productof the frontier, Historyof the Americas,"Proceedingsof the FirstConunderstood
butas "aneGorton the partof a few impor- gress of Historiansfrom Mexicoand the UnitedStates
Mexico,1949), 81-90.
casi- (Monterey,
tantsegmentsof a highlyheterogenous
75RolandH. Beck, Die FrontierTheorie von Fredto restoreprofitsin the erict lactson Turner(Zurich,1955).
talisticagriculture
240
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
lished.A formerstudentof Turner's
informed methodthat he worksas thoughhis wiser
the writerthatone dayTurnerwalkedinto successorwouldcorrecty
reconstruct,
and be
hisseminarandpassedoutcopiesof Almack's reconstructed."
Turner's
methodology
xesemessay.His studentsindignantly
queriedPro- bled the naturalscientistin that he consistfessorTurneras to when he was going to entlyusedthe multiplehypothesis
to testhis
issuehisrebuttal.Turnerrep!lied
to theeffect observations.
In his methodof using the
thathe sawno reasonto answerAlmacl.
physiographic
map to correlate political
Oneof thefirstimportant
menof thefron- and culturalbehavior,Turnerwas especialtier schoolwas FredericL. Paxson.While ly carefulin applying the
hyhe cannotbe classedas defendingit in his pothesis.ProfessorCurtialsomultiple
had a reply
mainworks,he usedthe frontierthesisand for thosewho felt that Turnerhad given
wroteoneof thefirstscholarly
andimportant industrialcapitalisman inadequateplace
histories
of thefrontier.In hisLastSmerican in his thesis.Curtipointedout thatTurner
Frontier,which describedthe Westward recognizedthe importance of
Movementbeyondthe MississippiPaxson capitalismas was illustratedby industrial
his 1910
wrote,"Theinfluence
of thefrontierhasbeen presidentialaddressbefore the American
the strongestsinglefactorin Americanhis- HistoricalAssociation.78
But Turner was
tory...." Fourteenyearslater,Paxson,in primarilyconcernedwith the United
States
the Historyof the S-merican
Frontier,I763- in its agricultural
era; after all, industrial
1893said)"The first centuryof American capitalismhas only recentlyinvaded
wide
independence
wasdominated
bytheinfluence regionsof the country.79
of the frontier;its secondseemslikelyto be
JosephSchafer,in 1933and 1934,wrotein
shapedby industryand pressureof the out- answerto someof Frederic
Paxson'sdetracsideworld."Thissentenceillustrates
a point
76
Frederic
L.
Paxson,
The
Last
Smerican Frontier
thathasoftenbeenoverlooked
whendiscuss- (New York, 1910); FredericL. Paxson,
The History of
ing Paxson'swork.He candefinitely
be con- the American Frontier, I763-I893 (Boston,
1924). On
sidereda partof thefrontierschool,butPax- the fortiethanniversaryof the Turnerthesis,FredericL.
Paxson
called
for a re-assessment
of the frontierthesis.
son hadsomequalifications
and reservationsI have emphasized
that Paxsonhad qualifications
as to
aboutthe frontierthesis.76
the Turnerthesis,and these Paxsonenunciatedin this
The first specificrejoinderto the critics articleand anothertwo yearslater. Paxsonquestioned
compositenationalitywas derived from the
camein an appreciation
of Turnerby Carl whether
frontier.He believedthat the degreeof AmericanizaBecker.In a beautifully
writtentribute,Pro- tionneededre-evaluation.Paxsonwas also troubledby
that non-frontiercountriesmade progresstofessorBeckeremphasized
traitswhichlater the factdemocracy
in the nineteenthcentury;just how
defenderswere to repeat.Beckersaid that wards
muchdid the frontierinfluencedemocracy?Dr. Paxson
Professor
Turner'sexplanatory
and descrip- believedthat the frontierdid have an effecton democbut that it was not the sole forceat work. Fredtivestyleshouldnotcloudovertheknowledge racy,
ericL. Paxson,"A Generationof the FrontierHypothethathe conductedexhaustiveresearch.Dr. sis, 1893-1932,"
Pacific Historical Review, 2: 34-51
1933).
Becker
stressed
the lackof dogmatism
on the (March,
Becker,"Frederick
JacksonTurner,"in Ameripartof Turnerand thatif Dr. Turnerdis- canCarl
MastewSs
of Social
edited by Howard W.
playedany bias,it was Americanism.
As a Odum(New York, 1927), 317. CharlotteW. Smith,
in
a
recent
study
of
Carl
Becker,pointsout that Proscholar,BeckerthoughtTurner'sapproach
fessorBeckeracceptedthe frontiertheory, but while
wasbasicallyto understand
ratherthan to vitallyinterested
in democracy,Beckersought his anjudgeinstitutions.
Beckerendedhisappraisal swersin Locke,Sidneyand Baconratherthan in the
forest. CharlotteWatkinsSmith,Carl Becker
withthe following,"Andhis pupilsunder- American
onHistory and Climate of Opinion (Ithaca,1956), 197.
standit betterthan any others,becausehis 78FrederickJacksonTurner,"SocialForcesin Ameripupils
know,betterthananyothers,thatthe canHistory,"24mericanHistorical Review, 16:217-233
1911) .
manis morethanhis work. And so I end (January,
Merle Curti, "The Section and the Frontierin
asI began with 'that man Turner,'who AmericanHistory:
The MethodologicalConceptsof
Fre(lerick
JacksonTurner,"Methods in Social ScienceJ
laiduponall thespellof hispersonality."
77
edited
StuartA. Rice (Chicago,1931), 353-367.For
MerleCurti,in his essayon the method- alaterby
statementon Turnersee, MerleCurti,"Frederick
ologicalconceptsof Turner, stressed,as Jackson
Turner,"Historiadores de 24mericana,11, InstiPanameasicanode Geogra7Cae Historia (Mexico,
Beckerhad, Turner'slack of dogmatism tMto
F., 1949). See also, MerleCurti,Probing Our Past
toward
his research."Itis the essenceof his D.(New
York, 1955).
77
ScienceJ
T9
THE TURNERTHESIA
PROBLEMIN HISTORIOGRAPHY
241
a minordistions. Schaferechoedthe samepointsthat greenlecturesof 1941,registered
Diswiththe Turnerapproach.85
Curtiand Beckerhad underlinednamely, agreement
in
that Turnerdid not considerWesternex- cussingthe generalthemeof democracy
of American Americanlife, Dr. Cravennotedthat fronpansionas the onlyexplanation
history,but as the most importantsingle tier democracywas only half the picture.
Freedomwas,moreoftenthannot,a physical
process.80
condifferedfromtheformer thing freedomto do whatthe majority
Stolberg
Benjamin
of thefronin thathe was not as muchcon- doned.The positivecontribution
supporters
lay in anotherdirection:
cernedwith defendingthe frontierthesisas tier to democarcy
with refutingHacker'sMarxianpolemics. protest.Dr. Cravensaw the periodicrevolts
dogmaalive.
\Mritingin theNation, a monthbeforePresi- keepingthedemocratic
quarantinespeechin Chi- A yearlater,ProfessorCravenagainimdent Roosevelt's
Hackerforthelatter's presseduponhis readersthat Turner'sconcensured
cago,Stolberg
was a
as the tool tributionto Americanhistoriography
of frontieragriculture
conception
all-inclubreadth,
The
landmark.86
veritable
Stolberg,
said
say
this,
To
of industrialism.
psychologicalsive characterand unity of Dr. Turner's
wasto ignorethe "tremendous
notto be rewerea contribution
edectsof thefrontieruponournation'smen- conceptions
Cravengavea promtality."Stolbergdeclaredthatafterourfron- gardedlightly.Professor
currentin
was inent placeto the philosophical
tierwasclosedthespiritof individualism
writings:"hehadthe abilityto
carriedoverintofinance,laborandindustry.81his teacher's
One of the mostvocalaandinfluentialof seedeepintothemeaningof thingsandpower
studentsis AveryCraven.Although to catchthe universals."
Turner's
CraDr. Cravendisagreeswith Turneron some A yearafterthe turnof mid-century,
featuresof thefrontierthesis,theoverwhelm- venagaincameforwardto testifyforTurner
on the frontierheld at the
areonthesideof at a symposium
ing balanceof hiscomments
buttressingthe thesis. Four years after Universityof KansasCity.87ProfessorCrain theNation, Cra- ven still had faithin the frontierapproach.
Hacker'sarticleappeared
some of the main canonsof
In contrastto Hacker,Craven Nevertheless,
ven replied.82
to free his faithwereshakenbymoderndayscholarclaimedthatexposureof institutions
landwas a uniqueexperience.Futhermore,ship. WhatCravenhad staunchlydefended
per- n prevlousyearswasnow opento question.
the urban-industrial
to assertcompletely
interpretationHe told his audience,"In the light of presspectiveover the agricultural
it seemsquiteapparent
wou]dbe to denythe effectof 200yearsof ent day scholarship,
inthe comparative
overstressed
Turner
that
ruraldominance.
bothnaCraven,dispensingwith Hacker,turned fluenceof the frontierin producing
generaliza- tionalismand democracy.Otherinfluences
hisattentionto thecontradictions,
that detrac- certainlyhada handin this. He recognized
tionsand apparentinaccuracies
torskeptforgingto the frontof the contro- soJoseph Schafer, "Turner'sFrontier Philosophy,"
versy. Cravenreadilyadmittedthat there Wisconsin Magazine of History, 16:451-469 (June,
andthatit was 1933); JosephSchafer,"Turner'sAmerica,"Wisconsin
contradictions
wereapparent
of History, 17:447-465 (June, 1934).
for Magazine
impossibleto removeall contrarieties?
< BenjaminStolberg,"Turner,Marx and the A. F.
those"whoknewthe man and his workat Of L.," Nation, 137:302-303 (September,1933).
Craven,"FrederickJacksonTurner,"Marfirsthandwereseldomconsciousof contra- cus82Avery
W. ternegan Essays in Americvn Historiography,
generalizations,editedby WilliamT. Hutchinson(Chicago,1937), 252abhorred
83 Turner
dictions."
buthiskindof historyrequired 270.
wroteCraven,
258-259.
ProfessorCravenreflected 84Ibid-,
generalizations.
Avery Craven,"TurnerTheoriesand the South,"
wason change tournal of SoMthernHistory, 5:295 (August, 1939).
thatTurner'swholeemphasis
in general,not specifically."The approach 86AveryCraven,Democracy in American Life (Chi1941), 38-67.
[Craveninsistedon the term approachin- cago,
86Avery O. Craven,"FrederickJacksonTurner,Histhing,not torian," Wisconsin XIagazine of History, 25: 408-424
steadof thesis]wasthe important
some exactpatternwhichmight appearin (June, 1942).
87Avery O. Craven,"FrederickJacksonTurner and
84
its application."
the FrontierApproach,"Universtty of Kansas City Rein the CharlesG. Wal- view, 18:3-17 (Autumn,1951).
ProfessorCraven2
.
.
83
242
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
but he did not alwaysproperlyevaluatethe here becausesome of the most prominent
contradictions
inherent in his approach.criticismof Turnerand the frontierschool
The Westwas bothnationaland provincialhascomefromadvocates
of the urban-indusin its temper;it was bothmaterialistic
and trialinterpretation.
The followingcomments
idealistic;it was bothradicaland conserva-canby no stretchof the imagination
be contive; it was both individualistic
and co- sidereda defenseof thefrolltierthesisper se,
operative.Turneralso appliedhis findings butonlyas a critiqueof the urban-industrial
which they seek to
to the Old Westand he lent his findingsto theorists'explanations,
substitute
for the frontieras a causalfactor.
otherwestswheretheywon'twork."88
fromSchlesinger,
Jr.'s
Dideringin outlookfrom Craven,John The firstdetraction
by BrayHammond.92
D. Hickshas preferred
to walk the middle findingswasregistered
Schlesinger
for notmakground. Althoughdescribinghimselfas a Afterreprimanding
on the
reasonably
orthodoxT urn eri an, Professor ing use of the standardauthorities
Hicks feels that frontierhistorianshave UnitedStatesBank,Hammondagreedwith
givenin theSge
neglectedthe industrialera. In an article thepre-eminence
labelled,"The'Ecology'
of the MiddleWest- to the conceptthatEasternforcesas well as
ern Historians,"
Dr. Hicks takeshistorians frontierforceswereat workfor democracy
period.ButDr. Hammond
to task for endeavoring
to writeaboutun- in theJacksonian
familiarregionsand institutions.89
Hicks said this was only partof the story;hat
citesa reviewerof FredericL. Paxson'sdes- werethe Easternbusinessinterestsdoingat
criptionof the "long drive"saying,"The this tirne?How did thesebusinessinterests
Authorsimplydoes not know his cosvs." inflvlence democratizatioll?
Comments
Hicks,"howcouldhe? Onemight Twentymonthslaterthe urban-industrial
in theSge of lackson was
aboutas welltryto explainagriculture
with- thesisas presented
microscope
for
out everhavinglivedon a farm."Professor againputunderthehistorical
Hicks saw the currenttendencyto break dissection.Taking Philadelphiaas a case
awayfrom the frontierthesisas a natural study,Dr. WilliamA. Sullivanfoundthat
historicalphenomenon.After all, Professor afterthe 1828electionlittleevidencecouldbe
to supportthe conclusion
thatlabor
Turnerhadwrittenhis essayfromthe back- conjured
groundof his environment;
was it not con- cast its ballotsfor the Democrats.In fact,
that it was the inability
ceivable that today's historians would Sullivandiscovered
of theDemocrats
to holdthelaborvotewhich
approachhistoryfrom the urban-industrial
ultimately
ledto theirdefeatin Philadelphia.93
environment?
90
Dr. Sullivanhad
Fromanotherperspective,
thefrontierthesis Whereasin Philadelphia
was defendedin 1941.GilbertJ. Garraghandecidedthat what slight laborsupportthe
didreceivepreceded
thebankwar,
thoughtmoreattentionshouldbe placedon Democrats
the non-economic
featuresin the frontier the patternin Dr. EdwardPessen'sstudvof
movement.Dr. Garraghan
summarized
his Bostonwas somewhatdifferent.According
assertions
in threepropositions:
(1) the most
16.
significantphenomenonin AmericanHis- 8889Ibid.,
John D. Hicks, "The 'Ecology'of the Middletorywasthe frontier;(2) the most"tangibleWestern
Historians,"TfZi.
consin Magazine of History,
andetTective
factor"in causingthemovement 24: 377-384 (June, 1941) .
John D. Hicks, "The Developmcntof Civilization
wasthefreelandin theWest;(3) the move- in90
MiddleBtest, 1860-1900,"Sources of Cultzwrein
ment cannotbe explainedentirelyon an thethe
Middle West, editedby Fox (New York,1934), 73economicbasis-non-economic
factorssuch 101.
91 GilbertJ. Garraghan,
"Non-Economic
Factorsin the
as religionand educationsharethe respon- Frontier
Movement,"Mid-America, 13:263-271 (Octoof
sibility.9l
As notedpreviously,
the year1945sawthe
publicationof ArthurM. Schlesinger,
Jr.'s
24ge of lackson.
No morethan a yearhad
passedbeforethe volume,and especially
the
urban-industrial
thesis, came under heavy
criticism.Theseanimadversions
areincluded
Jactson
ber, 1941).
92Bray Hammond, "Public Policy and National
Banks,"[ournal
of EconomicHistory, 6: 79-84 (May,
1946).
93WilliamA. Sullivan,"Did LaborSupportAndrew
Jackson?"PoliticalScienceQuarterly,62: 569-580 (December, 1947); William A. Sullivan, The. Ieldustrial
Worterin Pennsylvania,
I800-Z840
(Harrisburg,1955),
157-207.
THE TURNERTHESIS A PROBLEMIN HISTORIOGRAPHY
243
a classconflictbetweenthe large
to Dr. Pessen,in Bostonit wasnot untilthe pronounce
wageandthe massof property-less
middle1830'sthatJacksonwasableto swing capitalist
in anyof the workingclass earners.But he wouldcontendtherewas a
smallmajorities
groups
the lackof Demo- real strugglebetweennon-business
wards.Pessenattributed
craticsuccessto suchfactorsas the powerof and businessdomination.Concerningthe
era and
in localpolitics;the open connectionbetweenthe Jacksonian
Whig merchants
ballotvotingsystemwhichmayhaveintimi- later reform movements,Schlesinger,Jr.,
datedthe workersto keepthemfromvoting maintained
thatthe Sge of lackson claimed
and
"wrong";internaldissensionwhichcropped no morethan a traceof psychological
party.Dr.Pessendeter- politicalsimilarity.He assertedthat alupin theDemocratic
svho together,Professor
minedthat "theeasternworkingmen"
did
Dorfman'sreflections
did win a few localvictoriesfor Jacksonin not alterthe mainthesisof the 24geof Jackweretheycomenof thewestern son, "thatmore can be understoodabout
Massachusetts
counties.94
if it is regardedas a
democracy
Jacksonian
Dr. JosephDorfman,in a pepperyanalysis, problemnot of sectionsbut of 'classes'and
took up the cudgelagainstthe wage-earner'Liberalism'
in Americahas beenordinarily
Firstof all, Dorfmanwas quickto the movementon the partof the othersecthesis.95
of the Jacksonwage- tionsof societyto restrainthe powerof the
takeon the proponents
thedemandof businesscommunity."
earnerthesis,whoemphasized
98
Partyfor the alleviationof
the Democratic
The controversystandsprettymuch at
for debt. ProfessorDorfman thatpointtoday.Thereis siill a greatdeal
imprisonment
for debtorswasthe
deniedthatamelioration
thoughtand generaldiggingto
soleconcernof the workingclass.The small of research,
before
any definiteconclusions(if
done
be
andoftenthelargeentrepreneur
businessman
are possible)can be arconclusions
definite
was just as concerned.How were debtors
and Massachusetts
Pennsylvania
at.
rived
in prison?Dr.
ableto paytheirobligations
were havereceivedstudy,butwhatabouttheother
Dorfmanagreedthat the Jacksonians
reform,butthe purpose areasof the country?To what extentdid
in favorof monetary
of thissvasto createbetterbusinessconditions businesselementssupportJacksonin these
and diminishpanics not to help labor.96regions?Theseandotherquestions
willhave
thesishave
of the wage-earner
The advocates
fallen into the commontrap of definition. Edward Pessen, "Did Labor Support Jackson?"
did not include Political Science QzlartesSly,64:262-274 (June, 1949).
The term "workingman"
The96JosephDorfman,"The JacksonWage-Earner
merelythe manuallaborer,but everyman sis,"
American Histoncal Review, 54: 296-306 (January,
who,in thewordsof GeorgeEvans,earnshis 1949).
breadby "usefulexertion,whethermentalor 96RichardB. Morrisof ColumbiaUniversitymay have
an additionalreasonfor the lack of support
in this broad indicated
physical."When understood
thatJacksonreceivedfrom laboringclasses. In the Irish
be- labor disturbanceat Williamsport,Maryland,in 1834,
concept,the so-calledlabororganizations
MorrisappraisedJackson'srole, "The most
ratherthananti-capital-Professor
cameanti-aristocratic
charitablejudgmentis that Jacksonwas neutralin the
istic. Dorfmanreasonsthisis why the labor strife betweenlabor and capital,and that on the one
occasionwhen the issueseemedto call for federalinterhadwithinit both vention
movementhasfrequently
he used the powerof his officeto help throttle
humanitarianand businesselements. At labor,to supporta companywhich did not scrupleto
the blacklist,privatepolice and labor spies to
the employ
elementadvanced
timesthehumanitarian
maintain disciplineamong its workers." RichardB.
impetustowardsreform,but was decidedly Morris, "Andrew Jackson, Strikebreaker,"American
paledby the businessaims. Dr. Dorfman Historical FOeview,55:54-68 (October,1949).
97For some of the otherpitfallsthat may be encounstates,"afterall the Age of Jacksonwas an tered
thesis, see William Diain the urban-industrial
of
age of expansion,a great age of business mond, "On the Dangersof An UrbanInterpretation
History,"Historiography and Urbanization Essays in
97
enterprise."
American History in Honor of W. Stlsll Holt, editedby
cri- EricF. Goldman(Baltimore,1941), 67-108.
Dorfman's
Ten monthsafterProfessor
88ArthurM. Schlesinger,Jr., "To the Editorof the
Jr.,replied.Schles- American
tique,ArthurSchlesinger,
HistoricalReview,"American HistoncAl Reinger said the Sge of Jackson did not view, 64: 785-786 (April, 1947).
94
244
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
to be answeredbeforelight is thrownon plea for the end of sectionalismy
whichhe
manyshadows.99
believeswould be accomplished
only by a
Beginningwith RayA. Billington'sWest- politicalpartyon a nationalratherthansecward Expansionin 194991°°
the next seven tionalbasis.
yearssaw the frontierthesisrigorouslyap- Followingsomeof themainpremises
enunpliedandtested.Dr.Billington,
withthecol- ciatedin the GreatPlains and Divided We
laborationof JamesB. Hedges,soughtto Stand,Professor
Webbplungedintosuggestpresentthe wholesweepof Americanexpan- ing the frontierthesisfor WesternCivilizasionfromcolonialdaysto 1896.In hispreface, tionin The GreatFrontier.10aAs the ageof
ProfessorBillingtonleft no doubtas to the discovery
dawnedin the Metropolis
(Webb's
masterplanof his work. Dr. Billingtonde- term for western Europe), the povertysiredto use Turner'sgeographical
premises strickenpopulationwas crowdedonto the
plus "specificsuggestionsleft behindin his Metrolopis'
landmassat the ratioof 26.7per
writings."The outlineof his workwas to squaremile. A hundredandfiftyyearsafter
followDr. Turner'sseminarin the history
Otherstudieson the urban-industrial
interpretation
of the frontierat Harvard.10l
Billingtonand are CharlesM. Gates,"TheRole of Citiesin the WestHedges'historysoonbecamea standard
work. ward Movement,"summarizedin the Mississippi Valley
Historical Reriew, 37: 227 (September,1950); Blake
One of the most valuablefeaturesof the McKelxey,
"AmericanUrbanHistoryToday,"Smerican
entireworkwastheextensive
bibliography.102
Historical Review, 57: 919-929(July,1952); R. R. Wohl
Urbanityand the Historians,"The UniverDifferentin areaof application
of theTur- ''Urbanism,
of Kansas City Review, 22: 55-61 (October,1955);
ner thesis from Billingtonwas WalterP. sity
TheodoreSalutos,"The AgriculturalProblemand the
Industrialism,"
Agricultural History,
Webb'sThe GreatFrontier.103Webbunder- Nineteenth-Century
156-174 (July, 1948); T. D. SeymourBassett,"A
took the gigantictaskof usingthe frontier 22:
CaseStudyof UrbanImpacton RuralSociety:Vermont,
thesisto interpret
all of WesternCivilization 1840-80," Agricultsral History, 30: 28-34 (January,
since1500.In hispreviousworks,The Great 1956).
100Ray A. Billingtonand JamesB. Hedges,Westward
Plains and Divided MFeStand, Professor Expansion
(New York, 1949).
Webb has indicatedthe directionof his 101The historicalprofessionhas generally accepted
WestwnlrdExpansion as a valuabletome. One notable
thinking.104
Dr. Webbin The GreatPlains exception
is HomerC. Hockett. Hockettwas disturbed
contrasted
thecivilization
of theGreatPlains by Billington's
lack of analysis.Dr. Hockettconsidered
(characterized
by levellandsurface,treeless much of the volumeas a rehashof secondarymaterial.
Hockettbelievesthat Billingtonwas ignorant
region and subhumidclimate)to Eastern Professor
of Turner'suse of the multiplehypothesis.All in all,
UnitedStates.ProfessorWebbpicturedan "it doesnot closelyresemblea bookTurnerwouldhave
"institutional
fault"roughlyfollowingthe written." Homer C. Hockett,"Reviewof Ray Billington's WestwawdExpansion,"Mississippi Valley Histo1^ical
98thmeridian."Practically
everyinstitution Review,
36: 550-552 (December,1949).
thatwas carriedacrossit was eitherbroken 102Nineears after the appearanceof Westward ExProfessorBillington answered some of the
and remadeor elsegreatlyaltered."Eastof pansion,
criticsin an articlein American Heritage. He
the Mississippi,
proclaimedWebb,civiliza- Turner
pointedout that of coursedemocraticinstitutionswere
tion had stoodon the threelegs of water, importedfronlEngland,but the frontierexperienceproadditional"levelling"and an increaseddemocratic
land and timber.West of tlle Mississippi vided
spirit. Whileland certainlywas neverfree in the West,
thereremainedbut one leg. The key word it was on the whole cheaperthan in the East or in
was contrast."The salienttruth, the es- Europe.The frontierthat Turnerdescribedwas unique
in many respects.Why would you expect frontiersin
sentialtruthis thattheWestcannotbeunder- other
nations,where populationmovementswere constoodas a mereextensionof thingsEastern." trolledby autocraticgovernmentsand mobilityinhibited
furtherby environmental
conditionsto producea demAccordingto Dr. Webbin Divided We ocracy
of the type foundon our westernfrontier?That
Stand, the closingof the frontierin 1890, the frontierdevelopednationalismand individualismis
togetherwiththeriseof corporations,
spelled demonstratedby the fact that United States became
more nationalisticthan non-frontiercountries.
a crisisforAmerican
democracy
andindivid- much
RayA. Billington,"Howthe FrontierShapedthe Ameriualism.A laissez-faire
policyhadabettedthe can Character,"
24mericanHeaitage, 9: 4-9, 86-89 (April,
riseof corporations,
but with the depression
103 Walter P. Webb, The Great Frontier (Boston
of the 'thirtiescorporations
weresubjected
to 1952).
governmental
regulation.
New typesof relief 104 WaltcrP. Webb, The Great Plains (New York
1); WalterP. Webb, Divided We Stand (Austin
weresubstituted
forthe old onesof the fron- 1193
944).
106
Webb,The Great Frontier.
tier. Dr. Webbclosedhis argumentwith a
a9
THE TURNERTHESIS-A PROBLEMIN HISTORIOGRAPHY
245
held the opinionthat the
the year 1500 the ratioof man to land in But Dr. Barnhart
lay in "supfor historians
Europeplusthe frontierhaddroppedto 4.8. mainopportunity
Thenthedelugeof wealthcreateda business plementingand completingTurner'swork
boom such as the world had not known ratherthanin tryingto refuteit."110
Dr. Barnhart
sawthe hasicissueas one of
before.
this"boom"
hadfarWebbwasconvinced
06Ibid., 4 I 5.
had 107For
reachingeffects.By 1930the population
essayson the applicationof the Turnerthesis
increased
ourer
1500by 625percent,gold and to world frontierssee WalkerO. Wymanand Clifton
silverby 18,308percentand "things,goods Kroeber,eds., The F7^0ntierin Perspective (Universityof
Press,1957).
ratio. Wisconsin
or commodities'
by an indeterminable
As can be readily understoodProfessorWebb's
This climateof abundanceprovidedman books arousedconsiderablediscussion. A critique of
The Great Platns was conductedat Skytop,Pennsylvania
for develop- September
with unlimitedopportunities
9, 1939. Fred A. Shannon'seriticism,along
democracy
and with the rest
ment; capitalismflourished,
of the proceedings, was published by the
international
and Social ScienceResearch Council. Fred A. Shannon, et
individualism
werefostered,
"An Appraisal of WalterPrescottWebb'sThe Great
commerciallaw arose,literaturebloomed al.,
Plains: A Study in Institutionsand Environment,"
democratic
churchescontestedauthoritarianCritiques of Research in the Social Sciersses-III (New
1940). Dr. Shannon'smainpoint was that Webb
dogmasand the artsweregiven a practical York,
had overstatedthe "singularlyunique"characterof the
and
democratic
touch.
GreatPlainsin contrastwith the regioneastof the Great
r
="r
centurles,
the Piainsand west of the GreatPlains. JohnW. Caughey
nowesrer,Dyt le enc otr tour
backin defenseof Dr. Webbin "A Criticismof the
GreatFrontierrapidlydiminished.By 193Q came
Critiqueof Webb'sThe Great Plains," Mississippi Valtill the ratioper ley Historical 12eview,27: 442-449 (December,1940).
thepopulation
hadincreased
squaremile had surpassedthe 1500mark. WhenTAteGrea Frontier appeared,it causedas nauch
as had TAaeGreat Plains. J. H. Hexterprobthathe comment
\Vebbsawthe samethinghapperling
ably wrote the most vitriolicreview. Dr. Hexter said
had describedin Divided We Stand. With that Webb knew little Buropeanhistory to test his
hypothesisand if he had knownmoreEuropeanhistory
manbegan he
cheapgoodsand landvanishingX
-to begin
wouldn't have consideredthe hypothesis
to constructcontrolsneededto deal with a with.
J. H. Hexter,"ResZiew
of WalterP. Webb'sThe
arger soczety.W zat is ProtessorWebbs Great Frontier,>'24merican Historical Reuiew, 58: 963
108
r
.
(July, 1953). Ray A. BillingtonthoughtthatWebbhad
ideasin twentiethone of the moststimulating
;'advanced
Societyas it thickenswill becomemore closely centuryhistoriography."
R. A. Billington,"Reviewof
intergratedand its membersmore interdependent. WalterP. WebbsThe Great Frontier,"MississippiValley
Governmentswill tend to becomestronger,using H1storicalReview, 40:107 308 (June, 1953). Recently,
morecompulsionin orderto meettheirobligations. Billmgtonwas secondedby HenryS. Commager;Comwrote in the London Times, "one of the most
There will be a tendencytowardsocializationas mager
penetratingof all monographson Americanhistory."
exhibitedin the UnitedStatesand GreatBritainor HenryS. Commager,"HistoricalWritings,"The London
towardabsolutismas exhibitedby the fasciststates Times LitervrySuppletv?ent,55:xxxvii(January6, 1956).
andby Russia.The individualwill becomerelatively An Englishhistorian,GeoffreyBarraclough,
had serious
about The Great Frontier, but he thoughtit
reservations
less important
and will tend to loosehis identityin
a major attemptat illustratingthe presentwas not a
a growing
corporate
life.l06
History
continuationof the past. GeoffreyBarraclough,
JohnD.
about In a Changing WorZd(Oxfor(l,1955), 135-153.
Dr. Webbis not entirelypessimistic
undoubtedlyvoiced the feelings of many histhe future;107 thechallengetodayis whether Hicks
torianswhen he said "Whateverone may think of his
we can managethe productsof the Great hypothesis,he must agreethat only a braveman would
have daredto put it in a book." JohnD. Hieks, "ReFrontier.108
view of WalterP. Webb'sThe G1eat Fronner,' SatttrIn 1953,a yearafterThe Great Fronter day Review of Literatare, 35 :10-11 (December27
.
>
prognosls
H
Valley of lVeappeared,
JohnD. Barnhartss
John D. Barnhart,Valley of Democracy (BloomThe scope,ap- ington,
mocracy was published.109
Indiana,1953).
volume 1l0Formore of Dr. Barnhart'sstudyon Southerninproachand intentionof Barnhart's
wasradically
diderentfromThe GreatFron- fluences in the Ohio llalley see John D. Barnhart
"Sourcesof SouthernMigrationIntothe Old Northwest,"
tier. Dr. BarnhartchosesCatestingof the Mtsstsstppz
TZalleyHistorical Reuiew, 22: 49-62 (June
ty an applcatlonto 1935); JohnD. Barnhart,"TheSouthernElementin the
urnerlnterpretatlon
of the Old Northwest,"Zotwral of Southern
a specificareaand time."The specificarea Leadership
1: 18S-197 (May? 1935)* John D. Barnhart
was the Ohio Valley the time 1775-1818.History,
"The SouthernInfluencein the Formationof Ohio,"
Professor
Barnhart
admittedthatcertainfac- Joxrnal of Soathern History, 3: 28-42 (February,1937)and Plantersin the
D. Barnhart,"Frontiersmen
andthe planta- John
torssuchas landspeculation
Formationof Kentucky,"toarnal of Southern History
handled
by
Turner.
tionwerenot adequately
7:19-36 (February,1941) .
109
.
t
.
.
.
.
246
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
Jacktracingthe struggleof the OhioValleyPeo- Howdidallthisconformto Frederick
plesfor a politicaldemocracy.
Withthisaim son Turner'sviews? The last chapterof
was assignedto a disin mind,he meticulously
analyzedthe early Valleyof Demorracy
constitutions
of theValley.He keptin mind cussionof thefindingsin relationto theTurconcluded
thathisresults
suchgeneralquestionsas causesof the con- nerthesis.Barnhart
obstitutionalconventions,factionalism
in the closelyfollowedTurner'sinterpretations,
stateas a wholeandthenin theconventions,servingthattherewasampleevidenceof the
influence
on thefrontier,andthat
backgrounds
of the delegatesandthe origin democratic
origiof specificsectionsof theconstitutions.
Barn- Turnerdid not claimthat democracy
hart discernedan ever-present
trendin all natedon the frontier,"merelythosecharacwhichdistinguished
it fromEuropean
of the earlygovernments:
ycomanagainst teristics
The pioneers
of theOhioValley
planter,frontieragainsttidewater
anddemo- democracy."
a greatdealto thedemocratic
craticelementsagainstaristocratic.
The pio- hadcontributed
neergovernments
of Watauga,
Monongahela-idealsof America.1l2
FollowingcloselytheBarnhart
study,StanOhio region,Cumberland
and the Stateof
Franklinrepresented
only slight tendencies l11JohnD. Barnhart,Valley of Democracy, 214. Retowardspoliticaldemocracy.
Fromtheseearly cently,ElishaDouglaso£ the Universityof NorthCarocommunities,
Barnhartturnedhis attention lina has produceda studyof democracyin the period
precedingBarnhart's
work and throughthe Revolution.
to the politicalevolutionin Kentucky,Ten- Dr.
Douglaswas concernedwith the evolutionof denessee,Ohio,Indianaand Illinois.He con- mocracyon the Atlantic seaboard. He found little
sideredKentuckyhad won a substantial progressmade towarddemocracyin this period. The
for this slow advancementwere that the indivictoryin looseningthe controlof the Tide- reasons
vidualswho wereinterestedin democraticreformlacked
wateraristocracy.
Of the five methodsof leadership;the wide dispersalof agrarianinterestsof
the "vastmajority"-theconflictbetweenthe havesand
aristocratic
controlin Rlirginia
(property
qual- the
finally,the idealsof much of the revoluifications,inequalityof representation,
well tionhave-nots;
were achieved,lesseningthe impetus for social
established
church,largeland holdingsand reform. ElishaDouglas,Rebels and Democrats (Chapel
1955), 317-321. In disagreement
with Douglasis
slavery)"onlythelasttwocrossedthemoun- Hill,
Dr. RobertBrown whose researchin colonial Massatains."The storyin Tennessee
wasmuchthe chusettsproved to him that econoinic,political and
same. The frontierforcesmanagedto have religiousdemocracywere in operationin Massachusetts
the Wevolution.RobertBrown,Middle-ClassDesome democraticfeaturesembodiedin the before
mocracyand the Rerolution in Massachusetts,I69I-I780
constitutson,
but the conservative
featuresof (Cornell,1955). A volumeattunedto Barnhart'sinteris TheodoreG. Thayer'sPennsylvania Politics
property
qualifications
andlife tenureforthe pretation
the Growth of Dewnocracy(Harrisburg,
1953).
justicesof the peaceremainedundefeated. atld1l2One
definitesimilaritybetweenThe Great Frontier
Turningnorthof Sabelle riviere,Profes- and the Valley of Denzoaacy was the amountof polemicsthatwas causedby the publication
of eachvolume.
sorBarnhart
discovered
thatwhendemocracyIn
theirreviewsof the Valley of Democracy, Drs. Clark
was unhampered
by the inequitabledistri- and Abernethyboth wished more attentionhad been
butionof landand slavery,significant
gains placedon JamesWilkinson'sactivities.ProfessorClark
that perhapsthe machineand factionalism
weremadetowardlayingthe foundationof suggested
wele as importantin the functioningof democracyas
future democraticprocedure. Barnhart the democraticideal. Thomas D. Clark, "Reviewof
John D. Barnhart'sValley of Democracy," American
summedup the gainsmade,whenhe wrote, Historisal
Retview,60: 383-385 (January,1955)- Thomas
In the foundingof the stateof Ohio, the democraticforcesnot only defeatedthe conservative
elenuentsbut demonstrated
the unsuitableness
of the
Federalistphilosophyon the frontier.In the founding of Indiana,the frontiersmenlearnedhow to
overcomethe arbitraryauthoritywith which the
territorialgovernorwas clothedby the Northwest
Ordinance.The constitutionof Indiana demonstratedthe abilityof the pioneersto framea suitable
and democraticgovernment.... The violenceof
the early period disappearedwhen the territorial
government
wasestablished
in 1809for Illinois.The
rightto votewithouta struggle,and statehoodcame
naturallyas though the people were followinga
markedtrial.1ll
A. Abernethy,"Reviewof JohnD. Barnhart's
Valley of
Democracy," tournal of Sovzhern History, 20: 257-259
(May, 1954). FletcherGreenbelievedthat there were
inconsistencies
in the case for democracysouth of the
Ohio. FletcherGreen,"Reviewof John D. Barnhart's
Vallcy of Democracy," Mississippi Valley Histoncal Review, 40: 506-507 (December,1954). On the proBarnhartview, Dr. Carl Wittke called the Valley of
Democracy significantfor its clearsynthesis.CarlWittke
"Reviewof John D. Barnhart'sValley of Democracy,"
Ohio State Archzological and Historical Quarterly, 63:
204-205 (April, 1954) . RobertRiegelwrote, "possibly
most interestingof the recentpro-Turnerproductionis
the very well done Barnhartbook . . . " Roberti:.
Riegel,"The Historianand AmericanWest, Duringthe
Past Decade,"Montana Magazine of Western History,
6:16-22 (April, 1956).
247
THE TIJRNER THESIS A PROBLEM IN HISTORIRAPHY
ley Elkinsand Eric McKitrick,sought"A did showaboutdemocraiicpracticeson thatfrontier
in
widespreadparticipation
113 The - aboutindividualism,
MeaningFor Turner'sFrontier."
the makingof decisionsaboutthe commonlife, and
two scholarsdecidedthat Turner'scritics equality
of economicand culturalopportunity.As
with the far as we know, no one has yet examinedmicroshouldbe allowedall concessions,
as a habit scopicallya given area that experiencedtransiiion
exceptionof "politicaldemocracy
andthe Americanas a uniquepoliticalcrea- from wildernessto a settlementcommunitywith
the purposeof determininghow much democracy,
ture."They felt thatTurnerhad statedan in
sense,did existinitially,in the firstphase
fact thattherewas an organic of Turner's
indisputable
settlementduringthe processof settlementitself,
and and in the periodfollowingsettlement.l18
democracy
betweenAmerican
connection
frontier.The problemto these
thiscountry's
project,it was
In carryingout his research
washow to
of Chicagoprofessors
University
methodsin
quantitative
to
use
Curti's
aim
framework.
testthis beliefin a conceptual
contribwould
such
employment
that
hopes
MerK.
Robert
that
sociologist
knew
They
of
these
development
further
to
the
ute
from researchon two
ton had discovered,
tools.
historical
methods
as
thatwhenevera new
housingdevelopments,
County
communityfaces a multitudeof problems Dr. Curti'schoiceof Trempealeau
availaof
the
on
the
basis
more
was
dictated
the commuleadership
withouta structured
conon
any
other
than
records
of
public
bility
democratic
into
co-operative
is
forced
nity
Curti
purposes,
For
comparative
sideration.
McKitrick
in theirgovernment.
participation
and Elkinsdecidedto applyMerton'stheory and his staffchose11 contiguoustownships
fron- in northernVermont.The townshipswere
on threeAmerican
to newcommunities
fron- principallyrural areasfrom which many
theSouthwest
tiers:theOldNorthwest,
Usingquanhadmigrated.
tier of Alabamaand Mississippiand the Trempealeaunians
investititativemethods,the staffthoroughly
Bay.
Puritanfrontierof Massachusetts
emploved
and
gainfully
all
householders
gated
Their findingsbasedon researchof new
proved personswho werelistedin the unpublished
in eachof thesefrontiers
communities
censusesof 1850,1860,1870and
that manuscript
satisfaction
to Elkinsand McKitrick's
discoveredthat the
researchers
880.
The
]
the
in
both
was strong
practicaldemocracy
in Tremdemocracy
for
political
main
ground
Bay,but
Old Northwestand Massachusetts
governcounty
was
the
tailor-made
pealeau
lessin evidencein theSouthwhere
somewhat
and
of
Wisconsin
State
by
the
ment
imposed
the colonists'
structured
importedleadership
attitudes.
frontier
due
to
particular
was
not
lives.
attackedthe probThen the investigators
The authorsconcluded:
was economic
not
there
or
of
whether
lem
Yet Turner,after all, has been preemptingthe
Wasthere
County.
Trempealeau
equality
in
frontierlong past his time. It shouldno longerbe
for nationalorigingroupsup
necessaryto force literalmeaningfrom his texts, a progression
enteredour culturalmetaphor. the agricultural
now that they hanTe
ladderfrom farm hand to
At the same time a host of problemsmay be ex- farmowner? Curti'sresearch
disclosedthat
amined with fresh interestif we put in testable in generaltherewas progress
up
the ladder
termsfactswhichhe knewby instinct:the factthat
Did a
county.
in
the
who
stayed
those
for
the experienceforcedby the frontierwas uniquelifeof the
theagricultural
that in a centuryof westwardexpansionit was re- few mendominate
peatedover and over,that in a multitudeof forms community?Professor
Curtiansweredsvith
it foundits way into the dailyhabitsof the people, a resounding
"No."WhenTrempealeaunians
makingAmericanstruly and profoundlydifferent neededcapital(and oftentheydid needit),
fromanyoneelse in the world.1l4
it froma neighbor,merchant
theyborrowed
Dr. MerleCurtihasgoneaboutas farfrom or businessman.
Usually,theygave a mortas it is possibleto gagefor 550to $200-rarelymorethan$200
Webb'sspatiality
Professor
go. ProfessorCurtiuseda smallregionin
Elkins and Eric McKitrick, "A Meaning
County to exam- for1l3Stanley
WisconsinTrempealeau
l urner's Frontier," Political Science Quarterly, 69:
ine the Turnerthesisat the grassrootslevel.
Ihid., 602.
reportto theNewberryConIn a preliminary
11>
Merle Curti, "Democracy in a Wisconsin Frontier
wrote
Dr.
Curti
Studies,
ferenceon American
Community: Trempealeau County," Sixth Newberry
321-353;
114
The plan was to studyan actualfrontierand to
see whattherecordsandotherevidencestillat hand
565-602
(September,
December,
1954).
Library Conference on American Studies (Chicago, May
21, 1955), 1.
248
AGRICULTURAL HISTORY
factorshavenotbeengivenenough
this year's industrial
was everborrowed.Futhermore,
on the fronLandspeculation
Dr. Curti consideration.
debtormightbenextyearscreditor.
thoughtthis was significant."The Demo- tier has too often been ignoredby frontier
was not originatedon
of this tendencyareobvi- theorists.Democracy
craticimplications
common the frontierbut wasimportedthere.Terms
ous and the naturalassumption,
arehazy
and"democracy"
today,that the lendingof moneyand the suchas "frontier"
areneeded.
betterdefinitions
in turnis aptto be cen- andconflicting;
takingof mortgages
elements
and anthropological
teredin a few well-to-domen,did not hold Geographical
beyondtheir
havegenerallybeenemphasized
116
for pioneerTrempealeau."
ProfessorCurti,et. al., wereinterestedin merit.The thesisshouldhavebeenmodified
thatwereopen withthediscovery
opportunities
of newmaterial.Thefronthe educational
frontiesCounty.The tier thesisis full of contradictionsn
to the citizenof Trempealeau
and idealistic,
resultsshowedthatthoughthe foreign-bornmen were both materialistic
childrenhad a lower attendancerecordat nationalisticand provincial,individualistic
and autocratic.
democratic
schools,they did not encounteranti-demo- and comperative,
craticor hostileattitudes.Fromthis prelim- Finally,Turner'smethodologywas "loose"
inaryreport,Curtiand his colleaguesstate, andpoorlyconstructed.
the economic,politicaland social Defendersof the frontierthesisclaimthat
"Whatever
attacking
inequalities,and there were indeed more manycriticshavebeenpicayunish,
than the Turnerthesiswould lead one to the minorpointsand givingtoo littleattenpicturewe havedrawn tionto theover-all
valueof thethesis.Turner
expect.The statistical
Dr. Curti'sopin- did not claimthatdemocracy
is notin itselfa refutation."
originatedon
ion seemsto be thatthoughtheTurnerthesis the frontier,but only those aspectswhich
and revision,in differentiated
is in need of qualification
it from Europeandemocracy.
mostaspectsthe frontierthesisholdstrue.1l7 How is oneableto applytheurban-industrial
The focusof Turnerdefenseshiftedfrom thesisto a rural-dominated
firstcenturyof
the UnitedStatesto Englandin 1957with ourhistory?The frontierthesiswasa giganof an essayby H. C. Allen tic stepforwardin Americanhistoriography
the publication
entitled,"F. J. Turnerand the Frontierin and shouldbe judgedin this light. Contra118 Allen,Commonwealthdictions
History."
American
in a thesisof
will inevitablyappFar
Fund Professorof AmericanHistoryat the this generalnature,but thesecontradictions
of London,wasreadyandwilling shouldnot diminishits valueas a guide-post
University
to defendferventlyalmostany of Turner's to the understanding
of Americanhistory.
concepts.In fact, duringthe courseof his Finally,Professor
historydemanded
Turner's
agreedwith the thenarrative
essay,the Londonprofessor
style,andoneshouldremember
formerHarvardprofessoron almostall of that hoursof exhaustive
and meticulousrethelatter'smajorideas.Thatthefrontierfos- search were behind each interpretative
nationalism sentence.
individualismy
tereddemocracy,
and idealism,wereacceptedby Allen with In whatreputeis thefrontierthesisheldby
Equallywell receivedby Clio'spractitioners
littlequalification.
today? One fact easily
wereTurner'sthoughts discerned
the Britishprofessor
todaywould
is thatfew historians
of freelandin American whole-heartedly
on the importance
embrace
theTurnerthesisor
and the frontieras a line of unilaterally
development
discountthefrontierin American
Blam- history.Most historianswould find themrapidand edectiveAmericanization.
ing Turner'sfollowersfor mostof the exag- selvesin the positionof echoingJohn D.
in the frontier
gerationsand falsifications
thesis,ProfessorAllen notedthat when all
6 Ibid., 9.
is said and done,Turner'sideas"contained 1l7Formore of Curti'sideason the frontierand democracy,see MerleCurti, "The DemocraticTheme in
of dross."
a verysmallproportion
MtsszssippiValley HisAmericanHistoricalLiterature,^'
therehavebeena numberof torical Review, 39:3-28 (June, 1952); Merle Curti,
In summary,
main criticismsof the frontierthesis. The Probing Oxr Past (New York, 1955), passim.
118 H. C. Allen, "F. J. Turnerand the Frontierin
of Americande- American
frontieras an explanation
History,"in E¢says in American History,
Theurhan- editedby H. C. Allenand C. P. Hill (New York,1957).
hasbeenover-stressed.
velopment
PROBLEM IN HISTORIOGRAPHY
THE TURNER THESIS-A
249
RobertE. Riegel and David F. Long, The American
Hicks,ratherthanJosephSchaferor George Story
(2 vols., New York, 1955); Ray A. Billington
W. Pierson.
Bert J. Loewenbergand Samuel H. Bruckunier,The
It wasnot withinthe presentscopeof this United States: American Democracy in World Perspective (New York, 1947); HenryJ. Carmanand Harold
studyto undertake
a poll of historianssuch G.
Syrett,A History of the American People (2 vols.
as Dr. Piersondid in 1941. However,the New York, 1952); Donald Sheehan,The Mating of
authordid survey13 collegetext-books,1l9American History (2 vols.,New York,1950)- HaroldU.
American Political and Social History (New
whetherthey Faulkner,
withthepurpose
of ascertaining
York,1945); FredW. Wellborn,The Growth of Amerithesis. can Nationality) I492-I865
werepro-frontier
thesisor anti-frontier
(2 vols., New York, 1943);
O. Baldwin,The Stream of American History
The resultswereenlightening.Nine authors Leland
(2 vols.,New York,1952); JohnD. Hicks,The Federal
acceptedthe frontierthesis (though some Union
and American Nation (2 vols., Cambridge,1952
Thereweretwo 1955). Non-acceptanceof the Turner thesis were
with strongqualifications).
E. Morisonand Henry S. Commager,The
no mention Samuel
rejections,
andin twotext-books,
Growth of the American Republic (2 vols., New York
one can- 1950); Ralph V. Harlow, The Growth of the United
was madeof the thesis.Obviously,
not assumeon this basisthat the frontier States (2 vols., New York, 1951) . Those makingno
ofFthe frontierthesiswere OliverP. Chitwood
thesisis accepted
or rejectedby the historical mention
and FrankL. Owslev,A Short History of the American
profession.But perhapsit may be a rough People (2 vols., New York, 1945); ThomasA. Bailey
Pageant (New York, 1956).
indicationof the viewsof a segmentof lead- Thet20 American
In the fall of 1957, Roy F. Nichols,Universityof
ing historians.120
delivereda paperat the EuropeanAssociPennsylvania,
to the present ation for AmericanStudiesin Paris,France,on "The
One strikingobservation
State of AmericanResearchon the Frontier
of Present
writeris the needfor moreinvestigation
Problem."Nicholsdevotesa large sectionof his paper
thepastseven to work that has been accomplishedon the frontier
allcurrenttheses.Cumulatively
thesissince 1950. Especiallyvaluableare the reportsof
decadeshavebeenan eraof immenseproduc- unpublished
EverettLee, Univerwork of demographer
ln sity of Pennsylvania,
tlV1ty
anc growlngmaturltytor llstorlans
for the frontiev
and its implications
of theAmeri- thesis. ProfessorNicholsconcludes"Historiansandsocial
theirsearchfortheexplanation
of the
scientistsarehardat workstudyingthe implications
can character.Onlythe mostunimaginativemobility
of Americanpopulationand its influenceupon
mindcouldfail to be intriguedby whatpos- Americannationalcharacterand democracy.They, in a
fromthe spellof Turner's
sible findingswill resultfrom sevenmore sense,havereleasedthemselvesR
visionand even now new datais beingmobilized.Unthe- doubtedly
decadesof research
on the interpretative
theoryof
a more realisticand comprehensive
.
.
*
.
.
,*
.
.
OrleS 0t AmtRlCan
.
.
.
r
.
.
.
.
ClVl. .lZatlOn.
Americanculturaldevelopmentwill be formulatedby
somenew Turner,who may be a committee.It will be
Whetherone agreesor not with Fulmer more
complexbut it may well still be concernedp-iobligation marilywith migration.This new theorywill probably
Moodthat,"themainprofessional
thefrontierissue, still be basedon the great factorof populationmoveof thetimes"121 iS resolving
but it will not be simplywestwardmovementbut
the ment
no one has yet completelyascertained
complexmovementin all directions."Roy F. Nichols
many-faceted
eflectsof thefrontieron Ameri- "The PresentState of AmericanResearchon the Frontier Problem," (Unpublished,Presentedto European
canClVl. .lZatlOIl.
.
.
.
.
Associationfor AmericanStudiesin Paris,France,September,1957). The writeris indebtedto Dean Nichols
for allowinghim the use of this paper.
119 The text-bookswhich accepted(wholly or quali121
Fulmer Mood, "FrontierConcept, 1871-1898,"
fied) the frontierthesis were Henry B. Parkes,The
United States of America A History (New York,1953); Agricultural History, 19: 24-30 (January,1945).
AMERICANFARMERS
A POLITICIANCRITICIZES
"If St. Paulworthilyhad his spiritstirredwithinhim by the senselessidolatryof polmibht
ished,intellectual
Athens,I feel that an honestman,who knowswhatagriculture
in view of whatit
andshot¢ldbe in the UnitedStates,can hardlyrestrainhis indignation
quite commonlyis. To look overan averagefarmon thisAtlanticseaboard,and see its
owner gravelyploughitlgaroundand over the samestonesthat his greatgrandfather
ploughedovera centuryago,whentheyshouldlongsincehavebeenremoved,or the fields
containingthemgivenup to the growthof timber growtwo hundredbushelsof cornper
annumon ten acres,whenhe mightgrowthat quantityso muchcheaperon four, I feel
that E)atience
with suchinfatuationis scarcelylessthana crime."
(1863)
Quotedin Reportof the Commissionerof 24griczwltzwre