Gabriel'sConspiracy
and theElectionof1800
By DOUGLAS R. EGERTON
THE
SPRING OF 1800 FOUND RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, EMBROILED IN
fortheGeneralAssembly
theAprilelections
politicalcontroversy;
in theupcoming
andRepublicans
werecrucialforbothFederalists
discord,andrumors
unrest,
Theaccompanying
contest.
presidential
a blackmannamedGabriel,ownedbyThomas
ofdisunion
inspired
toconceiveofwhatwas perhapsthemostextensive
HenryProsser,
has been
Gabriel'sconspiracy
history.
slaverebellionin southern
mostcontemporaries
byhistorians;
ormisunderstood
either
ignored
couldhavesucceeded.Had thatbeenso, it
believedthatitprobably
racerelations
havechangednotonlythecourseofAmerican
might
but also the courseof Americanpoliticalhistory.This article
leadersandto
to identify
Gabrielandtheotherinsurgent
attempts
boththegoals of their
explainhowtheiruniquestatusinformed
of
Inturn,
thisexplanation
ofrecruitment.
method
andtheir
rebellion
matured
whytheconspiracy
andgoalswillhelpanswer
theiridentity
ramificapoliticalandideological
whenitdidandwhattheprofound
were.'
tionsofitsfailure
thantheir
rebellious
slaveswerelessovertly
American
WhyNorth
discussedin recent
brethren
has beenextensively
LatinAmerican
tobe answered
is whythesefewNorthAmeriyears.Whatremains
occurred.Thispuzzlebecomesless complexwhen
can rebellions
in place,class, andtime.Whenthese
each rebellionis grounded
andthegoals
theproblem
ofwhyis clarified,
piecesarefittogether,
takeformandshape.Removedfromitsproper
oftheconspirators
Gabriel'sconspiracy
appearsillogical;hisgoals,muddled.
context,
ThomasHenry
1 Although
ofhisowner,
giveGabrielthesurname
modern
scholarsoften
doesso, andI haveavoideddoingso here.I wish
document
contemporary
Prosser,
noextant
MarcusRediR. Duncan,AlanGallay,StevenHahn,RonaldM. Johnson,
Richard
tothank
Anearlierversionofthis
andsuggestions.
ker,andPhilipJ. Schwarzfortheircomments
Historians
ofAmerican
oftheOrganization
atthe1988annualmeeting
article
waspresented
inReno,Nevada.
MR. EGERrON is an assistantprofessorof historyat Le MoyneCollege.
THE JOURNALOF SOUTHERN HISTORY
Vol. LVI, No. 2, May 1990
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19 2
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN
HISTORY
An understanding
of timeandplace,however,
revealsa coherent
and-giventheinformation
availabletohim-logicalplan.2
Theconspiracy
in
cannot
be divorced
from
theworldofRichmond
theyearsfollowing
theAmerican
Revolution.
Theleadingconspiratorswereslaves,to be sure,buttheywereslaveswho livedand
laboredinan urbanculture
thatwas unusualifnotnearlyuniquein
theSouth.Richmond
at theturnof thecentury
hadjustundersix
thousand
residents.
Halfofthepopulation
wasblack,andaboutonefifth
oftheblackswerefree.Andas inhabitants
a state
ofVirginia,
witha freeblackpopulation
thatwas growing
rapidlybecauseof
manumission
andeconomicchange,theborderSouthconspirators
dreamed
realistic
dreamsoffreedom.3
Attheheartofthewebtheconspirators
werespinning
stoodProsser'sGabriel.Theninhistwenty-fourth
year,Gabrielwas a natural
skilledblacksmith
leader,a highly
whocouldboth"readandwrite."
At six feetodd, Gabrieltoweredovermostmen,andhe was not
inthefallof1799hehadbeenconafraidtousehisgreatstrength;
victedof"biting
offa considerable
partof[the]leftEar"ofa white
neighbor.
As a potential
revolutionary,
Gabrielhadmuchtolose,for
hehadrecently
Buthisemerging
married.4
planwasbaseduponcareandthereis absolutely
fulcalculation,
notruth
tothepopularmyth
who
thattheshort-haired
slavewas an irrational,
messianicfigure
worehislockslonginimitation
ofSamson.As faras theextant
evidenceindicates,
freedom
was hisonlyreligion.5
2 See for example Eugene D. Genovese, From Rebellion to Revolution:Afro-American
Slave Revoltsin theMakingof theModernWorld(Baton Rouge, 1979).
3 Ira Berlin,Slaves Without
Masters: TheFree Negroin theAntebellumSouth(New York,
1974), 36; and Returnof the WholeNumberof Persons WithintheSeveral Districtsof the
UnitedStates . . . (Washington,
1802), 69-70.
4 Norfolk
Herald, September16, 1800 (firstquotation);trialof Gabriel,October7, 1799,
HenricoCountyCourt,OrderBook (VirginiaStateLibrary,Richmond)(second quotation);
Burton'sDaniel indicatedthatGabriel'swifeNannyknewabouttheconspiracy.See his testimonyat thetrialofJones'sJohn,September11, 1800, NegroInsurrection,
ExecutivePapers
(VirginiaStateLibrary).Thereis, however,no evidencetosupportthethesisthattheplotwas
"led byNancy[sic] Prosserandherhusband,Gabriel."See Paula Giddings,Whenand WhereI
Enter: TheImpactofBlack Womenon Race and Sex in America(New York,1984), 40.
5 Descriptionof Gabrielby ThomasHenryProsser,in RichmondVirginia
Argus,September 23, 1800. The persistent
myththatGabrielwas a messianicfigurewho emulatedSamson
bywearinghis hairlong appearsto havebeen createdby JosephC. Carroll,Slave Insurrectionsin theUnitedStates,1800-1865 (New York,1938; rpt.ed., New York,1973), 49, as he
is thefirsttomentionit. No citationis giventosupporthisassertion.It is possiblethatCarroll
mistooka descriptionofJackDitcher,an unskilledlaborerwho worehis hairlong,forone of
Gabriel. Ditcher,like Gabriel, expressedno religioussentiments.The storythatGabriel's
brotherMartinwas a preacheris also unfounded.Significantly,
fourscholarswritingpriorto
Carroll make no mentionof Gabriel's religion. See Robert R. Howison, A History of
Virginia. . . (2vols.; Philadelphia,1846-1848), II, 390; JoshuaCoffin,AnAccount
ofSome
of thePrincipal Slave Insurrections. . . (NewYork,1860), 24-28; ThomasW. Higginson,
Travellersand Outlaws: Episodes in AmericanHistory(Boston, 1889), 190; and Harvey
Before 1861,"Journalof NegroHistory,XXII (July
Wish, "AmericanSlave Insurrections
1937), 311. Eversince CarrollwroteSlave Insurrections,
however,a discussionof theinflu-
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
193
itselfbutin a smallcabinon
Gabrieldid notlive in Richmond
sixmilesoutsidethecity.
Brookfield,
theProssertobaccoplantation
been
Solomon
and
Gabrielandhisbrothers,
Martin,hadprobably
in
the
1783
(seven-year-old
Gabriel
appears
raisedontheplantation
Sr.),whichhada stableslavepopulataxrecords
ofThomasProsser,
wasanartisan,
for
Perhaps
their
father
tionofjustoverfifty
laborers.
andrarely,
if
as blacksmiths
bothGabrielandSolomonweretrained
ever,workedin thefields,whichplacedGabrielamongtheslave
elite.6
overthefieldlaborAs a skilledartisan,Gabrielhadadvantages
couldnot
andmostefficient
Virginia
plantations
ers.Eventhelargest
fullyoccupiedaroundtheyear,andconsekeeptheirbondartisans
outtoneighhiredtheir
craftsmen
quently
manyownersoccasionally
workto
Evenwithall thepotential
boringfarmers
ortowndwellers.
Gabrielspentmorethana fewdayseach
be doneat Brookfield,
he was evengiventhe
in Richmond.
month
Occasionally
smithing
right
tohirehisowntime.ThisgavemenlikeGabrieltheopportunity
wouldwork.Thoughhewasstilla
todecidewhereandforwhomthey
slavein theeyesof thelaw,he enjoyeda roughformoffreedom.
thatseveralhistoIndeed,Gabriel's
tiestohisownerwereso tenuous
himas a freeman.7
rianshaveidentified
has appearedin virtuallyeveryreferenceto the
ence of Gabriel'sreligionon theinsurrection
of 1800,"Negro
conspiracy.See forexampleWilliamJ. Kimball,"The GabrielInsurrection
HistoryBulletin,XXXIV (1971), 153-56, andthesame author'ssketchin RayfordW. Logan
and Michael R. Winston,eds., DictionaryofAmericanNegroBiography(New York,1982),
506; PhilipS. Foner,HistoryofBlackAmericans:FromAfricatotheEmergenceoftheCotton
Kingdom(Westport,Conn., and London, 1975), 453; Lerone Bennett,Jr.,BeforetheMayflower: A Historyof the Negro in America, 1619-1962 (Chicago, 1962), 111; Nicholas
Halasz, TheRattlingChains: Slave Unrestand Revoltin theAntebellumSouth (New York,
HistoryofEveryday
1966), 87; BarbaraClarkSmith,AftertheRevolution:TheSmithsonian
Lifein theEighteenthCentury(New York,1985), 129, althoughthecatalogueis less explicit
on thepointthantheexhibititself;GeorgeP. Rawick,FromSundowntoSunup:TheMakingof
D. Jordan,WhiteOverBlack:
(Westport,
Conn., 1972), 112; Winthrop
theBlack Community
AmericanAttitudesTowardtheNegro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968), 393; JohnW. BlasSouth(rev. ed.; New York
PlantationLifein theAntebellum
singame,TheSlave Community:
and Oxford,1979), 221, who inexplicablycites only Higginson; and, to a lesser degree,
EugeneD. Genovese,Roll,Jordan,Roll: TheWorldtheSlaves Made (New York,1974), 593,
and his FromRebellionto Revolution,44-46. One authorwho does notdepictGabrielas a
religious zealot is Gerald [Michael] Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in
Virginia(New York,1972), yetneitherdoes he explicitlydenouncethe
Eighteenth-Century
myth.Althoughtheargumentspresentedin thisessay differfromMullin's,mydebtto his
workshouldbe obvious.
6 In 1783 Thomas Prosser,Sr., owned fifty-five
slaves includingchildrenand was the
fourthlargestslaveholderin HenricoCounty(the 1783 tax listwas uniquein thatit counted
slave children).The taxlistdatedAugust16, 1800, showsthatThomasHenryProsserowned
slavesovertheage oftwelveandthatonlytwoHenricoCountyresidentspaid more
forty-eight
Tax, 1783 and 1800 (VirginiaStateLibrary).
intaxes. See HenricoCounty,PersonalProperty
For a mapofthebuildingson Brookfield,minustheslave cabins,whichwerenotinsured,see
mapofAugust3, 1806, number119, volume40, MutualAssuranceSocietyPolicies (Virginia
StateLibrary).
7 Genovese,Roll, Jordan,Roll, 392. Four worksthatidentify
Gabrielas a freeblack are
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194
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
Thedocumentary
recorddoesnotrevealjustwhatsortofarrangementGabrielworkedoutwithhisowner,butthetypicalmethod
in
theupperSouthallowedtheskilledbondmanto contract
outhis
labor,thengivehismastera shareofthewages.ProvidedGabriel
wasabletopaytheagreed-upon
sumatregular
intervals,
hewasfree
to spendwhatever
he earnedabovethatamount.The arrangement
heldout obviousbenefits
forbothslave and master,butlurking
withinitweredangersto thepeculiarinstitution.
Hiringoutintroduceda cashnexusintoa relationship
thatwas notsupposedtohave
one,thusweakening
thepaternalism
oftheplantation.8
On manyoccasionsplantation
out to
artisanshiredthemselves
whiteartisans
andtradesmen
inRichmond
tofillunexpected,
shorttermlaborshortages.
likeGabrielwerethemostcomBlacksmiths
monblackartisans,
butVirginia
slavehirelings
included
carpenters,
andweavers.In smallshopsacross
coopers,shoemakers,
tanners,
thecity,blackandwhitemechanics
laboredsidebysideandin the
processdevelopedstrongbondsof laborsolidarity
thatoftencut
acrossraciallines.9
Richmond-area
artisans-slaveor free,black or
Ultimately,
white-dealtdirectly
withurbanmerchants.
Artisansdidnotproducedirectly
fora retailmarket
butlaboredalmostexclusively
on
specificordersfromclientsor merchants-"bespoke
goods."The
werepaidbythepieceaccording
mechanics
toa fairpriceestablished
merchants
bythevarioustrades.In exchange,
provided
craftsmen
withcredit
andmaterials.
Therelationship
wasreciprocal,
butitwas
farfromequal;merchants
dominated
theflowofmarketable
goods
as wellas rawmaterials.
Although
theycouldnotdictate
thepriceof
finished
theartisans
tolowertheirprices
goods,theycouldpressure
offthestream
byshutting
ofrawmaterials
orbythreatening
totake
theirbusinesselsewhere.
In a regionwitha weaktradition
ofcraft
suchpressure
oftenworked.10
organization,
Forslaveartisans
likeGabriel,thepowerofthemerchants
couldbe
JohnC. Miller,The WolfbytheEars: ThomasJefferson
and Slavery(New York,1977), 126;
FederalWriters'Project,Virginia:A Guideto theOld Dominion(New York,1940), 78; Gary
B. Nash andJulieR. Jeffrey,
TheAmericanPeople: Creatinga Nationand a Society(2 vols.;
New York, 1986), I, 291; Fawn M. Brodie, ThomasJefferson:
An IntimateHistory(New
York,1974), 342.
8 ClementEaton,"Slave-Hiringin theUpperSouth:A StepTowardFreedom,"
Mississippi
ValleyHistoricalReview,XLVI (March 1960), 672; and RobertS. Starobin,IndustrialSlavery in theOld South(New York,1970), 135.
9 RaymondB. Pinchbeck,The VirginiaNegroArtisanand Tradesman(Richmond,1926),
47.
lo Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political Consciousness,and the
Origins of theAmericanRevolution(Cambridge,Mass., 1979), 4 (quotation); and Sean
Wilentz,ChantsDemocratic:New YorkCity and theRise of theAmericanWorking
Class,
1788-1850 (New York,1984), 28.
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
195
oftenunderpaid
businessmen
Unscrupulous
evenmoredevastating.
as blackscouldnottakethem
bondhirelings,
orevenopenlycheated
topay
inwhichthefailure
them.Ina system
against
tocourtortestify
out,
ofhiring
a fixedsumcouldcosta slavetheprivilege
one'smaster
toa liferestricted
coulddooma bondman
businessman
onedishonest
likeGabriel
thatartisans
It is thusnotsurprising
totheplantation.
and nottheirowners,as theirprimary
cameto see "merchants,"
11
enemy.
it
andquasi-freedom,
tenuous
grasponprosperity
GivenGabriel's
flavor.
urban
was hardlyunusualthathisgoalstookon a uniquely
fromthoseofthecountryThevaluesofthecitywerefarremoved
of
by an atmosphere businessenterprise-and
side. Surrounded
drivenby a needto staysolvent-theblackartisanswerehardly
Theywereinfluto theclaimsofmoneyandproperty.
impervious
republicanideologyofartisan
encedbytheheadyandtransforming
weresuperior
politicalbeliefthatsmallproducers
ism,thepowerful
offthesweatofthose
whomademoney
tothose,likethemerchants,
whoworkedwiththeirhands.Gabrielwas a radical,buthewas an
His
program.
radicalwithaneighteenth-century
eighteenth-century
milnotin Old Testament
goalswererootedinsecularrationalism,
butforanequally
hisplanscallednotjustforhisfreedom
lenialism;
therighttohisjustearnings.'2
treasure:
inestimable
andthushestood
Forallthat,Gabrielwasstillblackandenslaved,
blackclassstruccompressed
thanatthetopofa distinctly
nohigher
class andits
upontheworking
ture.Manywhiteartisansfrowned
butblack artisanswereless socially
tradition
of crowdactivity,
alike,
blacklaborers.Skilledandunskilled
fromunskilled
removed
domain.As a result,it
cultural
blacksshareda common
Richmond
torelyonwhat
hisbrother,
forGabriel,as heinformed
was natural
to achievepolitical
a method
ofpopularprotest
was fundamentally
ofanydiscipleofThomasPaine:topulldownthe"merendsworthy
oftheirproperty.?"13
chants"and"possessourselves
11 Tommy
in Norfolk,1775-1865"
L. Bogger,"TheSlave andFreeBlackCommunity
inByRichmond
1976),167;SamuelMordecai,
ofVirginia,
University
(Ph.D. dissertation,
of Prosser'sBen at trialof Prosser's
Gone Days . .. (Richmond,1856), 92; and testimony
Papers(quotation).
Executive
Gabriel,October6, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
12
ClementEaton, The Growthof SouthernCivilization,1790-1860 (New York, 1961),
thatpost-revolutionary
2, arguespersuasively
toRevolution,
FromRebellion
270.Genovese,
for
as partofthemostradicalwingofthestruggle
primarily
"must
beunderstood
slaverevolts
moorings."
thathadnotyetlostitsbourgeois
a democracy
13 EricFoner,
(NewYork,1976),47,52-53; Charles
TomPaine and RevolutionaryAmerica
and Politicsin theAgeofRevolution,1763G. Steffen,TheMechanicsofBaltimore:Workers
Gabriel(quotaBenattrialofProsser's
ofProsser's
1812(Urbana,Ill., 1984),38; testimony
Executive
15, 1800,Letterbook,
of Prosser's
Solomon,September
tions);andconfession
Theonlydetailedaccountof
StateLibrary)(secondquotation).
(Virginia
Communications
theplot,WilliamJ. Ernst,"Gabriel'sRevolt:BlackFreedom,WhiteFear"(M.A. thesis,
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19 6
THE JO URNAL OF SO UTHERN HISTORY
Therecouldbe no mistaking
whatthisformof popularprotest
required:
insurrection.
Butitwasa conclusion
a mansuchas Gabriel
wouldreach,a smart,
aggressive
slavewithso littleprejudice
against
violenceorregard
forhisownsafety
thathewouldbitea whiteneighborovera stolenhog.His emerging
plan,as he explained
itto his
ofProsser's
brother
SolomonandtoBen,another
slaves,wassimple,
ifnotyetperfected
initsmilitary
aspects.Theinsurgents,
including
theurbanslaves,wouldmeeton Prosser's
landandmarchon Richmond.Fighting
in threegroups,theywouldattackthecapitol,the
Theslaveswouldthenfortify
thecity
andthepenitentiary.
magazine,
as besttheycouldandawaitwordthatothercitieshadbeentakenor
thosecitieswereheadingforRichmond.
Atthat
thattheslavesfrom
would"agreetotheir
point,itwasexpected
thattheembattled
whites
And
freedom"
andallowthefreedslavestotaketheir
placeinsociety.
Gabriel"woulddineanddrink
ofthecityonthe
withthemerchants
daywhenitwas agreedto."14
In thespring
of1800,during
hisfrequent
tripsintotown,Gabriel
begantospreadhisas-yet-imprecise
planandtorecruit
followers.
He
hefirst
actedcautiously;
slavehirelings,
approached
other
especially
thosewho, unlikehimself,lived away fromtheirmasters,an
thatfurther
weakenedwhitecontrolandsupervision.
arrangement
ofrecruitment,
Notsurprisingly,
hismethod
evenhislanguage,
was
informed
byhisspecialstatusas a blackartisan.Wouldthey"joina
freemasonsociety?"
Gabrielandotherearlyleadersasked,"a socitheWhitepeoplefortheirfreedom[.]"'5
etytofight
Wordoftheconspiracy
theback
beganto moverapidlythrough
anddocksoftheporttown.The
alleys,hiddentaverns,
warehouses,
ofVirginia,
University
1968),30-31,statesthatGabriel's
goalswere"muddled:'
Ernstfails,
however,
to distinguish
amongthelevelsof conspirators.
The testimony
of Solomonand
Prosser's
Ben,bothclosetoGabriel,is givenequalweight
tothatofBenWoolfolk,
a minor
figure
andanagricultural
worker
whowasnotina position
tounderstand
Gabriel's
economic
demands.
Moreover,
becausehedoesnotground
Gabriel-andhisgoals-inplace,class,and
time,Ernstfindstherebel'semphasis
onproperty
"particularly
curious:'
14 Confession
of Prosser's
Solomon;andtestimony
of Prosser's
Ben at trialofProsser's
scholarstendtoviewthiseventbythestandards
of
Gabriel.As withmosthistoriography,
their
owntime.Thehistorians
ofthe1960ssawGabrielas a radicalseparatist
bentoncreating
a "NegroState,"a theory
contradicted
"dineanddrink
withthemerexpressly
byGabriel's
chants"
comment.
See forexample
MarionD. deB.Kilson,"Towards
Freedom:
AnAnalysis
intheUnited
XXV(Summer
the
ofSlaveRevolts
States,"
Phylon,
1964),176;Bennett,
Before
Mayflower,
111-12;C. EricLincoln,"TheAmerican
Protest
Movement
forNegroRights,"
inJohn
P. Davis,ed., TheAmerican
N. J.,1966),
NegroReference
Book(Englewood
Cliffs,
whoseesGabrielas "anticipating
ElijahMuhammed
by150years"(p. 461).
'5 Testimony
ofBenWoolfolk
attrialofSamByrd,Jr.,September
27, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
Executive
Papers;WilliamPrentis
toJamesMonroe,n.d.,ibid.;Richard
C. Wade,
Slaveryin theCities: TheSouth,1820-1860 (New York,1964), 48-54, 66; testimony
ofBen
Woolfolk
at trialof GeorgeSmith,September
19, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
Executive
Papers(quotation).
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GABRIEL'S CONSPIRACY
197
mechanics
Gabrielcontacted
werenotswornto secrecy,butthey
werecarefulnottotellslaveswhohadclosetiestotheirownersor
whospentmostoftheirtimeinthecountryside.
Atfirsttheirnumbersweresmall,butfreedom
ofmovement
andease ofcommunicationsoonpermitted
themtorecruit
others.Oneoftheconspirators,
William
a Pass"so hecould
Young's
Gilbert,
routinely
wrote"himself
travelfreely
abouttheRichmond
area.16
As recruits
joined,wordoftheconspiracy
begantospread.Black
artisans
usedtheir
freedom
ofmovement
totravel
faroutsidethecity.
andjourneyed
to
GeorgeSmith"hire[d]his timeof his mistress"
neighboring
towns,andSam Byrd,Jr.,hiredhimself
out"forthe
greater
partof thesummer"
so thathe mightbe freeto "engagea
number
ofmenintheadjacentcountiesandinPetersburg,"
twentyfivemilestothesouth.Itis significant
thatas theconspiracy
grew,it
remained
thesecretoflike-minded
blackelitesinVirginia
towns.17
theconspiracy
Bymid-summer
waswellknown
tomanyblackartisansinPetersburg.
SamByrd,Jr.,oneofthemostactive-andcerwas able to use his respected
tainlythemostmobile-recruiters,
uncles,ReubenandJesseByrd,"twofreemenofcolour,"
tocontact
otherurbanblacks.Reuben,a moderately
masonand
prosperous
ofthePetersburg
men.
carpenter,
agreedtoserveas thecoordinator
Wordalso was carriednorthto Sam Byrd,Sr., a "freemulatto
of
Hanover=Town
menthere."'18
[who]enlisted
in thecapablehandsofhisfather
and
Havinglefttheconspiracy
twouncles,Byrdtraveled
"as faras Charlottesville
toinlistmen,"a
townsixty-five
ofRichmond.
milesnorthwest
Theresourceful
young
manalso recruited
a blackmailcarrierto be theregularcourier
andCharlottesville;
between
Richmond
theblacksof
Byrdhadfound
butitwas
thattown"verywillingtojoin"intheyetundefined
revolt,
ofpassingincreasingly
tofinda method
detailedinformanecessary
tionamongtheconspirators
oftheseveralurbanareas.Themailservicewouldmeetthisneed.'9
Communications
towns
werenotintended
tobe
amongtheVirginia
16 William
Executive
Bernard
toJames
Monroe,September
20, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
Papers;andtestimony
ofBenWoolfolk
attrialofYoung's
Gilbert,
September
22, 1800,ibid.
(quotation).
Oneoftheslaves,Lewis'sSawney,
hadbeenhiredoutforso longthatthecourt
26, 1800,
wasconfused
as tohistrueowner.See certification
ofWilliam
Young,September
Auditor's
Item153,Box2, SlavesCondemned
(Virginia
StateLibrary).
17 Testimony
andtestimony
of
ofBenWoolfolk
attrialofGeorgeSmith(firstquotation);
BenWoolfolk
attrialofSamByrd,Jr.(secondandthird
quotations).
18 William
Executive
Prentis
toJamesMonroe,September
24, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
Papers(firstquotation);
confession
ofYoung'sGilbert,
September
23, 1800,ibid.(second
Executive
quotation);
JamesMonroeto WilliamPrentis,October11, 1800,Letterbook,
ReubenByrdmustalsohavebeena mulatto,
forhewasoccasionally
listed
Communications.
aswhite.SeethePetersburg
StateLibrary).
CityPersonal
Property
Tax,1795-1803(Virginia
19 Confession
ofYoung'sGilbert.
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198
THE JO URNA L OF SO UTHERN HISTORY
so precisethatrevoltsin severalplacescouldbeginat exactlythe
sametime.Instead,Gabrielhopedthatundertheleadership
ofthe
ByrdsandJohn
Scott,a Petersburg
hireling,
a "unionofplan"among
wouldknow
thetownscouldbe devisedso thattheotherconspirators
to riseafterhe andhis Richmond
followers
had"commenced
the
?'20
insurrection.
inthe
WithmanyblacksfromRichmond
andPetersburg
involved
conspiracy,
thewordbegantoflowdowntheJamesRivertoSuffolk
hadlongbeenthecarriandNorfolk.
Blackboatmen
alongtheJames
ers of information
and runawayslavesas well as goodsformerOneofthem,
William
as couriers.
chants;nowseveralwereinvolved
Wilson'sJacob,was a ship'scaptainforhirewhoregularly
"passed
between
[Petersburg]
andNorfolk."
AswiththePetersburg
conspiraweretomeetona yettobe appointed
tors,themenofthelowerJames
dateoutsideNorfolk
andwaitforwordoftheRichmond
uprising.
By
theendofJulywordoftherevolt
hadspreadtoatleastsixVirginia
towns;itwas, as Governor
JamesMonroelaterobserved,a secret
known"inmanyandsomedistant
partsoftheState.'
ButRichmondremainedtheheartof theconspiracy.
By early
Augusta recruiter
reported
to Solomonthat"all theboysin town"
were"nearly
readytodo thebusiness;'thecommon
slangtermused
intown
bytheconspirators.
Gabrielhadspentmostofthesummer
recruiting
unskilled
urbanblackssuchas the"warehouse
boys;"and
bothByrdandMattScott,a freeblack,hadapproached
atleastone
hundred
Richmond
slaves.Unwisely,
Scott,whowasliterate,
began,
likeotherrebelleaders,tokeepa listofthenamesofthosehe had
recruited,
probably
atGabriel'srequest.22
Fromtheperspective
oftheleaders,theirrecruitment
technique
wasflawless.Usingtheir
relative
freedom,
theycontacted
onlythose
20 Testimony
Gabriel(secondquotation);
[Richmond
ofProsser's
BenattrialofProsser's
Executive
Papers(first
mayor]
JamesMcClurgtoJamesMonroe,n.d.,NegroInsurrection,
in Fredericksburg
13, 1800,printed
quotation);
andunsigned
letterto editor,September
VirginiaHerald, September23, 1800.
21 Richmond
10,1800;Norfolk
Herald,October
2, 1800;Bogger,
Virginia
Argus,October
toJamesMonroe,n.d. (first
"SlaveandFreeBlackCommunity,"
168-69;WilliamPrentis
22, 1800,CarolineCounty
Court,OrderBook
quotation);
trialof"John
a Boatman,"
October
Papers,
to JoelThomas,March3, 1801,Military
(VirginiaStateLibrary);paywarrant
andJames
MonroetoWilliam
OctoInsurrection
StateLibrary);
Prentis,
Gabriel's
(Virginia
western
ber11, 1800(secondquotation).
believedthatblacksintheremote
OneVirginian
community
hadnoblackartisan
hamlet
ofBlacksburg
knewoftheplot.ButsinceBlacksburg
that
traveled,
itis unlikely
andwas distant
fromthewaterways
alongwhichtherecruiters
14, 1800,
slavestherewereinvolved.
to JamesPreston,
September
See WilliamRadford
Division,Library
ofCongress,
Washington).
Preston
FamilyPapers(Manuscript
22 Testimony
Daniel,September
15, 1800,Negro
ofProsser's
BenattrialofWilkinson's
ofYoung'sGilbert;and
confession
Insurrection,
ExecutivePapers(firsttwoquotations);
BenattrialofParson's
Nat,September
11,1800,NegroInsurrection,
testimony
ofProsser's
Executive
Papers(thirdquotation).
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
199
free
whosetalents
andskillshadmadethemself-sufficient
andnearly
in theiruniqueurbanworld.The earlyconspirators
werethemost
likelytodemand
totalfreedom
andwereinthebestposition
tobenefit
fromthatfreedom
shouldit come. But in orderfortheirplotto
includeenoughblacksto be successful,therebelshad to reach
beyond
theurbanelitetotheslavesonnearby
farms
andplantations.
Havingfewcultural
oreconomictiestothe"outlandish"
plantation
blacks(as conspirator
GeorgeSmithcalledthem),manyofwhom
wereAfricans
ortheirchildren,
theinsurgents
failedtopersuadethe
ruralslavestojointheir
plan.Gabrielbelievedthathehadatleastthe
intown,"
tacitacceptance
of"nearly
allofthenegroes
butwhenasked
"howhe comeon in thecountry,"
he simplyshookhisheadsadly.
Untilthelastmoment
Gabriel'sconspiracy
was completely
urban,
theonlyoneofitskindinsouthern
history.23
Anunderstanding
ofprecisely
whoGabrielandhisfollowers
were
explains
their
emphasis
on"property"
anda fairshareofthewealthof
societyandwhyGabrielsaw the"merchants,"
and nottherural
as hisenemies.Butinordertoexplain
planters,
whyGabrielbelieved
bepossiblethequestion
thatachieving
thesegoalsmight
oftimemust
be takenintoaccount.OnlywhenGabriel's
planis placedagainstthe
of1800doesthelogicofhisconspirturbulent
politicalbackground
acyemerge.
Fromstarttofinish,theshadowofpoliticshungovertheaffair.
havebeen
Spending
manyofhisdaysintown,Gabrielcouldhardly
unaware
ofa bitter
thatthenation
wasinthemidst
anddivisive
presiif
manhesurely
dential
election.
Moretothepoint,as a literate
knew,
thevitriolic
Richmond
onlyfrom
press,thatthecitywasa Federalist
inwhichtheRepublicans
Evenafter
thespring
stronghold.
elections,
werevictoriousalmosteverywhere
else in Virginia,thethriving
hubs
townsofRichmond,
andNorfolk-the
commercial
Petersburg,
of theconspiracy-remained
Federalist.Visiblesigns
stubbornly
ofpolitical
fortheslavestowitness;Repubwereeverywhere
rivalry
23 Testimony
ofProsquotation);
testimony
attrialofGeorgeSmith(first
ofBenWoolfolk
ser'sBenattrialofWilkinson's
Jupiter,
September
15, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
Executive
of Prosser'sBen at trialof Prosser's
andtestimony
Papers(secondandthirdquotations);
some
was initsorigins
urban,itreceived
Veseyconspiracy
Gabriel.Although
theDenmark
whohadno
blacks,duetotheefforts
ofGullahJackPritchard,
support
from
theplantation
intheGabrielconspiracy.
Denmark
Vesey's
Revolt:TheSlave
See JohnLofton,
counterpart
in
C. WadeinSlavery
(Kent,Ohio,1983),135-38.Richard
PlotthatLita FusetoFortSumter
andthat"noactualsignificant
uprising
took
revolts
theCitiesstatesthaturbanareasinhibited
on theVirginia
city.The Gabrielmutiny
in 1803 [sic] . . . started
placein anySouthern
andwerethus
freedom
countryside
. . ." (p. 226). His thesisthaturbanslaveshadgreater
however,
holdstrue
suicidalrebellions,
evenlesswillingthanplantation
slavestoundertake
thatleadurbanslavesto believethattheir
factors
onlyso longas thereareno mitigating
factor
ledGabrieltobelievethat
thepolitical
actions
might
notbesuicidal.Aswillbeargued,
be successful.
therevolt
might
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200
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
licansworetheFrenchtricolor,
whileFederalistsdonnedblack
cockades.24
In thecities,themostvociferous
Republicans
weretheartisans,
whoseegalitarian
interpretation
oftheAmerican
andFrenchrevolutionswas boundto ruboffon theslaveswhoworkedbesidethem.
Members
oftheDemocratic-Republican
societiesofRichmond
and
Norfolkspokea languagethattheslavesunderstood,
a dialectfar
moreradicalthanthatspokenbytheRepublican
planters.
Fortheir
part,thealreadyhatedmerchants-Federalists
almostto a manthe
employed
heavy-handed
electioneering
tacticsthatallbutincited
slavestorevolt.
Playing
towhitefears,theFederalist
pressspreadthe
rumor
thattheRepublicans
wouldliberate
theslavesifelected.Even
theirfiguresof speech,meantto terrify
whiteconservatives,
only
oftheelectionall themorecleartourbanbondmadethemeaning
Virmen."Shallwe thenembark,"
queriedtheFederalist
Richmond
onthetempestuous
sea of
giniaGazette,"with[ThomasJefferson],
liberty?" 25
If thetwopartiesunitedon anyissue,itwas on thefearthatthe
the
election
was likelytoresultincivilwaranddisunion.Certainly
ofRichmond
overheated
couldgrownohotter.
partisan
atmosphere
Duringthesummer
theeyesofthecitywerefocuseduponthespectaculartrialof Republicanpolemicist
JamesThomsonCallender,
whowas convicted
andjailedunderthehatedSeditionActforpublishing"withintent
toinfluence
thecoming[presidential]
election'"
Rumorswererifethatif Jefferson
werevictorious
theFederalists
wouldnotrelinquish
power.TheRichmond
Virginia
Arguscharged
thatVirginia
werestockpiling
Federalist
Republicans
guns;another
an "ultimate
journalpredicted
appealto armsbythetwogreatparB. Gileswasevenoverheard
ties."William
sayingintheSwanTavern
thathe hoped"tosee a separation
of thisstate,fromtheGeneralUnion."26
24 James
H. Broussard,
The SouthernFederalists,1800-1816 (BatonRouge,1978),5;
StateLibrary);and
CharlesCoplandDiary,April1800,CharlesCoplandPapers(Virginia
Papers(Manuscript
JamesMonroetoThomasJefferson,
April23, 1800,ThomasJefferson
andGeorgeRudehavewritten
inonlya
Division,Library
ofCongress).
As EricHobsbawm
wasatitsmaximum,
eventhe
discussion
slightly
different
context:
"Ata timewhenpolitical
veryfewlabourers
actuallyread
villagelabourers
weredrawnintoit. . . . Quitecertainly
andtheirlike,andthe
[newspapers].
Butequallycertainly
thosewhodid-villageartisans,
local Radicals-passedthenewsalongbywordof mouth,andby example:'See Captain
Swing(NewYork,1968),88-89.
25
Wilentz,ChantsDemocratic,70; Donald H. Stewart,TheOppositionPress oftheFeder-
Virginia
Gazette,July18, 1800.
alistPeriod(Albany,
N. Y., 1969),346; andRichmond
Societies,1790-1800 (New York,1942), 13-16,
Eugene P. Link, inDemocratic-Republican
andsuspects
thereweremorethatwereunreidentified
sevensocietiesintheChesapeake
portedbythemainstream
press.
26 Norfolk
Fredericksburg
Virginia
Herald,May
Herald,May31, 1800(first
quotation);
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GABRIEL'S CONSPIRACY
201
rumblings
ofcivilwarGabrielmusthave
Amidsttheserhetorical
that
successfully,
cometobelievethatiftheslavescouldeverrevolt
itappearedthatthe
Fromtheirurbanperspective,
timehadarrived.
to takeup armsagainsttheFederalists,
artisanswerepreparing
For the
whoseownwordspaintedthemas theenemiesof liberty.
againstthemerchants,
whohadtheirowngrievances
slavehirelings,
thebattleseemedto be theirsas well. "Wehaveas muchrightto
as anymen,"insistedJackDitcher,a leading
fightforourliberty
insurgent.27
Gabriel,scanningthesurfaceof events,was right.By taking
he evidently
believed,theurban
ofthepoliticalturmoil,
advantage
couldforcetheFedernumbers,
superior
blacks,usingtheirslightly
by a hostilesea of
to yield.Alreadysurrounded
alistmerchants
thetiny
whowererumored
to be armingthemselves,
Republicans
would
anddefenseless,
unarmed
conservative
islandofRichmond,
It was notjust thatthe
save surrender.28
be unableto do anything
amongwhites,as one
a timeofdivision
during
developed
conspiracy
Gabriel,sharing
itwas thatartisan
suggested,
hasrecently
historian
hopedto
ideologyofmanyurbanRepublicans,
thesmallproducer
join andexploitthatdivision.His faithwas thatwhitemechanics
wouldsee in his own struggleforlibertyand economicrights
his support.Gabriel'serrorwas notone of
groundsforaccepting
His limited
urbanviewled himtobelieve
logicbutofinformation.
merthestruggle
was betweenRepublicanartisansandFederalist
seemedto haveplayedno partin his
planters
chants;Republican
forheneveridentified
them,orevenwhitesingeneral,
calculations,
as hisenemies.He simplyfailedto recognizethattheJeffersonian
was meanttoapplytowhitesonly.29
andequality
cryforliberty
9, 1800 (second quotation);and RichmondVirginiaGazette,January25, 1799 (thirdquotaand Madison: The GreatCollaboration(New York, 1950),
tion); AdrienneKoch, Jefferson
194, writesthattherumorsof Republicansstockpilinggunswerejust that,althoughDumas
and
Malone observes:"Verylikelytherewas belligerenttalkby hotheads."See hisJefferson
His Time(6 vols.; Boston, 1948-1981), III, 416 and note17.
27 Testimony
of Prosser'sSam at trialof JackDitcher,October29, 1800, NegroInsurrection,ExecutivePapers (quotation).It is clear thattheoriginsof theplan coincidewiththe
Jefferson
oftheRepublicanvictories,Monroe
springelections.Justone daybeforenotifying
American
See HerbertAptheker,
of local "fearsof a negroinsurrection."
Jefferson
informed
NegroSlave Revolts(New York, 1943), 220 and note38.
28 JamesCallendertoThomasJefferson,
Papers,statedthat
September13, 1800, Jefferson
Richmondcouldhavemusteredonly"fouror fivehundredmen,ofwhomnotmorethanthirty
had Muskets."
29 Genovese's argument
thatGabriel's conspiracy"maturedin the wake of divisionsor
apparentdivisionsintherulingclasses" wouldseemmoreapplicablefortheVeseyconspiracy
of 1822, bywhichtimetherelativeracialflexibilityof 1800 had ended.Vesey,unlikeGabriel,
wishedto use thesplitamongwhitesto flee thecountry;he could notenvisionjoiningeither
side or remainingin the AmericanSouth. Gabriel clearlybelieved thathavingforcedhis
enemiestoyield,theywouldallow himtoremainsafelyinRichmond.See Roll,Jordan,Roll,
593.
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202
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
thathis whiteartisanbrethren
understood
Gabrielnonetheless
hiscauseunlessforcedtodo so bysheernumbers
notsupport
might
Forthat,he neededtotryagainto reachtheless
oftheinsurgents.
gamble.On mostfarms
ruralslaves.Itwas a dangerous
politicized
thaninthecitiesoron
closer
was
far
andslave
master
thetiebetween
thatone of the"out
feared
and Gabriel
thelargerplantations,
landish"slaveswouldrevealtheplottohisowner.Buttheneedfor
thefuneral
caution.OnAugust10,following
outweighed
menfinally
ofWilliamYoung,"Gabrielgaveaninviofa childontheplantation
tationto someof theNegroesto drinkgrogdownat theSpring."
notjustforblackfreedom
hehada plantofight
Thereheannounced
forhisCountry."30
butalso"tofight
tobelievethathisfellowswouldwager
Gabrielwas toopragmatic
hiscomplete
planindetail.
theirlivesona dream,andso herevealed
ThomasHenryProsser,whohadverylikelybeenGabriel'schildwouldthen
The insurgents
wouldbe killedfirst.3'
hoodplaymate,
and Richmeetat theBrookBridge,betweenProsser'splantation
hundred
menwouldstandatthebridge.Another
mond.Onehundred
wouldgo withGabriel,whowas to carrya flagreading"deathor
theweaponsheandSolomonhadforged-swords
Wielding
Liberty."
wouldstormthecapitol,where
cutin two"-they
"madeofscythes
theyhopedRobertCowley,a freeblackwhoservedas doorkeeper,
menwouldset
wingoffifty
withguns.Thethird
them
wouldprovide
stationin the
a tobaccoinspection
a diversionary
fireat Rockett's,
labored.Goverwheresomeoftheconspirators
district
warehouse
Enoughwhites
norMonroewouldbe takenhostagebutnotharmed.
wouldbe killedto forcethetown'sleaders-who,theconspirators
Republican
wouldreceiveno aid fromthepredominantly
thought,
andtheright
forfreedom
granttherebels'demands
countryside-to
Methodists,
ofliberty,
Thefriends
"Quakers,
toalloftheir
earnings.
andFrenchpeople,"wouldbe spared,as would"poorwhitewomen
of
members
considered
whohadno slaves,"whomtheconspirators
30 William
Argus,
Virginia
24, 1800,inRichmond
September
YoungtoSamuelPleasants,
29, 1800,
ofPrice'sJohnat trialofSam Graham,September
October3, 1800;testimony
ofPrice'sJohnattrialofYoung'sGilPapers;andtestimony
Executive
NegroInsurrection,
blackswereat
Itis unclearhowmanycountry
22, 1800,ibid.(quotation).
bert,September
thaturbanslaveswerethere.
although
itis evident
thismeeting,
31 Testimony
Gabrielhadgrownupwith
Jupiter.
Benat trialofWilkinson's
ofProsser's
Gabriel,andSoloTaxfor1783listsMartin,
Property
Personal
TheHenricoCounty
Prosser.
monas slavesof ThomasProsser,Sr. Gabriel,bornin 1776,was thensevenyearsold,
5, 1776.For
whowas bornon November
exactlythesameage as ThomasHenryProsser,
Af-121,
Af-119,
5, 1798,depositions
December
ageseeCharlesCopland,petition,
Prosser's
of
Fora discussion
StateLibrary).
1798-1803(Virginia
Petitions,
CityLegislative
Richmond
wastobeoneofthefirst
andGabriel-andwhyProsser
ofProsser
history
personal
thestormy
Challenge:SlavesandCrimeinLateEighteenthtodie-see PhilipJ.Schwarz,"Gabriel's
CenturyVirginia,"VirginiaMagazine ofHistoryand Biography,XC (July1982), 285-86.
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
203
theirownclass.32
hisplan,Gabrielshoutedthatall whowishedto
Havingoutlined
joinhimshould"standup-and thosewhowouldnot. . . setdown."
howmany
askedSamByrd,Jr.,whostoodatthefront,
Onedoubter
keeping
a listof
been
Byrd
had
LikeMattScott,
menhehadenlisted.
had
a firm
he
he
insisted
it,
but,insteadofproducing
conspirators,
was
exaggerByrd
Doubtless
men.
"fivehundred"
from
commitment
butthereis no reasonto
atingto calmthefearsof theinsurgents,
a listof
and
write,
hadbeenkeeping
read
who
could
doubtthatByrd,
menin
of
the
top
all
he
knew
lieutenant,
important
names.Andas an
theplot.33
As onebyonetheslavesrosetotheirfeet,Gabriel'smenworked
number
thecrowd"andenlisteda considerable
theirway through
Then
Jack
their
marks."
whosigneda paper[withtheirnamesor]
in
for
at
the
conspiracy
Ditcher,a laborerwhohadbeeninvolved
leadership.
Gabriel's
leastas longas Byrdhad been,challenged
leader,and,ifGabrielwas an imposing
too,was a natural
Ditcher,
Jackwasevenmoreso. FouryearsGabriel'ssenior,hestood
figure,
sixfeetfourorfiveinches,andhislonghairwastiedbackina queue.
decidedtohold
thosepresent
Todecidewhowastoleadtheuprising,
a
for
theirownelection.Jack,by trade ditcher hire,had farless
thandidartisanGabriel.
intheeyesoftheslavecommunity
prestige
theslavessurely
a possiblysuicidalventure,
toundertake
Preparing
brawn,and"uponthevotes
wantedGabriel'sbrainsoverDitcher's
number'"34
beingtaken,Gabrielhadbyfarthegreater
intotheranksof
disharmony
Ditcher's
challengehadintroduced
leadthe
within
thatmight
themovement
therebels.Toquelldivisions
ofpoliticalequalcautioustobackaway,Gabrielraisedthedoctrine
32 Confession
Executive
17, 1800, NegroInsurrection,
September
of Ben Woolfolk,
of Young'sGilbert;
in JamesMonroe'shand,ibid.; confession
Papers;undatednotation
Herald,October18, 1800(secondquota20, 1800,inNorfolk
September
letter,
unsigned
Execu6, 1800,Letterbook,
attrialofGabriel,October
ofBenWoolfolk
tion);andtestimony
Thedecisionnottokillpoorwhite
andfourth
third,
quotations).
tiveCommunications
(first,
andshouldnotbe seenas supporting
wasbaseduponclass,notsexual,considerations
women
For
to"dividethewomenamongthem."
ofblackmenwishing
racistfantasy
thetraditional
of
ofVirginia,
II, 391; JohnP. Little,History
see Howison,History
examples
ofthelatter
1933),101;andGeorgeMorgan,TheLifeofJamesMonroe(rpt.ed.;
(Richmond,
Richmond
NewYork,1969),228.
33 Testimony
Executive
Laddis,NegroInsurrection,
attrialofWilliamson's
ofPrice'sJohn
at trialof SamByrd,Jr.(second
andtestimony
ofBenWoolfolk
Papers(firstquotation);
quotation).
34 Norfolk
9, 1800,
Monroe,September
FostertoJames
27, 1800;John
Herald,September
WilliamBowlertoJamesMonroe,
Executive
Papers(firstquotation);
NegroInsurrection,
October
29,
attrialofJackDitcher,
ofPrice'sJohn
17,1800,ibid.;andtestimony
September
to as "JackBowleralias Jack
Ditcherwas referred
1800 (secondquotation).Although
scholars,
givinghimthe
andas "JackBowler"bymodern
Ditcher"
bywhitecontemporaries
his
slavescalledhimbythenamethatdescribed
Prosser's
Benandother
ofhisowner,
surname
was hisownpreference.
whichpresumably
occupation,
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204
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
ity.He "expected
thepoorwhitepeoplewouldalsojoinhim,"
forthey
hadno morepoliticalpowerat present
thandidtheslaves.Sucha
hopewas nottotally
unrealistic,
forRichmond-area
whiteandblack
laborers
often
worked
as closelytogether
as skilledwhitesandblacks
did.Virginia
yeomen
andplanters
wereboundtogether
byracialsolibutinthegrogshops,backalleys,andblacksmith
darity,
shopsofthe
ofequality
cities,wherelaborers
ofbothracesmet,a rough
form
was
thenorm.TheNorfolk
thattwowhitewomenwere
Heraldreported
livingwith"somenegroes,"
presumably
insurgents.
Gabrielunderwaslessaneventthanitwasa process.Whenthe
stoodthathisrevolt
fighting
began,poorwhitesand ruralslaveswouldbe forcedto
inagainstthemerchoosesides.Typicalofthoseexpected
tothrow
chantswas Lucas,an unskilled
whitelaborer
whopromised
George
Therewas
Smiththathewouldjoinoncetheuprising
wasunderway.
Federalist
laterwrote,tobelievethat
goodreason,as onehorrified
Gabriel's
democrats
cadrewouldbejoinedby"themostredoubtable
inthestate."35
Therebelleaderthenmadea pronouncement
thatleftthegathering
and silent."Two[white]Frenchmen
stunned
had actuallyjoined,"
Gabrieltoldthethrong.
JackDitcherandtheotherleadersknewwho
he
as Gabrielwas alreadybeingtooincautious
theywere,although
didnotendanger
livesbymentioning
theirnames.
theFrenchmen's
as tohowtheFrenchmen
came
thereis noindication
Unfortunately,
intocontact
withtherebels.Perhapstheymetina backalleytavern.
ofa
Morelikelytheymetthrough
whiteartisans
whoweremembers
local Democratic-Republican
society.If thatwas thecase, sucha
Gabriel's
viewoftheFederalpolitical
bondwouldhavestrengthened
istmerchants
as hisenemies.36
IfGabrielandhismenareviewedas unsophisticated
zealreligious
ots,as popularmyth
holds,itis easytobelievethatclaimsofaidfrom
insoldiering,
was
twowhiteFrenchmen,
oneofthemknowledgeable
tobe a
nothing
buta desperate
dream.ButifGabrielis understood
35 Testimony
ofProsser'sBen attrialofProsser'sGabriel(firstquotation);undatednotation
inJamesMonroe'shand;NorfolkHerald, October2, 1800 (second quotation);and unsigned
lettertoeditor,September13, 1800, in Fredericksburg
VirginiaHerald, September23, 1800
(thirdquotation).For information
on theinterracialsubcultureof earlynationalurbanareas
see Foner,TomPaine, 48-51; Wade, Slaveryin the Cities, 85; and Berlin,Slaves Without
Masters, 260-61.
36 Testimony
of Prosser'sBen at trialof Prosser'sGabriel; and unsignedletterto editor,
September 13, 1800, in FredericksburgVirginiaHerald, September23, 1800. Ernst,
"Gabriel'sRevolt,"37, states:"The factthatno whites,Frenchor otherwise,wereeverconnectedwiththeaffairseems to shed a greatdeal of doubtupon thequestion."Amongthose
who agree withErnstare HarryAmmon,JamesMonroe: The Questfor National Identity
(New York, 1971), 187; and RichardR. Beeman, The Old Dominionand theNew Nation,
acceptedtheslaves' testimony
at
1788-1801 (Lexington,1972), 228. JamesHugo Johnston
facevalue and supportedtheirclaimsofwhiteinvolvement.
See Johnston,
"The Participation
ofWhiteMen in VirginiaNegroInsurrections"
JournalofNegroHistory,XVI (April1931),
160-61.
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
205
and
ofvisionwas trulyinternational
literate
artisanwhosebreadth
drawnfrom
werebaseduponinformation
decisions
whosepragmatic
Toomanyofthe
theurbanpress,theclaimis notso easilydismissed.
brother
Solomon
like
his
closest
to
Gabriel,
including
those
leaders,
men
involved.Jack
andSam Byrd,Jr.,knewthenamesofthetwo
beforecalledontheslavestofollow
whohadjustmoments
Ditcher,
Gabriel's
claimifhebelievedit
havesupported
hislead,wouldhardly
tobe a lie.37
was always
amongtheleadersthecarefuldistinction
Moreover,
and theFrenchnation,from
drawnbetweenthetwoFrenchmen
conspirwhichquarter
noaid.EventhePetersburg
Gabrielexpected
underin Richmond,
fromthecentralplanning
ators,farremoved
to"twowhitemen."OnlyyoungBen
aidwaslimited
stoodthatFrench
a captured
whobecamethestate'sprincipal
conspirator
Woolfolk,
navy"waslandedatSouthKey."Yet
believedthattheFrench
witness,
he
As a minorrecruiter
Woolfolk
wasbuta noviceintheconspiracy.
of
totheinformation
wasneither
a member
oftheslaveelitenorprivy
thosewhowere.38
Thereis someevidenceas towhothetwomenwere.Gabrieltold
that"a manfromCaroline"
severalof theleadingconspirators
ontheAmerican
sideduring
theRevolution
whohadfought
County
was tomeethimattheBrookBridgeon thenightoftheassaultand
WilliamYoung's
helptoorganizethemen.Severalslavesinformed
whohadlived
was CharlesQuersey,
Gilbert
thatthemaninquestion
in CarolinewithFrancisCorbintwoyearsearlier.Querseyhimself
whoatthetimewas hiredoutin CarohadtoldGilbert,
previously
andseveral
line,that"hewouldhelpthem& shewthemhowtofight,"
andanother
whitemanwere
thatQuersey
nowobserved
conspirators
"veryactive"in"thislateBusiness"inNorfolk.39
themysterious
Quersey,neverhavingbecomea
Unfortunately,
inthepublicrecords.But
figure
a shadowy
owner,
remains
property
he hadlived,is not.
FrancisCorbin,withwhomtheslavesinsisted
yearsold, was
The Cambridge-educated
Corbin,thenforty-one
"on
foritsattacks
againsttheAdamsadministration
alreadyturning
theStatesovereignties"
whenhe finallybrokewiththeFederalist
37 Testimony
ofProsser'sBen at trialof
ofBen Woolfolkat trialofSam Byrd,Jr.;testimony
ExecutivePapers; and FredeProsser'sSolomon,September11, 1800, Negro Insurrection,
ricksburgVirginiaHerald, September19, 1800.
Executive
38 JosephJonesto JamesMonroe, September9, 1800, Negro Insurrection,
Papers(firstquotation);and confessionof Ben Woolfolk(second quotation).Mullin,Flight
AmericanNegroSlave Revolts,101, statethattheconspirand Rebellion,152; andAptheker,
atorsconfusedtheaid of twoFrenchmenwiththeaid of theFrenchnavy;thusthetwohistoriansimplicitlydenywhiteinvolvement.
39 Confessionof Prosser'sSolomon (firstquotation); and confessionof Young's Gilbert
Perhapsthespellingwas
(second quotation).Querseywas thenamegivenin oral testimony.
Quercy,takenfromtheFrenchtownof thesame name.
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20 6
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
partyin a fitofrageafterbeingdeniedan officer's
rankduringthe
Quasi-War
withFrance.As a convert
toRepublicanism,
Corbinwas
justthetypeofmantotakeQuersey
in,atleastso longas theFrenchmanhidhisinvolvement
withGabrielfromCorbin.County
records
indicatethatat thetimeQuerseywas saidto havebeenlivingwith
Corbin,theVirginian
didindeedrenta roomtoanunidentified
adult
whitemale.40
ThesecondFrenchman,
Alexander
Beddenhurst,
remains
equally
shadowy,
yethereas wellcanbe seentheoutlinesofa manfartoo
substantial
tobe thefigment
ofso manyslaves'imaginations.
QuerseywasmostlikelyGabriel's
contact
withBeddenhurst,
foralthough
severalslavesidentified
himas beingwithQuersey
inNorfolk
during
theearlypartofthesummer,
thereis moreevidencethatthesecond
Frenchman
wasinPhiladelphia
byAugust.Beddenhurst's
rolewasto
"furnish
[therebelswithgunsand] all thingsneedful."
But Beddenhurst
wasneverfarfrom
thecenter
ofintrigue,
anda "correspondencewas carriedon [between]Philadelphia[andthe]townsof
whoaided
Petersburg,
Norfolk,
&c." JohnScott,theslavehireling
ReubenByrdinorganizing
thePetersburg
men,hada Philadelphia
addressforBeddenhurst:
"thecornerhouseof Coats'alley."Coats'
Alleyappearsas a line,withnonamegiven,ona contemporary
city
map.Therefore
Scottcouldnothavedesignated
thestreetby randomlypicking
a namefrom
a Philadelphia
map;hemusthavegotten
theaddresselsewhere.4'
Coats'Alleywas a short,narrow
street
deepintheartisansection
of Philadelphia
and onlytwoblocksfromthewardstraditionally
inhabited
a joiner,numerbyblacks.Itsresidents
includeda hatter,
ousmasonsandsmiths,
anda "Sea Captain."
Thealleyalsoboasteda
largepopulation
ofFrench
nationals.
Andthecorner
house,theresiwhichwas neveridentified
denceofBeddenhurst,
bynamein any
40 Genealogies
andBiography
ofVirginia
Families:
FromtheVirginia
MagazineofHistory
(5 vols.; Baltimore,
1981),II, 346-49(quotation);
GeorgeWashington
toFrancisCorbin,
July
24, 1798,inJohn
C. Fitzpatrick,
ed.,Writings
ofGeorgeWashington
(39vols.;Washington,1931-1944),XXXVI,362; andCarolineCountyPersonalProperty
andLandBook,
1797(Virginia
StateLibrary).
41 NewYork
Spectator,
October
1, 1800(first
quotation);
Fredericksburg
Virginia
Herald,
September
19, 1800(secondquotation);
confession
ofYoung'sGilbert;unsigned
letterto
editor,
September
13, 1800,inFredericksburg
Virginia
Herald,September
23, 1800(third
quotation);and Philadelphia
Map, 1802 (GenealogicalResearchAids Room,National
Archives,
Washington).
Theunnamed
Coats'Alleytouched
FrontStreetbetween
Vineand
Market
streets
Thestreet
wasfirst
identified
downnearthewaterfront.
bynameinGopsill's
Philadelphia
CityandBusinessDirectory
for1868-1869(Philadelphia,
1868).Beddenhurst
mayhavearrived
duringtheAmerican
Revolution
as partoftheGerman-speaking
fourth
regiment
inCountRochambeau's
corps.Ifthiswasthecase,hewasprobably
notFrench
but
mightbe described
so by slaveswhounderstood
thathe hadfought
withtheFrench.On
makeup
oftheregiment
seeArnold
Whitridge,
Rochambeau
(NewYorkandLondon,1965),
78-79. Mythanks
thispossibility
tome.
toWilliamStinchcombe
forsuggesting
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
207
Virginiadocument,
was "TheFrenchBoarding-House,"
ownedand
operated
byJohnBoulanger.42
The slaverebelsdecidedattheAugust10 meeting
thatSaturday,
with
August30, wouldbe thenightoftheassault.Actinginconcert
theRichmond
group,nearly150 slaves,"mulattoes,"
and "some
[lower class] whites"fromSuffolkand Norfolkgatheredat
Whitlock's
milloutsideofNorfolk
andwaitedforwordfromRichmond.Butjustas allwasinreadiness,
nature
tooka handintheaffair.
Theskiesopenedanda torrential
rainpoureddownontheRichmond
between
area,washingawaybridgesand cutting
communications
Brookfield
andthecity.Slaveswereseen"going[away]fromthe
Richmond
whereasitwas normaltosee ruralslavesentering
town,"
buttheywereunabletoreachtheBrookBridge.
on Saturday
night,
EvenifQuerseywas as goodas hisword,he couldhavemadeno
progress
coming
from
Caroline.Indesperation,
Gabrielandhiswife
Nannypassedthewordas besttheycouldforhisfollowers
"tomeetat
thetobaccohouseofMr.Prossertheensuing
night."43
WhatGabrieldid notknowwas thattheplothad alreadybeen
revealed.
TwoslavesnamedPharaohandTom,belonging
toProsser's
theirownerthatGabriel
neighbor
MosbySheppard,
hadinformed
was toleadanuprising
thatverynight.Pharaoh,longa slaveonthe
as thesafestroutetohis
sawtheinformation
Sheppard
farm,
perhaps
andthen
ownfreedom.
Sheppard
spreadthealarmtohisneighbors
a Petersgallopedtotowntoinform
Monroe.Almostsimultaneously
burgslaveinformed
hisowner,Benjamin
Harrison,
"thattheslaves,
freenegroes
& Mulattoes
didintend
torise"andthat"twowhitemen,"
whomhenamed,"wereconcerned."44
The Virginiaauthorities
werein a stateof absoluteterror.
Rich42 GaryB. Nash,"Forging
intheNorthern
SeaExperience
Freedom:TheEmancipation
andFreedom
inthe
eds.,Slavery
inIraBerlinandRonaldHoffman,
portCities,1775-1820,"
Revolution
1983),40; andPhiladelphia
CityDirectory,
AgeoftheAmerican
(Charlottesville,
Philadelphia
City
(CityArchives,
74 (secondquotation)
1795,pp. 27, 35 (firstquotation),
fortheiraidonthispoint.
toBillyG. SmithandTomGentry
Hall Annex).I amgrateful
43 Richmond
MonroetoGeneral
quotation);
James
10,1800(first
Virginia
Argus,October
(secondquotation);
Communications
Executive
5, 1800,Letterbook,
Assembly,
December
Papers;Lexington
13, 1800,Jefferson
September
JamesCallenderto ThomasJefferson,
BenattrialofOwens'sMichael,
ofProsser's
November
3, 1800;testimony
Kentucky
Gazette,
Benat
ofProsser's
Executive
Papers;andtestimony
September
11,1800,NegroInsurrection,
trialofProsser's
Gabriel(third
quotation).
44 MosbySheppard
toJamesMonroe,August30, 1800,inJournaloftheSenateofthe
ofProsser's
BenattrialofPros1801),26; testimony
Commonwealth
ofVirginia
(Richmond,
Papers;Joseph
Jonesto
Executive
ser'sFrank,September
12, 1800, NegroInsurrection,
Tax,
andHenricoCounty
Personal
Property
9, 1800(quotation);
James
Monroe,September
bythestate
PharaohandTomwereinfactemancipated
StateLibrary).
1782,1799(Virginia
thesurname
Sheppard.
See Housetheirsecret;as anactoffealty
theyadopted
forrevealing
Papers(HenricoCounty
Book,Box668,MosbySheppard
hold,1794-1812,p. 39,Account
HumanServicesOffice).
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208
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
mondresembled
a citybesieged.Militiacompanies
werepostedat
thepenitentiary
andthecapitol,andpatrols
swepttheoutskirts
ofthe
cityandarrested
anyslavesuspected
oftaking
partintheconspiracy.
a specialboardofinquiry
Governor
Monroeestablished
of
composed
twomagistrates,
MilesSeldenandGervasStorrs,andtheHenrico
courtofoyerandterminer-a
tribunal
reserved
for
Virginia
County
slave crime-was convened"withoutdelay."JamesRind was
assignedby the commonwealth
to representthosetakeninto
custody.45
Atfirst
themounted
unitsscoured
onlytheareajustoutsideoftown
nearProsser'shome.Thencamethebreakthemagistrates
needed.
Ben Woolfolk,
who had beenseizedoutsideof Richmond,
determinedtosavehisownlifebyturning
informer
andwitness.He told
SeldenandStorrsthathe"wouldmakesomeimportant
discoveries"
ifhewaspromised
pardonforhiscrimes.Butthedetailsoftheplot,
he admitted,
weremadeknownto theslaves"accordingto their
rank,"andhe,"beingonlyinhisnovitiate. . . knewverylittleofthe
extent
of[the]conspiracy."
He did,however,
implicate
Gabrielas the
leader,andWoolfolk
thenamesofa number
provided
ofRichmond
slavesthathehadseenon Byrd'slist.Forthefirsttimeitwas clear
thattownblackswereinvolved;
onSeptember
19"a number
ofthem
weresurprised
andtakenintocustody."46
TheHenricoCourt,however,
alsoreceived
ofa
otherinformation
kind.The magistrates
verydifferent
andunwelcome
andjustices,
themselves
oldrevolutionaries,
foundmuchofthetestimony
disquieting.Too manyof theslaves,reported
observer
JohnRandolph,
a proud"senseoftheir[natural]
of
displayed
rights,
[and]a contempt
Oneinsurgent,
danger."47
speaking
athistrial,madethepoliticaland
nature
"I havenothing
revolutionary
oftheconspiracy
alltooevident.
thanwhatGeneralWashington
moretooffer
wouldhavehadtooffer,
hadhebeentakenbytheBritish
andputtotrial,"
hesaiddefiantly.
"I
haveadventured
toobtaintheliberty
ofmy
mylifeinendeavouring
45WilliamMosby to JamesMonroe, November10, 1800, in Journalof the Senate, 26;
Fredericksburg
VirginiaHerald, September23, 1800; andunsignedletterto editor,September 20, 1800, in NorfolkHerald, October18, 1800 (quotation).On the1692 creationof the
courtsofoyerandterminer
see PhilipJ.Schwarz,TwiceCondemned:Slaves and theCriminal
Law of Virginia,1705-1865 (Baton Rouge, 1988), 17.
46 Unsignedletterto editor,September20, 1800, in NorfolkHerald, October 18, 1800
(first,second, and fourthquotations);and LexingtonKentuckyGazette,November3, 1800
(thirdquotation).
47 JohnRandolph to Joseph H. Nicholson, September 26, 1800, Vol. I, Joseph H.
NicholsonPapers(ManuscriptDivision, Libraryof Congress).For a similarassessmentsee
[GeorgeTucker],Letterto a MemberoftheGeneralAssemblyof Virginia,on theSubjectof
theLate ConspiracyoftheSlaves witha ProposalforTheirColonization(2d ed.; Richmond,
1801). PriortotheAmericanRevolution,theauthorinsisted,theslaves"fought[for]freedom
merelyas a good, now theyalso claim it as a right"(pp. 6-7).
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GABRIEL'S CONSPIRACY
209
andama willingsacrifice
intheircause."48
countrymen,
in otherVirginiatownsconAtthesametime,whiteauthorities
ductedtheirowntrialsand investigations.
It becameincreasingly
clearto all howwidespread
theconspiracy
was. Petersburg
slaves
andfreeblacks,including
theByrds,weresweptup, andSuffolk
leadersexamined
bothblacksandpoorwhites,although
thelatter
thetruth"
equivocated[]anddepart[ed]
from
whenaskedabouttheir
knowledge
oftheconspiracy.
inPetersJohnScotttoowas captured
burgas he triedto boardtheNorfolkstagecoach.Found"in his
nameandPhiladelphia
pocket"
was Beddenhurst's
address.49
Scott'sevidence,withitsenormous
implications,
was a threat
to
theRepublican
hadalreadystatedhisbelief
ascendancy.
Woolfolk
thattheFrenchnavywas tosailtotherebels'aid,a claimthegovernorhaddismissed.Now he was confronted
withhardevidenceof
Frenchinvolvement.
SeldenandStorrs,theexamining
magistrates
onthespecialboardofinquiry,
tooktheslaves'depositions
before
the
brief,perfunctory
appearancein thecourtof oyerand terminer
(whereSeldensatas well).Fromtheir
judicialpoststhemagistrates
couldcontainthemostdamaging
information.
Thetwomagistrates
weregood and trueRepublicans,
and Storrsand Selden'sbrother
weremembers
ofthesix-man
committee
Joseph
party
thatnamedthe
stateelectoralticket.Monroeknewthattheimplications
forthe
intheplotwouldbe miniRepublican
partyofFrenchinvolvement
mizedbythesefaithful
party
members.
Unhappily,
however,
a Richmondslaveholder,
displeased
withtheplot'shavingbeenhushedup
duetoa fearofalarm,was a spectator
atthetrials.As a proslavery
hewasdetermined
ideologue,
"that
theorigin
ofthisgreatevilshould
be known:'Andhe hadheardoftheBeddenhurst
letter.50
48 RobertSutcliff,
intheYears1804, 1805, & 1806
Travelsin SomePartsofNorthAmerica,
(Philadelphia,1812), 50 (quotation).Some scholarsbelievethatSutcliffwas describingthe
trialof slaves executedin an 1804 conspiracy,a plot forwhichthereis no evidencein the
VirginiaState Library.Evidentlythe term"lately"used here by Sutcliffmeans "in recent
years."Moreover,internalevidencepointsto thetrialhe was discussingbeingin 1800. Sutcliffclearly alludes to slaves triedin Richmondbut hangedin "a field"northof the city.
Severalconspirators,includingGeorgeSmithandProsser'sTom,weretriedin Richmondbut
hangedoutsideof townnear Prosser'stavern.DuringtheEaster 1802 slave conspiracyno
slaveswerehangedeitherin or northofRichmond.See Douglas R. Egerton,"AfterGabriel:
The EasterConspiracyof 1802,"paperpresentedatthe1988 meetingoftheSouthernHistorical AssociationinNorfolk,Virginia.This quotationwas givento Sutcliffby a lawyerpresent
at theslave trialsin Richmond,andwhileitis secondhand,itcorrespondsin tonebothto the
natureof Gabriel'sdemandsand to theviews of Randolphand Tucker.
49 WilliamPrentisto JamesMonroe, September6, 1800, Negro Insurrection,
Executive
Papers; RichmondVirginiaArgus,October10, 1800 (firstquotation);and unsignedletterto
VirginiaHerald, September23, 1800 (second
editor,September13, 1800, inFredericksburg
quotation).
50 Confessionof Ben Woolfolk;RichmondVirginiaArgus, September12, 1800; Henrico
1800; Horace E. Hayden,VirginiaGeneCountyCourt,OrderBook, September-December
alogies . . . (Baltimore,
1966), 738; and unsignedletter,September13, 1800, in Frede-
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210
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
wasgrowoftwoFrenchmen
totheinvolvement
Evidencepointing
wasstill
Gabriel
leaders
captured.
of
tothenumber
inginproportion
Sam
Byrd,
as
had
Solomonhadbeentaken,
atlarge,buthisbrother
names
of
forthesementokeeplistsofthe
Jr.Ithadbeenimportant
Trialtestimony
indicatedthatSolomon,
thosetheyhad recruited.
Scott,andMattScottallkeptlists,as didJacob,
Byrd,Gabriel,John
thetowns.Thereis
between
whoservedas courier
theblackskipper
couldnotread,kepta list,
whoprobably
no evidencethatDitcher,
Onewhitecourt
heknewthenamesofthetwoFrenchmen.
although
VirginiaHerald thatcorreobservertold the Fredericksburg
had been
Norfolk,and Petersburg
spondencefromPhiladelphia,
captured."
All of thesedocuments
wererushednotto theHenricoCounty
fromwhoseofficemostof themdisapCourtbutto thegovernor,
in
contained
peared.Forthosewhowantedaccesstotheinformation
Monroe'sbehaviorwas annoying.MayorJames
thedocuments,
ofbeing
complained
a staunchFederalist,
McClurgof Richmond,
and he badgeredMonroeto aid thePetersburg
keptuninformed,
hehadreceived.Wilthem"theInformation"
authorities
bysending
heardthatMonroehad
liamPrentis,
a former
mayorofPetersburg,
andwrotetohiminanunsuccessofconspirators
"a listofa number"
fulattempt
toobtaina copy.52
leadersnotto
On thesurface,itwas madnessfortheconspiracy
havedestroyed
theirlistsbeforebeingtaken.ButGabrielremained
20 someslaveshopedthattherevolt
free,andas lateas September
wouldstilltakeplace,atwhichtimerecordsofthenamesandlocawrotetoJacob's
Oneinsurgent
tionsoftherebelswouldbe necessary.
andwarnedhimto "keepstillyet:'Gabriel
contactin Gloucester
wouldcomesoon"andthenyoumay[k]no[w]moreaboutthebissihislists,
ness'"Suchhopeskepttheblackcaptainfromdestroying
withhiminNorfolk
andforwarded
captured
whichwereeventually
"anenquiry
William
Prentis
observed,
hotly
toMonroe."I presume,"
youwouldhavesentthem
otherwise
intothemwouldavailnothing,
here."e53
thisanonymous
23, 1800 (quotation).Although
VirginiaHerald,September
ricksburg
slavery.
politics
butinpreserving
hisrealinterest
wasnotinpartisan
sourcewasa Federalist,
andhe
thattheoriginofthisevilshouldbe known,"
"ita matter
ofgreatmoment,
He thought
fromthemostauthentic
sources:'
tocollect[information]
hadbeenable"bymuchindustry,
51 Testimony
at
ofBenWoolfolk
BenattrialofProsser's
Solomon;testimony
ofProsser's
Herald,September
19, 1800.
Virginia
trialofSamByrd,Jr;andFredericksburg
52 [Richmond
andWilliam
quotation);
Monroe,n.d.(first
McClurgtoJames
mayor]
James
Papers(second
Executive
6, 1800,NegroInsurrection,
Monroe,September
Prentis
toJames
quotation).
53 A. W. to B. H., September
1800,ExecutivePapers
20, 1800,September-December
Theletter
toJamesMonroe,n.d. (secondquotation).
andWilliamPrentis
(first
quotation);
Although
thewriter
written
bya conspirator.
letter
fromA. W. toB. H. is theonlyextant
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GABRIEL'S CONSPIRACY
211
evitosuppress
byMonroeandthetwomagistrates
Despiteefforts
begantoleakout.
thetwoFrenchmen
concerning
dence,information
23,
WilliamYoung'sGilbertactuallynamedQuerseyon September
the
ofinterrupting
accusedthetwomagistrates
andthepeskyPrentis
Mayo,a
slave.AboutthesametimeJohn
confession
ofa condemned
in thelegalprowhowas notinvolved
whitemanfromRichmond
toaskseveralslavesjustbeforethey
ceedings,tookituponhimself
notto
Warned
werehangedabouttherumorofwhiteinvolvement.
that
Owens'sMichaeladmitted
Judith
"diewitha lie in hismouth,"
Whenaskedfor
[than]them."
"there
wasa whitemanmoreconcerned
andwenttohisdeathsilently.54
himself"
a nameMichael"collected
inNorfolk,
wherehehad
Gabrielwas captured
Lateinthemonth
Billy,a
a whiteskipper.
Taylor,
beentakenona boatbyRichardson
observed
slaveofMilesKingwhohadknownGabrielinRichmond,
himin forthereward.The
himstanding
on thedocksandturned
more"about
Gabrieltoldhiscaptorsthathehad"learnt
unrepentant
with
"thanhe was acquainted
theNorfolkend of theconspiracy
he wouldsayno moreat thattime.A whiteman
although
before,"
in
thatGabrielhad"letters
reported
however,
fromFredericksburg,
hispossessionfromwhitepeople.""
in chains,the
backto Richmond
As Gabrielwas beingbrought
forthecompleteisolationof theprisoner.
was planning
governor
conGabrielwastobe placedinsolitary
Likeall oftheconspirators,
ordersthattheguardshouldhold
finement,
andMonroegavestrict
anyotherperson
withhimonanysubjectorpermit
"noconversation
todismissthe
keeperwas alsoinstructed
todo so."Thepenitentiary
order
"extraguard"andtoallownowhitestospeaktohim"without
fromtheGovernor."56
The governor
was unableto keepGabrielfromspeakingto his
Whiletheblackartifrom
Norfolk.
captorsonhiswaytoRichmond
heinsisted
that"hewastohavehadthechiefcommand,"
sanadmitted
inthebusithattherewerefourotherpersonsas deeply"concerned
A. W. probablydid notknowwhereGabrielwas hiding,A. W. was literateandcould readin
thenewspapersthatGabrielhad notbeen arrested.Since all of theotherleaderssave Ditcher
tointheletterwhowas still
X" referred
hadbeencaptured,Gabrieldoubtlesswas the"brother
at large.
54 WilliamPrentisto JamesMonroe, September
24, 1800; confessionof Young'sGilbert;
andJohnMayoto SamuelPleasants,September24, 1800, inRichmondVirginiaArgus,October 3, 1800 (quotation).
55JohnMoss to JamesMonroe, September28, 1800, Negro Insurrection,Executive
Papers; RichmondVirginiaArgus, September30, 1800 (firsttwo quotations);and FredericksburgVirginiaHerald, October3, 1800 (thirdquotation).
56 JamesMonroe to council, September28, 1800, Negro Insurrection,
ExecutivePapers
September28, 1800, in
(firstquotation);[Councilman]A. Blair to Keeper of Penitentiary,
H. W. Flournoy,ed., Calendar of VirginiaStatePapers and OtherManuscripts(11 vols.;
New York,1968; reprintof 1875-1893 edition),IX, 156 (second quotation).
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212
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
ness"as hewas. Gabrielsaidhecould"mention
severalinNorfolkbutbeingconsciousofmeeting
withthefateofthosebeforehimhe
shouldmakeno confession."
Of theslaves,onlyJackDitcherand
Sam Byrd,Jr.,wereas deeplyinvolved.The othertwo-thosein
Norfolk-hadtobe QuerseyandBeddenhurst.Y
Thelastleaderoftheconspiracy
whoremained
atlargewas Jack
Ditcher,
who,according
toProsser's
Ben,knewthenamesofthetwo
Frenchmen.
Ditcherfinally
surrendered
toGervasStorrs,andifhe
confessed,
testified
againstotherslaves,ornamedtheFrenchmen
noneofwhichis likely,
givenDitcher's
stoiccharacter-there
is now
no evidenceof it.58
itwas not
GiventhepoliticalleaningsoftheVirginia
townsfolk,
thatterrified
surprising
Federalists
didtheirbesttoturntheconspirwas thatthesubseacyintoa partisan
issue.Whatwas surprising
from
quentdebateremainedlargelyideological.Conservatives
andNorfolk
Fredericksburg
insisted,
quitecorrectly,
thattheRepublicancryof"Liberty
andEqualityhasbeeninfused
intothemindsof
thenegroes?'It was the"friendsof theblacks . . . in Pennsylvania
andBaltimore,'
oneFederalist
bleatedatMonroe,"whoareexciting
ournegroestocutourthroats."59
The self-evident
hypocrisy
of theVirginiaRepublicansalso
thefullfireoftheembattled
who
attracted
NewEnglandFederalists,
ofrevolt
wouldbringthesoutherners
hopedthethreat
totheirsenses.
"Ifanything
willcorrect
oldhardened
sinners
& bringtorepentance
inJacobinism,"
prayedtheBostonGazette,"itmustbe an insurrecevenchargedthatthe
tionoftheirslaves?'Morecreative
Federalists
revolt
hadbeenplanned"bythenotedCallenderinprison"withthe
aid of"anUnitedIrishpretended
Methodist
preacher."60
To thisthebusyCallenderreturned
fromhis cell,
fire.Writing
Callender
insisted
thatonlyonemaninthenation
wasevilenoughto
conceiveof"sucha project,"
andthatmanwas"Alexander
Hamilton:'
Yetthetruly
dangerous
charges,atleasttoJamesMonroe,werenot
theoretical
butwerethepersistent
rumorsof Frenchinvolvement.
The conspiracy
was "quitea domesticone,"MonroeassuredJohn
of a terrified
thelieutenant
SouthCarolina."If
Drayton,
governor
57 Richmond
30, 1800(firstquotation);
andFredericksburg
Virginia
Argus,September
Virginia
Herald,October3, 1800(secondquotation).
58 Norfolk
of Prosser'sBen at trialof Prosser's
Herald,October18, 1800; testimony
Gabriel;andFredericksburg
Virginia
Herald,October14, 1800.
59Fredericksburg
19, 1800(firstquotation);
andA Private
Virginia
Herald,September
18,1800(sec10,1800,inNorfolk
Herald,December
CitizentoJames
Monroe,December
ondandthird
quotations).
60 Boston
quotation),
October
23, 1800;andPhiladelphia
Gazette,October9, 1800(first
Virginia
Argus,October
3, 1800(secondquotaGazette,
September
25, 1800,inRichmond
tion).
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GABRIEL'S
CONSPIRACY
213
whitemenwereengagedinit,itis a factofwhichwehavenoproof?'61
Infact,Monroehadplenty
ofproof.LateinSeptember
someofthe
factsaboutQuerseyandBeddenhurst
werefinally
printed,
butfor
Federalist
electoralhopesitwas toolittletoolate. Pickingup the
Russell'sGazette,reported
Virginiarumors,a Bostonnewspaper,
that"twoFrenchmen"
wereinvolvedin theconspiracy
andthat"a
was keptupbetween
thosevillainsandsomeothers
correspondence
in Philadelphia,
Eventhissmallleak
Norfolk,
[and]Petersburgh."
"Ourfederalists
haveendeavgavepauseto VirginiaRepublicans.
oredtomakean electioneering
engineofit,"complained
JohnRandolph.62
In a veryrealsense,however,
Monroewas right:therewas no
longeranyproof.All thatremained
was thenearlyunanimous
testimonyof theconspirators
thattwoFrenchmen
wereinvolved.Any
andspecifictestimony
orhardevidence-suchas the
corroborating
listskeptbytheleadersorthecorrespondence
withScott,
captured
to
Gabriel,and theblackcaptain-allof whichwas sentdirectly
Monroe,wasneverturned
overtothecourt,andwas notincluded
in
thepertinent
recordshe relinquished
uponleavingoffice.Yetmen
fromthreecities-Richmond
mayor
JamesMcClurg,WilliamPrentisofPetersburg,
andtheanonymous
HerFredericksburg
Virginia
hadbeenseizedandwerein
ald source-insistedthatsuchdocuments
thepossessionofthegovernor.
TheFredericksburg
who
informant,
hadbeenallowedtoheartestimony
before
thepolitical
ofthe
dangers
conspiracy
becameclear,gavethenewspaper
themostcorroborative
ofall,whichremained
intheextant
evidence
unmentioned
trialtestimony:a Philadelphia
street
addressnotoncontemporary
maps.NeitherJohn
evermentioned
Scottnortheanonymous
informant
thatthe
corner
houseinCoats'AlleyinPhiladelphia
wasnamed"TheFrench
coincidenceof trulyDickensianproportion.
Boarding-House"-a
to be softon France,Monroe'spartywas even
Alreadyperceived
thenfacingcharges
thatJefferson-who
himself
waskeptquiteinthe
darkabout"theexcitements"-would
calluponFranceto"invadethe
toaidina planned
civilwar.EvidencethattwoFrenchmen,
country"
in another
evenactingstrictly
on theirown,wereinvolved
kindof
in theirsouthern
civilwarwouldhavedevastated
theRepublicans
61 James
Virginia
Argus,
October
1, 1800,inRichmond
T. Callender
toSamuelPleasants,
October
James
Monroeto[S. C. Lt.Gov.]John
Drayton,
October
3, 1800(first
quotation);
ed., Writings
ofJamesMonroe(7 vols.; NewYork,
21, 1800,in Stanislaus
M. Hamilton,
1898-1903),III, 217 (secondquotation).
62 Unsigned
Herald,September
23,
13,1800,inFredericksburg
Virginia
letter,
September
andJohn
Randolph
to
September
29, 1800(first
quotation);
1800;BostonRussell'sGazette,
26, 1800, Vol. I, NicholsonPapers(secondquotation).
JosephNicholson,September
partyattempted
to make
Beeman,Old Dominion,
228 andnote22, believesthat"neither
politicalcapitalof"theallegedFrenchinvolvement.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
214
THE JOURNAL OF SOUTHERN HISTORY
politicalbase.63
Gabrielhadhopedtousethissituation
totheadvantage
ofnotjust
himself
andhisfollowers,
butalso,as hesaid,"forhisCountry."
His
ofthe"revolution
of1800"wentfarbeyond
conception
that
anything
evenwhiteartisans
dreamed;indeed,hisvisionofpoliticalchange
was totheRepublican
theworldturned
leadership
upsidedown.If
to treathostageMonroewithleniency,
Gabrielhadintended
such
magnanimity
was notreturned,
who
especiallyfromRepublicans
werestartled
todiscover
thattheir
slavesbelieved
theyhada common
enemyinthemerchants.
Andso intheendJoseph
Seldencongratulatedhimself
onthevictory
ofhispartyover"theAdamsites
& Britishsubjects,"
whileGabrielandSolomonandMartin
andtwenty-four
oftheirfollowers
wenttotheirdeaths.64
63 Thomas
Jefferson
toJames
Monroe,November
MonroePapers
8, 1800,SeriesI, James
(Manuscript
Division,Library
ofCongress)(firstquotation);
andCharles0. Lerche,Jr.,
"Jefferson
andtheElection
of1800:A Case StudyofthePoliticalSmear,"
William
andMary
American
Quarterly,
3d Ser.,V (January
1948),480 (secondquotation).
Aptheker,
Negro
SlaveRevolts,
oftwoFrenchmen
intheGabriel
44n78,arguesthatthe"allegedimplication
Plot[wasused]toembarrass
theRepublicans
inthepoliticalcampaign
of 1800."Thefact,
however,
thattheFederalists
wouldhaveusedthisinformation
haditbeenmorewidelyknown
hardly
makesitfalseinitself.
64 Testimony
ofPrice'sJohnat trialofYoung'sGilbert;andJosephSeldento WilsonC.
Nicholas,January
1, 1801,WilliamB. Randolph
Papers(Manuscript
Division,Library
of
thetrialrecords
forseveralVirginia
counties
Congress)
(secondquotation).
Unfortunately,
areincomplete,
andso itwillprobably
never
beknown
precisely
howmanyblacksweretried
intheplot.Regardless
ifthey
forcomplicity
ofwherethey
weretried,
wereexecuted
however,
a recordwas retained
in Richmond,
withsomecertainty
so it is possibleto ascertain
the
number
hanged.
Yetestimates
ofblacksexecuted
rangefrom
a lowofthree
inJuliaC. Pollard,
Richmond'sStory (Richmond,1954), 75-76, to a high of forty-five
in Halasz, Rattling
thedeathcertificates
andpayments
Chains,96. By cross-matching
to ownersin thefile
inCondemned
Auditor's
Item153,Box2, Condemned
Slaves1800,withthematerial
Slaves
1800-1801,Executed,Gabriel'sInsurrection;
Condemned
Slaves1801,Transported;
and
Pardons,
September-December
1800,Executive
Papers(allintheVirginia
StateLibrary),
the
number
whodiedappearstobe twenty-seven.
Thisfigure
includes
William
Wilson's
Jacob,
theblackskipper,
whohangedhimself
whileincustody.
SeeJournal
oftheHouseofDele-
gates oftheCommonwealth
of Virginia(Richmond,1801), 42. The figurewouldsurelyhave
beenhigher
haditnotbeenfortheadviceofJefferson,
whocautioned
Monroethat"there
has
beenhanging
enough."
JackDitcher
wasamongthenineslavessoldtothelowerSouthafter
Monroereceived
Jefferson's
letter.
See ThomasJefferson
toJamesMonroe,September
20,
1800,Jefferson
Papers,andListof SlavesReprieved
March8, 1806,
forTransportation,
Executive
Papers,forthefateofDitcher.
toPhilipJ.Schwarzforthelatter
Mythanks
citation.
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