A Bimonthly Publication of Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute
March-April (2012)
Vol. 11 No. 2
CENTRAL PULP & PAPER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
POST BOX NO. 174, PAPER MILL ROAD, HIMMAT NAGAR,
SAHARANPUR – 247001, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA
Journals covered in this issue
Appita, Vol. 65 No. 2, 2012
Tappi Journal, Vol. 11 No. 3 & 4, 2012
TAPPSA journal, Vol. 2, 2012
BIOETHANOL
1)
Bura, Renata; Ewanick, Shannon and Gustafson, Richard. Assessment of Arundo Donax
(Giant Reed) as Feedstock for Conversion to Ethanol. Tappi journal, 11(4): 59 – 66 (2012).
Abstract: The focus of this study was to assess the feasibility of using giant reed (Arundo donax)
for bioethanol production via pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation. Sugar and
ethanol yields from giant reed were compared with those from hybrid poplar, a well-regarded
woody biomass feedstock. Low (L), medium (M), and high (H) severity steam pretreatment
conditions were applied to giant reed to select the set of conditions that would allow recovery
of the maximum amount of sugars in hydrolysable and fermentable form. Simultaneous
saccharification and fermentation (SSF) of the combined water insoluble and water soluble
fractions from steam pretreated giant reed at the L severity condition of 190°C, 5 min, and 3%
SO2 provided the highest ethanol yield − 79% of the theoretical maximum, which corresponds
to 0.179 L ethanol/kg of raw material (based on six carbon sugars). Hybrid poplar pretreated at
200°C, 5 min, 3% SO2 produced 0.205 L ethanol/kg raw material after SSF, corresponding to
80% of the theoretical maximum ethanol yield (based on six carbon sugars). Giant reed appears
to be a good alternative for biorefineries using poplar or similar hardwood feedstocks.
Keywords: Arundo donax, Ethanol, Enzymatic hydrolysis, saccharification and fermentation
(SSF).
BIOGAS
2)
Santos, Ricardo B.; Hart, Peter W.; Colson, Gary W.; Evers, Simon and Evers, Dennis
Commissioning of a Biogas Pilot Plant: from Brown Grease to Paper Mill-Generated
Organic Wastes. Tappi journal, 11(4): 73 – 78 (2012).
Abstract: The MeadWestvaco mill in Evadale, TX, USA, in conjunction with VOW Resources LLC,
has constructed and commissioned a green biogas skid-mounted pilot plant to evaluate the
potential of various organic waste streams to produce high-quality biogas. It is the fourth plant
in the world incorporating this technical approach to biogas production. At initial startup, the
plant used cow manure as organic feedstock. To commission the plant for verifying the VOW
bioaugmentation process, the transition was made to using brown grease. After the brown
grease commissioning trials are completed, the plant will be transitioned to a number of paper
mill-generated organic wastes to acquire the design parameters and engineering data that will
aid in construction of a full-scale biogas facility.
Keywords: Biogas pilot plant, Brown grease, Mill-generated organic wastes, Bioaugmentation
process.
BIOMASS
3)
Swart, S. D.; Heydenrych, M. D. and Boateng, A. A. Dual Fluidised Bed Design for the Fast
Pyrolysis of Biomass. Tappsa journal, 2: 18 –25 (2012).
Abstract: A mechanism for the transport of solids between fluidised beds in dual fluidised bed
systems for the fast pyrolysis of biomass process was selected. This mechanism makes use of an
overflow standpipe to transport solids from the fluidised bed used for the combustion reactions
to a second fluidised bed, which is used for the endothermic pyrolysis reactions. A screw
conveyor is used to transport the solids back to the combustion fluidised bed.
Several experiments were performed on a cold model of the system in order to test the
performance of the solid transfer mechanism in the dual fluidised bed design. It was found that
the pressure drops over the combustion and pyrolysis fluidised beds were unaffected by
changes in the speed of the screw conveyor and pyrolysis gas flow rate. The pressure drop over
the pyrolysis bed was found to be mostly dependant on the flow of gas in the combustion bed
due to its higher flow rate. As the combustion gas flow rate increased, the pressure drop over
the combustion bed decreased and the pressure drop over the pyrolysis bed increased. This
may be due to the flow of gas from the pyrolysis bed through the standpipe. A change in the
amount of solids charged to the system had a negligible effect on the response of the pressure
drop over the combustion and pyrolysis fluidised beds and the height of the solids in the
pyrolysis bed to changes in the combustion and pyrolysis gas flow rate and the screw conveyor
speed. However, an increase in the amount of solids charged did have a dampening effect on
the rate of spills of solids into the overflow standpipe. It also stabilized the response of the rate
of spills to changes in the combustion gas flow rate.
The solid transfer mechanism conformed to the requirements which were identified for the
feasibility of the mechanism in the fast pyrolysis of biomass process. The proposed dual
fluidised bed system is therefore a feasible system for the fast pyrolysis of biomass.
Keywords: Standpipe, Endothermic, Cold model, Themochemical, Solids transport, Screw
conveyor, L-valve.
CARBOHYDRATE ANALYSIS
4)
Moral, Ana; Hernandez, Maria Dolores; Tijero, Antonio; Gonzalez, Zoilo; Garcia, Juan and
Torre, Maria Jesus De La. NIRS Determination of Carbohydrates from HydrothermalTreated Rice Straw. Tappi journal, 11(4): 27 – 32 (2012).
Abstract: Increasingly stringent environmental standards and the need for sustainable
development are forcing pulp and paper mills to study methods to maximize the use of process
wastes. Several studies have shown that “hydrothermal process” wastes might serve as raw
material to obtain monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. High performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) traditionally has been used to study these carbohydrates. However,
HPLC has a series of disadvantages that could be avoided by use of other methods. This study
evaluated the potential use of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) as a substitute analysis
method for HPLC, using rice straw as raw material. The results showed that NIRS analysis can be
used as a prediction method for monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. This method has the
additional advantage of being a fast, nondestructive technique that does not require
pretreatment of samples, and therefore, decreases the costs and the environmental impact of
the analyses process.
Keywords: Hydrothermal-treated rice straw, Hydrothermal process, Monosaccharides,
Oligosaccharides, High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Near-infrared spectroscopy
(NIRS).
DELIGNIFICATION
5)
Heiningen, Adriaan Van and Ji, Yun. Southern Pine Oxygen Delignified Pulps Produced in
a Berty Throughflow Reactor: How to Obtain the Highest Degree of Delignification while
Maintaining Pulp Yield and Quality. Tappi journal, 11(3): 9 – 18 (2012).
Abstract: The kappa number, intrinsic viscosity, and yield of Southern Pine pulps were
determined after oxygen delignification at different alkali concentrations, temperatures,
oxygen pressures, and treatment time in a Berty throughflow reactor. It was found that the
highest delignification-cellulose degradation selectivity is achieved at low alkali concentrations
and temperatures of about 100°C or less. Oxygen pressure has little effect on selectivity.
Carbohydrate yield loss is proportional to kappa number loss up to kappa reduction of 60%. At
higher delignification, the carbohydrate yield loss increases more strongly than delignification.
However, carbohydrate yield loss is linearly correlated with cellulose degradation at all degrees
of delignification. Hexenuronic acids are not removed during conventional oxygen
delignification. To increase delignification of softwood pulp beyond about 60%, oxygen system
design should be changed so that alkali concentration and charge are decoupled, as is similarly
done in modern cooking systems.
Keywords: Southern Pine pulps, Berty throughflow reactor, Delignification, Pulp yield, Quality,
Oxygen delignification, Cellulose degradation.
6)
Brogdon, Brian N. Stoichiometric Model of Chlorine Dioxide Delignification of Softwood
Kraft Pulps with Oxidant-Reinforced Extraction. Tappi journal, 11(3): 31 – 39 (2012).
Abstract: A generalized, steady-state model estimates bleaching delignification and/or chlorine
dioxide consumption for sequences that employ oxidant-reinforced extraction. The model is
based on Germgard’s stoichiometric expression for the D0E1 sequence, which relates chlorine
dioxide uptake to post-extracted kappa number. Germgard’s integrated stoichiometric model
was modified to normalize the extracted kappa number to the incoming kappa number. This
mathematical transformation allows for various brownstocks and oxygen-delignified pulps with
different kappa numbers to be modeled as a single curve whereby its shape is related to the
stoichiometric parameter. From analyzing various softwood bleaching studies, it was
determined that this stoichiometric parameter could be expressed as a simple function of
oxidant-reinforced extraction conditions (e.g., extraction temperature and peroxide dosage).
The generalized delignification model forecasts chlorine dioxide usage with small relative error
from the experimental values, typically ±3% to ±10%. This model is relatively simple, with a
minimum number of equation parameters to determined, and can be used with other steadystate brightening stage models to predict bleach usage.
Keywords: Chlorine dioxide delignification, Softwood Kraft Pulp, Oxidant-Reinforced Extraction,
Germgard’s stoichiometric expression, Softwood bleaching.
DEPITHING
7)
Rainey, Thomas J. A Comparison between Highly Depithed and Conventionally Depithed
Bagasse Pulp. Appita journal, 65(2): 178 – 183 (2012).
Abstract: Sugarcane bagasse pulp normally has high dewatering resistance and poor strength
properties. In a previous study it was shown that highly depithed bagasse chemical pulp has
excellent dewatering properties which may improve the production rate of bagasse based
tissue, paper and board. In this study pulp properties of this highly depithed bagasse pulp were
tested and compared favourably with regular depithed bagasse pulp. In addition to better
dewatering rates, the pulp yield, tear strength and water retention value seemingly improved.
Whilst a slight reduction in burst, tensile and short-span compression strengths occurred, they
were still comparable to values reported for a regular bagasse pulp.
Keywords: Sugarcane, Bagasse, Depithing, Pulp, Dewatering.
Energy Management
8)
Atkins, Martin; Walmslev, Michael; Morrison, Andrew and Neale, James. Process
Integration in Pulp and Paper Mills for Energy and Water Reduction - A Review. Appita
journal, 65(2): 170 – 177 (2012).
Abstract: Process integration (including pinch analysis) is a holistic or systems approach to
process design and optimisation, which considers the interactions and interdependences
between individual unit operations or process elements. Large reductions in both energy and
water use in pulp and paper mills has been demonstrated using process integration techniques.
A review of the current process integration techniques for energy and water reduction, with a
focus on application to the pulp and paper industry is presented in this paper. The concurrent
application of heat integration and water/mass integration analysis is discussed. Particular
focus is given to published case studies. The integration of biorefineries into existing mills and
the energy and water use implications is also receiving much attention and this development is
also reviewed.
Keywords: Pulp and paper, Process integration, Pinch analysis, Water minimisation, Energy
efficiency.
ENZYME BLEACHING
9)
Hart, Peter W. Differences in Bleaching Responses from Fungal- Versus Bacterial-Derived
Enzymes. Tappi journal, 11(3): 21 – 27 (2012).
Abstract: Several mills in North America have been successful in using xylanase enzymes
expressed from Trichoderma reesei (a fungus) as part of their bleaching sequence for many
years. These mills process hardwood and softwood species, with and without oxygen
delignification. These mills also use three-, four-, and five-stage bleaching sequences. North
American mills tend to report increased pulp brightness ceilings and decreased bleaching costs
as benefits associated with the application of enzymes in the bleaching process. Laboratory
testing suggests that eucalyptus pulp is highly susceptible to fungal- and bacterial-derived
enzyme bleaching and should result in significant cost savings in South American mills. At least
four different mills in South America have attempted to perform enzyme bleaching trials using
bacterial-derived enzymes. Each of these mill trials resulted in significantly increased operating
costs and/or unsustainable operating conditions. More recently, one of these South American
mills performed a short trial using a commercially available, fungal-derived enzyme. This trial
was technically successful. This report attempts to determine why the South American mill
experiences with bacterial-derived enzymes have been poor, while North American mills and
the one South American mill trial have had good results with fungal- derived enzymes.
Operating conditions and trial goals for the North and South American mills also were
examined.
Keywords: Enzyme bleaching, Fungal and bacterial-derived enzyme bleaching, Fungal-derived
enzyme.
ECF BLEACHING
10) Sevastyanova, Olena; Forsstrom, Annbritt; Wackerberg, Eva and Lindstrom, Mikael E.
Bleaching of Eucalyptus Kraft Pulps with Chlorine Dioxide: Factors Affecting the
Efficiency of the Final D Stage. Tappi journal, 11(3): 43 – 53 (2012).
Abstract: We investigated the bleaching efficiency of the final chlorine dioxide (D2) stage in the
D0(EP)D1D2 bleaching sequence, focusing on the effect of pH in relation to the bleaching history
of pulp samples. The samples used were unbleached kraft Eucalyptus grandis pulps with kappa
no. 14.8 and the same pulp oxygen-delignified to kappa nos. 12 and 9.8. The samples were
bleached according to the D0(EP)D1 sequence to a brightness of about 86% ISO and then
submitted to the final D2 stage under identical conditions (e.g., chlorine dioxide charge, time,
temperature, and final pH). The target final brightness was 90.5% ISO. Changes in the kappa
number, brightness, viscosity, and contents of hexenuronic acid, 4-O-methylglucuronic acid,
and the total amount of carboxylic acid (COOH) groups in pulps were monitored during the
bleaching sequence. The final brightness of eucalyptus kraft pulps increased when the terminal
pH of the D2 stage was raised from 3.0 to 6.5. The 90.5% ISO target brightness in the D2 stage
was achieved for all pulps within a pH range of 4.5–6.5, but this required adjusting final pH for
individual samples. The optimal pH value with respect to pulp viscosity was between 3 and 5.
Despite dissimilar conditions applied in previous bleaching stages, the samples after the D1
stage revealed similar residual lignin contents as shown by kappa number analysis. The content
of hexenuronic acid in the samples, however, varied broadly, from 2 to 26 mmol/kg. Conduct
metric titration showed different amounts of carboxylic acid groups in pulps after the D1 stage,
of which hexenuronic acid accounted for only a minor part. The variations in the fiber charge
resulted from the different bleaching conditions applied before the D2 stage. The fiber charge
affected the alkali demand in the final D2 stage, whereas variations in the alkali demand
affected the initial pH and associated process kinetics. Lower total fiber charge was found to be
beneficial for improved final brightening and viscosity when bleached at higher final pH.
Keywords: Chlorine dioxide, Eucalyptus grandis,
EXTRACTION
11) Saukkonen, Esa; Lyytikainen, Katja and Backfolk, Kaj. Alkaline Xylan Extraction of
Bleached Kraft Pulp – Effect of Extraction Time on Pulp Chemical Composition and
Physical Properties. Tappi journal, 11(4): 37 – 43 (2012).
Abstract: In this pilot scale study, we examined the effects of alkaline extraction time on xylan
removal, pulp and paper properties, and the consequences that need to be addressed when
scaling up and intensifying the process. Alkaline extraction of bleached birch kraft pulp yields
two fractions: pure polymeric xylan and pulp with reduced xylan content. Our results indicate
that a similar amount of xylan can be extracted in 5 min as the amount obtained in 60 min. We
found, however, that the shorter extraction time is beneficial to maintain the fiber and paper
properties at an acceptable level. This pilot trial demonstrated that the washing procedure of
the alkali-treated fibers must be selected with care to avoid causing mechanical damage to
fibers and to avoid the loss of fines.
Keywords: Alkaline xylan extraction, Chemical composition, Physical properties, Xylan removal.
12) Duarte, G. V.; Gamelas, J. A. F.; Ramarao, B. V.; Amidon, T. E. and Ferreira, P. J.
Properties of Extracted Eucalyptus Globulus Kraft Pulps. Tappi journal, 11(4): 47 – 55
(2012).
Abstract: This work was a comprehensive study of the properties of extracted Eucalyptus
globulus kraft pulps. Five levels of hot water extraction were performed, each followed by kraft
cooking to three different kappa numbers. As extraction took place, the hemicelluloses content
of the kraft pulps was reduced from 21%-22% to 3%-4% and, conversely, the cellulose fraction
increased from 73%-75% to 85%-90%. Fiber length decreased for all pulps and kink index
increased greatly with extraction. The dispersive components of the surface energy for the
control (unextracted) and extracted (120 min) kappa no. 15 kraft pulps, as determined by
inverse gas chromatography, were found to be 30.8 and 34.9 mJ/m2, respectively. The acidbase properties of the pulp surface seemed to be enhanced by the inclusion of the hot-water
extraction step. We discuss the surface energy properties in terms of the chemical structure of
the pulps. In addition, we report on two models able to predict the mass removal and kappa
number of pulps prepared from preextracted chips.
Keywords: Extracted Eucalyptus globulus kraft pulp, Water extraction, Hemicelluloses content,
inverse gas chromatography.
FINANCE
13) Hytionen, Eemeli and Stuart, Paul R. Early-Stage Design Methodology for Biorefinery
Capital Appropriation. Tappi journal, 11(4): 9 – 23 (2012).
Abstract: This paper presents a methodology for enhancing the strategic investment decisionmaking process for retrofit forest biorefinery (FBR) implementation. This is achieved by
improving the link between retrofit process design and capital appropriation activities through
cost accounting. This methodology is based on step-wise screening of retrofit alternatives
where (1) traditional techno-economic analysis and multivariate stochastic risk analysis are
used in the first pre-screening step, and (2) an advanced analysis framework based on steadystate process modeling, product costing using principles of activity-based costing (ABC), and
panel-based multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) is used in the second screening step. In the
MCDM, financial- and risk-based decision-making criteria are used. A case study considering the
retrofit implementation of a biorefinery into a kraft pulp and paper mill demonstrates the
methodology.
Keywords: Retrofit forest biorefinery (FBR), Multicriteria decision-making (MCDM), Activitybased costing (ABC).
FIBRE FRACTIONATION
14) Lin, Youfeng and Lanouette, Robert. Quality Impacts of Chemical Treatments and
Selective Refining of Jack Pine TMP Long Fibre Fraction. Appita journal, 65(2): 153 – 158
(2012).
Abstract: The long fibre fraction from TMP primary pulp was treated with different chemicals
prior to selective refining. Using handsheet test results, impacts on pulp quality were evaluated
by comparing with refined whole-pulp and recombined pulps from selective refining. The
results show that chemical treatment, particularly with sodium sulphite, can enhance tensile
strength and reduce rejects content and surface roughness; however, they decrease tear
strength, handsheet bulk and light scattering coefficient. The recombined pulps after selective
refining and chemical treatments have better bonding strength and surface smoothness than
the refined whole-pulp but lower light scattering coefficient and opacity. By recombining with
the short-fibre fractions the significant loss of opacity could be avoided.
Keywords: Jack pine, Long fibre, Fractionation, Selective refining, Chemical treatment, Sodium
sulphite, Alkaline peroxide, Sodium borohydride, Peracetic acid.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
15) Diegel, Adolf; Diegel, Olaf; Montocchio, Edouard; Schalkwyk, Sias van and Pritchard,
George. Compact Linear Programming for the Reel Cutting Stock Problem. Tappsa
journal, 2: 46 – 54 (2012).
Abstract: "Linear" means that two units are twice as large, heavy or costly as one unit: to
compute total size, weight or value, for each order we multiply one number by another and
add up the products.
Linear Programming, LP, reflects this same linearity. We add, subtract, multiply or divide and
use search routines (which order is to be filled next?). This involves
arithmetic, not mathematics.
Similarly for a Reel Cutting Stock Problem, CSP. We are to obtain narrow reels from wide rolls to
fill the orders on hand with minimal stock, the main task. We also consider setups, order splits,
short runs, surplus or deficit, pattern or reel multiples and related aspects: any one may be
given priority even if this affects stock usage.
We go from an initial table with demand and patterns to new ones. They show which patterns
should run how often to fill demand, then to improve a plan. We use a small example to allow
printing all patterns. For large orders, patterns reach astronomical numbers and we need
dynamic pattern ("column") generation, as explained in another paper. So also for stock
reduction, trade tolerance or two-stage orders, with a second cutter to chop sheets or to slit
reels below a winder's knife settings.
We aim to enable practitioners to control our optimiser and eventually to write their own
procedure. Either way, we shall appreciate feedback.
Keywords: Compact linear programming, Reel cutting stock problem.
PULP BRIGHTNESS
16) Lapierre, Luc; Bouchard, Jean and Berry, Richard. Assessment of Pulp Machine White
Water Quality at Market Kraft Pulp Mills. Tappi journal, 11(3): 71 – 76 (2012).
Abstract: The bleaching of pulp is a significant cost, yet the brightness achieved in the bleaching
plant can be diminished in the pulp machine because of white water (WW) quality. Monitoring
WW quality can control these losses. A method was developed to assess WW quality that
allows differentiation between the effect of fibers, fines, and dissolved solids (DS) in the WW. It
was found that the quality of the WW varied greatly from mill to mill. The brightness loss was
mainly affected by the presence of fines, through a combination of their concentration and
color. The DS were significantly less detrimental to the optical properties of the final furnish.
None of the constituents present in the pulp machine WW caused significant brightness
reversion (except the hardwood fine fractions). It is therefore recommended that a monitoring
procedure for WW quality at the mill site be used to diagnose and prevent the occurrence of
brightness problems. Such monitoring offers a way to reduce bleaching costs.
Keywords: White water, Quality, Bleaching costs.
PULPING
17) Morton, Peter De; Phillpp, Mary; Vanderhoek, Nafty and White, Keith. Eucalypt Chip
Thickness Pulping Study. Appita journal, 65(2): 165 – 169 (2012).
Abstract: A commercially screened eucalypt chip furnish, provided by an Australian pulp mill at
six thickness fractions from -2 mm to +10 mm, were cooked separately in a laboratory multiple
digester by the conventional kraft process to three different H-factor levels. The pulps were
evaluated for yield, rejects, kappa number, freeness, bulk and selected strength properties. Hfactors from 500 to 1400 at the mill cooking chemical conditions of 14.3% effective alkali and
25% sulphidity produced a kappa number range for the baseline, 4-6 mm chips, of 15 to 21.
Maximum pulp yield was achieved with chips at 2-4 mm and 4-6 mm in thickness. In order to
optimise bulk, chip size should be at the higher end of the acceptable commercial range (4-6
mm), refining kept to a minimum and the chips not overcooked.
Keywords: Eucalypt, Hardwood, Kraft pulp, Chips, Chip thickness, delignification, H-factor,
effective alkali, Freeness, bulk, paper strength properties.
REDUCTIVE BLEACHING
18) Carreira, Helio J. M.; Loureiro, Pedro E. G.; Carvalho, M. Graça V. S. and Evtuguin, Dmitry
V. Reductive Degradation of Residual Chromophores in Kraft Pulp with Sodium
Dithionite. Tappi journal, 11(3): 59 – 67 (2012).
Abstract: The focus of this study is the chemistry of reductive bleaching of kraft pulps with
sodium dithionite. A set of model compounds mimicking quinone structures, residual lignin
structures with conjugated carbonyl/carboxyl groups and muconic acid, among others, was
reduced with sodium dithionite and monitored by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy.
Depending on the chromophore models, either reductive or sulfonation reactions are thought
to be responsible for the degradation. No reductive degradation of hexeneuronic acid (HexA)
residues was detected, but unsaturated structures of unknown origin were eliminated from the
xylan. Additionally, the potential of the reductive stage with either sodium dithionite or sodium
borohydride was tested using an industrial pine kraft pulp bleached by OOZEDD sequence. This
pulp, with a 88.8% ISO brightness ceiling, exhibited a brightness increase to 90 ± 0.5% in the
final reduction stage.
Keywords: Reductive bleaching, Residual chromophores, Kraft pulp, Sodium dithionite,
ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, hexeneuronic acid (HexA), sodium borohydride.
WATER CONSERVATION
19) Mcdeviti, James E.; Love, Simon R.; Seadon, Jeffrey K. and Alllson, Robert W. An
Evaluation of Alternative Water Footprint Methodologies Using an Indicative Tissue
Paper Supply Chain. Appita journal, 65(2): 159 – 164 (2012).
Abstract: There are basically two commonly used methods to calculate a water footprint;
volumetric and impact assessment. The aim of this study is to evaluate these alternative water
footprint methodologies using a New Zealand-based tissue paper supply chain. It was found
that for the reference flow of one kilogram of tissue paper the volumetric water footprint was
1284 kg and the impact assessment footprint was 0.4 kg (as ecosystem water-equivalents). The
results indicate that whilst the water associated with tissue paper production in New Zealand is
large, the impact of this water use is minimal. Both methods are limited by a lack of data. The
volumetric method requires clearer delimitations and the impact assessment method used
cannot claim to fully quantify the impacts of the water use using the current indicators and
criteria. Therefore it is recommended that a single, more inclusive water footprint methodology
that uses more sophisticated indicators of water stress be developed.
Keywords: Water footprint, supply chain, tissue paper, life cycle assessment (LCA)
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