AP STYLE
ADDRESSES
Use Ave., Blvd. and St. only with a numbered address: 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. Spell
them out when part of a formal street name without a number: Pennsylvania Avenue.
Lowercase and spell out when used alone or with more than one street name:
Massachusetts and Pennsylvania avenues.
All similar words – alley, circle, court, drive, road, terrace, etc. – always are spelled
out. Capitalize them when they are part of formal name without a number (Bearcat
Alley); lowercase when used alone (The road was wet.) or with two or more names
(Fairfax and Bunker Hill roads).
Always use figures for an address number: 9 Morningside Circle, 56 Union St.
Capitalize and spell out First through Ninth when used as street names: 211 Fifth Ave.
Use figures with two letters for 10th and above: 100 21st St.
Abbreviate compass points used to indicated directional ends of a street or quadrants
of a city in a numbered address: 222 E. 42nd St., 562 W. 43rd St., 600 K St. N.W. Do not
abbreviate if the number is omitted: East 42nd Street, West 43rd Street, K Street
Northwest.
AGES
Always use figures: Joe Smith, 23; a 7-year-old boy; the 7 year old; he was 7 years old;
the baby was 2 weeks old.
STATE ABBREVIATIONS
Alabama: Ala.; Arizona: Ariz.; Arkansas: Ark.; California: Calif.; Colorado: Colo.;
Connecticut: Conn.; Delaware: Del.; Florida: Fla.; Georgia: Ga.; Illinois: Ill.; Indiana:
Ind.; Kansas: Kan.; Kentucky: Ky.; Louisiana: La.; Maryland: Md.; Massachusetts:
Mass.; Michigan: Mich.; Minnesota: Minn.; Mississippi: Miss.; Missouri: Mo.; Montana:
Mont.; Nebraska: Neb.; Nevada: Nev.; New Hampshire: N.H.; New Jersey: N.J.; New
Mexico: N.M.; New York: N.Y.; North Carolina: N.C.; North Dakota: N.D.; Oklahoma:
Okla.; Oregon: Ore.; Pennsylvania: Pa.; Rhode Island: R.I.; South Carolina: S.C.; South
Dakota: S.D.; Tennessee: Tenn.; Vermont: Vt.; Virginia: Va.; Washington: Wash.; West
Virginia: W.Va.; Wisconsin: Wis.; Wyoming: Wyo.
The names of eight states are never abbreviated: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine,
Ohio, Texas and Utah.
TIMES
Use figures except for noon and midnight. Use a colon to separate hours from minutes:
11 a.m. (never 11:00 a.m.), 3:30 p.m. Time period: 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.
Do not use redundancies such as 7 a.m. this morning, 7 p.m. tonight or 7 p.m. Monday
night. Use 7 a.m. today, 7 p.m. today or 7 p.m. Monday.
midnight: Do not put a 12 in front of it. It is part of the day that is ending, not the one that
is beginning. Example: midnight Friday, NOT 12 midnight Friday.
noon: Do not put a 12 in front of it. Example: noon Friday, NOT 12 noon Friday.
Use periods between a.m. and p.m. AND do not capitalize a.m. or p.m.
DATES
Always use Arabic figures: 1, 2, 3, etc. Never use st (1st), nd (2nd), rd (3rd) or th (4th) with
a figure. Correct: The session is scheduled for March 4. Incorrect: The session is
scheduled for March 4th.
Spell out months when they stand alone or are used with a year only: January, February,
March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December.
When used with a specific date, abbreviate only Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. and
Dec. Example: Jan. 12.
When a phrase lists only a month and a year, do not separate the year with commas.
When a phrase refers to a month, day and year, set off the year with commas.
EXAMPLES: January 2007 was a cold month. The coldest day of the month was Jan. 2.
The target date is Feb. 15, 2015. Completion is scheduled for June 1, 2015, unless
weather causes delays.
TIME ELEMENT
Use Monday, Tuesday, etc., for days of the week within six days before or after the
current date. Use the month and figure for dates beyond this range: May 8.
Avoid such redundancies as last Tuesday or next Tuesday.
Never use a day of the week with the month and a figure. EXAMPLE: He is scheduled to
appear in court Wednesday, Jan. 21. (That’s incorrect.) It is either Wednesday or Jan. 21.
Never use yesterday or tomorrow unless those words are part of a direct quotation.
For more than one day or date: Friday through Sunday; Feb. 12 and 13; Feb. 11-13.
When using a time with a day or date, it’s time, then day or date: 7 p.m. Saturday, 7 p.m.
March 7. When a place also is used with the time and day or date, the order is time, day
or date, place: 7 p.m. Saturday at Nippert Stadium.
MONEY
Use figures and the $ sign: $4, $25, $500, $1,000, $650,000, $1 million, $300 billion. For
amounts of more than $1 million, use the $ sign and numerals up to two decimal places
except when using the exact amount: It is worth $4.35 million. BUT It is worth exactly
$4,351,242. Do NOT use $ sign, figures and the word dollars: $42 million dollars.
Spell out the word cents and lowercase, using numerals for amounts less than a dollar: 5
cents, 12 cents. Use the $ sign and decimals for larger amounts: $1.02, $2.50.
DIRECTIONS and REGIONS
In general, lower case north, south, northeast, northern, etc., when they indicate compass
direction; capitalize these words when they designate regions. Some examples:
He drove west. The cold front is moving east.
A storm system that developed in the Midwest is moving eastward. It will bring
showers to the East Coast by morning and to the entire Northeast by late in the day.
High temperatures will prevail throughout the western part of the country. BUT High
temperatures will prevail throughout the Western states.
The North was victorious. The South shall rise again.
She has a Southern accent. He is a Northerner.
TITLES FOR FIREFIGHTERS, POLICE OFFICERS
Use the abbreviations listed here when a military-style title is used before the name of a
firefighter or police officer. Add fire or police before the title if needed for clarity: police
Sgt. William Smith, fire Capt. David Jones. Spell out titles such as detective; capitalize
Detective if used before the name: Detective Sam Jones. Other titles: corporal, Cpl.;
lieutenant, Lt.; colonel, Col.
OTHER ABBREVIATED TITLES (when used with a name)
doctor: Dr.
governor: Gov.
lieutenant governor: Lt. Gov.
senator: Sen. (either U.S. Sen. Susan Wilson or state Sen. Tom Niehaus). When using the
name with a political party affiliation: U.S. Sen. Susan Wilson, R-Wash., or state Sen.
Tom Niehaus, R-Clermont.
representative: Rep. (either U.S. Rep. Paul Ryan or state Rep. John Jacobs). When using
with the name of a political party affiliation: U.S. Rep. Paul Ryan, R-Wis., or state Rep.
John Jacobs, D-Lebanon.
reverend: Rev.
incorporated: Inc. (Delta Air Lines Inc. – do NOT set off with commas: Delta Air Lines,
Inc.,)
company: Co. (Procter & Gamble Co.); HOWEVER, when using to identifying a military
company, such as Company B, the word is spelled out.
PLURALS
Add s to the principal element in the title: Drs. John Jones and Robert Smith; Sens. John
Jones and Robert Smith; Reps. John Jones and Robert Smith.
SOME OTHER TITLES
attorney general, attorneys general. Never abbreviated. Attorney General Christopher
Hughes; Attorneys General Christopher Hughes and Randolph Dockett. When used
without a name: attorney general or attorneys general, lower case.
Judge-executive, judge-executives. Judge-Executive John Moore; Judge-Executives John
Moore and Clarence Poole. When used without a name: judge-executive or judgeexecutives, lower case.
Capitalize formal titles when they are used immediately before one or more names: Pope
Benedict, President Washington, Sheriffs Simon Leis and Richard Jones.
A formal title generally is one that denotes a scope of authority, professional activity or
academic activity: President Barack Obama, Sen. Rob Portman, Dr. John Anderson, Pvt.
Wesley Johnson. Other titles serve primarily as occupational descriptions: astronaut Neil
Armstrong, actress Nicole Kidman, coach Mick Cronin.
Capitalize and spell out academic titles such as chancellor, chairman, president, etc.,
when they precede a name. University of Cincinnati President Santa Ono.
PERCENT, PERCENTAGE
Do not use the % symbol for percent; use the word. Example: 2 percent, 15.5 percent.
Use figures for percent and percentages: 1 percent, 10 percent, 4 percentage points.
NUMBERS
As a general rule, spell out numbers one through nine. Consult the AP Stylebook for
exceptions; there are plenty. Any number that begins a sentence is spelled out: Forty five,
Three hundred thirteen.
SPEED
Use figures: The car slowed to 5 miles per hour; winds of 5 to 10 miles per hour. The
abbreviation mph (no periods) is acceptable in all references.
TEMPERATURES
Use figures for all except zero. Use a word, not a minus sign, to indicate temperatures
below zero.
Correct: The day’s low was minus 10. The day’s low was 10 below zero.
Incorrect: The day’s low was -10.
Also: 5-degree temperatures, temperatures fell 5 degrees, temperatures in the 30s (no
apostrophe).
Temperatures get higher or lower, but they do not get warmer or cooler.
DIMENSIONS
Use figures and spell out inches, feet, yards, etc., to indicate depth, height, length and
width. Hyphenate adjectival forms before nouns. Some examples:
He is 5 feet, 6 inches tall. The 5-foot-6 guard sank five critical free throws in the final
minute. The basketball team signed a 7-footer.
The trailer is 17 feet long, 6 feet wide and 5 feet high.
The rug is 9 feet by 12 feet. The 9-by-12-foot rug was too large for the room.
The storm left 7 inches of snow.
WEAPONS
Gun is an acceptable term for any firearm, although it is best to distinguish a handgun,
shotgun, rifle.
A pistol is a small handgun; it can be a single shot, a semiautomatic or a revolver. Its size
is measured in calibers. The form: .22-caliber semiautomatic handgun or revolver; .357caliber Magnum, .44-caliber Magnum; Colt .45-caliber revolver; 9 mm pistol.
Rifles are measured in calibers. The form: a .22-caliber (can be automatic,
semiautomatic, single shot); .306-caliber; .223-caliber.
Shotguns are measured in gauges. The form: 10-gauge shotgun, 12-gauge shotgun, 16gauge shotgun, 20-gauge shotgun, 28-gauge shotgun.
Bullet: The projectile fired from a rifle, pistol, machine gun.
Casing: The metal cylinder which houses the primer and propellant.
Noun antecedent-pronoun agreement
Pronouns take the place of nouns. For instance, after using the name of the governor, we may use
he/she, him/her or his/hers instead of repeating the person’s name or title. After writing or
broadcasting that all of the nation’s governors are meeting in New Orleans, we may substitute
they, them or their instead of repeating the noun governors. The noun that the pronoun replaces
is called the antecedent, meaning the noun governor is used first and the pronoun he/she is
substituted on the next reference. Virtually all of the problems writers and broadcasters have in
using pronouns develop because the pronouns they select conflict with the noun antecedents in
person, number or gender. Examples:
The governor said he will seek re-election.
Governor is clearly the noun antecedent of the pronoun he.
The senator said she will vote for the tax increase. She said her vote probably will not make
her constituents happy.
Senator clearly is the noun antecedent for the pronouns she and her.
The governor and the president of the state medical association will share the award. He
described the honor as “uniquely satisfying.”
This is misleading. Does the pronoun he refer to the governor or the president?
Make it clear to whom the pronoun refers:
The governor, who will share the award with the president of the state medical association,
described the honor as “uniquely satisfying.”
Repeating the noun for clarity
Every noun antecedent should be obvious. To erase any doubt, it sometimes is necessary to
repeat the noun instead of replacing it with a pronoun.
Police chiefs from 25 cities were invited to the forum to discuss efforts to reduce homicides.
They are expected to increase significantly.
The pronoun they lacks a clear antecedent. Are the efforts or the homicides expected to
increase significantly?
Police chiefs from 25 cities were invited to the forum to discuss efforts to reduce homicides.
Efforts to reduce homicides are expected to increase significantly.
Police chiefs from 25 cities were invited to the forum to discuss efforts to reduce homicides.
Homicides are expected to increase significantly.
Indefinite pronoun problems
Some indefinite pronouns (everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, each, every, etc.) raise
gender problems writers and broadcasters should avoid. We simply do not have an all-purpose
pronoun that is masculine or feminine to replace a noun or pronoun of common gender.
Traditionally, the masculine gender is used to replace a noun or pronoun of common gender, but
that is considered sexist and offensive to some people and easily can be avoided by making the
noun and pronoun plural.
Each student is to turn in their assignment by the 9 a.m. deadline. (incorrect)
Each student is to turn in his assignment by the 9 a.m. deadline. (correct)
Each student is to turn in his or her assignment by the 9 a.m. deadline. (correct)
Students are to turn in their assignments by the 9 a.m. deadline. (correct)
----Any parent who wants to enroll their child must provide a vaccination record. (incorrect)
Any parent who wants to enroll her child must provide a vaccination record. (correct)
Any parent who wants to enroll his child must provide a vaccination record. (correct)
Any parent who wants to enroll his or her child must provide a vaccination record. (correct)
Parents who want to enroll their children must provide a vaccination record. (correct)
----Every member of the debate team must have their luggage packed by the 3 p.m. departure
time. (incorrect)
Every member of the debate team must have his luggage packed by the 3 p.m. departure
time. (corret)
Every member of the debate team must have his or her luggage packed by the 3 p.m.
departure time. (correct)
Members of the debate team must have their luggage packed by the 3 p.m. departure time.
(correct)
-----
Everybody wishes they could write well. (incorrect)
Everybody wishes he could write well. (correct)
People wish they could write well. (correct)
Either/or and Neither/nor
The pronoun can be singular or plural when it is substituted for noun antecedents joined by
either/or and neither/nor. The rules that dictate the choice between using a singular or a plural
pronoun are the same as those that apply to subject-verb agreement.
If the noun antecedents (two or more) are singular, the pronoun that substitutes for them will be
singular.
Either the city editor or his assistant will have to change his vacation schedule.
If the noun antecedents (two or more) are plural, the pronoun that substitutes for them will be
plural.
Neither the reporters nor the editors will have their pay reduced.
If one (or more) of the noun antecedents is singular and one (or more) is plural, the pronoun that
substitutes for them will agree with the closer antecedent.
Neither the director nor the graphic artists lost their jobs.
Neither the graphic artists nor the director lost his job.
Person, number, gender agreement
Pronouns must agree with their antecedent nouns in person, number and gender. Entities
(businesses, institutions, organizations, etc.) are singular antecedent nouns and take singular
pronouns.
The Footloose Shoe Co. is having their fall clearance sale this week. (incorrect)
The Footloose Shoe Co. is having its fall clearance sale this week. (correct)
----Delta Air Lines announced they are cutting more flights at the airport. (incorrect)
Delta Air Lines announced it is cutting more flights at the airport. (correct)
Punctuation (comma)
How to use commas
Use a comma to separate words, phrases and clauses in a series.
Club members elected a president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. (words in a
series)
The new reporter’s spelling, punctuation and grammar skills are highly developed, the
editor said. (words in a series)
During his college years, he earned money selling used textbooks to his classmate, to his
professors, and to the manager of the campus bookstore. (phrases in a series)
McCoy spoke for the bill, Sutherland argued against it, and Williams insisted on
remaining neutral. (clauses in a series)
Use a comma to separate two adjectives used to modify a noun or pronoun equally when it
makes sense to insert the coordinating conjunction and between them.
The frightened angry citizens protested the new policy. (incorrect)
The frightened, angry citizens protested the new policy. (correct)
The lonely forlorn man was afraid. (incorrect)
The lonely, forlorn man was afraid. (correct)
If, however, it does not make sense to insert and between adjectives, no comma is used.
We stayed at an expensive summer resort. (correct because it makes no sense to insert and
between expensive and summer)
The cool summer breeze provided relief to the football players during practice. (correct
because it makes no sense to insert and between cool and summer)
Use a comma to indicate that a word or several words have been left out to avoid repetition
– and to save space.
The meteorologist said the winter will be milder than usual, the summer hotter.
McCoy spoke for the bill, Sutherland against it.
Use a comma before not or never when used to show a contrast.
The mistake was made by an editor, not the writer.
I want a career in some area of mass communication, never at some routine job.
Use a comma after introductory explanatory phrases and clauses.
At the end of their deliberations, jury members announced their verdict. (introductory
prepositional phrase)
Shifting the ball to his right hand, Kilpatrick sank a 20-foot jumper. (introductory
participial phrase)
To prepare for his speech, the student government president practiced for an hour in front of
a mirror. (introductory infinitive phrase)
When firefighters were delayed by heavy traffic, the chief said all hope of saving the
building was lost. (introductory dependent clause)
However, no comma is needed if the sentence order is reversed by placing the independent
clause BEFORE the dependent clause or phrase.
The student government president practiced for an hour in front of a mirror to prepare for
his speech.
The chief said all hope of saving the building was lost when firefighters were delayed by
heavy traffic.
Use a comma to set off attribution.
The officers failed to follow departmental procedures in subduing the suspect, according to an
internal police memo.
The Bearcats simply failed to execute the in-bounds pass properly, Cronin said.
Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, yes, no.
No, he did not do what was expected.
Well, that day has finally come.
Yes, there is a good reason for the rule change.
Use a comma with nouns of direct address.
“Kelsey, please edit my column while I drink coffee at Starbucks.”
“You need to know, Mr. Boehner, that the bill is dead on arrival.”
Use a comma to separate a city from a state at the end of a sentence. Use commas to set off
a state when used within a sentence.
Many college students spend spring break at Daytona Beach, Fla.
The annual national convention of the Fraternal Order of Police will be in Charleston, S.C.,
Nov. 12-16.
Use a comma between the date and the year. Use commas to set off the date and year when
used within a sentence.
The crash occurred May 20, 2002.
The crash occurred May 20, 2002, near Harrisburg, Pa.
However, do not use a comma when only the month and year are used.
The crash occurred in May 2002.
How not to use commas
Using a comma by itself to hold two independent clauses together is a comma splice.
The mayor said he will submit another proposal to city council, he said he hopes council
members will accept it. (incorrect)
The mayor said he will submit another proposal to city council, and he said he hopes council
members will accept it. (correct)
The mayor said he will submit another proposal to city council; he said he hopes council
members will accept it. (correct)
The mayor said he will submit another proposal to city council. He said he hopes council
members will accept it. (correct)
Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses
when the subject is the same in both clauses but appears only in the first clause.
Elizabeth wanted to ask for a grade change, but didn’t have the courage. (incorrect)
Elizabeth wanted to ask for a grade change but didn’t have the courage. (correct)
Elizabeth wanted to ask for a grade change, but she didn’t have the courage. (also correct if
you choose to use the pronoun she to refer back to Elizabeth)
Don’t use commas before and after a name that follows a title.
UC basketball coach, Mick Cronin, responded by benching Stephenson. (incorrect)
UC basketball coach Mick Cronin responded by benching Stephenson. (correct)
A seemingly innocent argument was made by Seattle school teacher, Anthony McGrant.
(incorrect)
However, use commas if the title follows the name.
Roscoe T. Jones president of Lawrenceville College approved the tuition
increase. (incorrect)
Roscoe T. Jones, president of Lawrenceville College, approved the tuition
increase. (correct)
Don’t use commas with names followed by Jr., Sr., II, III, IV, etc.
Joseph L. Miller, Jr., is the program director at radio station WXXX. (incorrect)
Joseph L. Miller Jr. is the program director at radio station WXXX. (correct)
Don’t use commas when there is absolutely no rule for doing so.
The governor said American Eagle Outfitters, is planning a $160 million distribution center
that is projected to generate 400 jobs.
Former Gov. John Huntsman is creating a new political action committee, to raise money for
like-minded Republicans.
The café is expected to reopen after repairs are completed, Wednesday.
The ambush worked to perfection, because it was well planned.
Don’t use a comma before a partial direct quotation.
One listener called the mayor’s speech, “wonderful and exciting.” (incorrect)
One listener called the mayor’s speech “wonderful and exciting.” (correct)
The comma and essential clauses, nonessential clauses
Essential clauses are essential to the meaning of a sentence and cannot be eliminated
without changing the meaning of the sentence; essential clauses are not set off by commas.
Nonessential clauses can be eliminated without changing the basic meaning of the sentence;
nonessential clauses must be set off by commas.
Students who arrive before 6 p.m. will be admitted free. (The description who arrive before
6 p.m. is essential to the meaning of the sentence because it restricts who will be admitted free.)
Club members, who range in age from 21 to 90, meet each Tuesday. (The description who
range in age from 21 to 90 set off by commas is not essential to the meaning of the sentence and
could be omitted.)
Reporters, most of whom are notorious for their skepticism, question whatever they doubt.
(The description most of whom are notorious for their skepticism is not essential to the meaning
of the sentence and could be omitted.)
All reporters who work for the News-Herald will be given pay raises next week. (The
description work for the News-Herald is essential to the meaning of the sentence because it
restricts who will be given pay raises.)
Punctuation (apostrophe, et al)
The apostrophe
Add an ’s to make possessive both singular and plural common nouns and indefinite pronouns whose
spelling does not end in an s.
Singular Nouns
child’s
man’s
woman’s
Plural Nouns
children’s
men’s
women’s
Indefinite Pronouns
anyone’s
another’s
everyone’s everyone else’s
one’s
someone’s
Add an apostrophe to make possessive a plural noun ending in s, es, or ies.
boys’
businesses’
agencies’
girls’
Joneses’
companies’
players’
witnesses’
properties’
Add an apostrophe to make possessive singular proper nouns ending in s.
Jones’
Lucas’
Hayes’
Silas’
Willis’
BUT just to cause confusion, in formal writing add an ’s to proper nouns ending in s.
Hayes’s
Jones’s
Lucas’s
Silas’s Willis’s
NOTE: Check your print publication’s style rules to determine which style is followed. The New York
Times, for instance, adheres to the formal-writing rule.
Add an ’s to a singular common noun ending in s. However, if the next word starts with an s, add only an
apostrophe.
actress’s best role
actress’ stand-in
boss’s biggest complaint
boss’ secret
Add an ’s to the last word to make compound nouns possessive.
brother-in-law’s
mother-in-law’s
secretary of state’s
attorney general’s
If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe.
My two brothers-in-law’s coats were left in the restaurant.
Add an ’s to each name to indicate separate ownership.
John’s and Emily’s backpacks
Pete’s and Mark’s i-Phones
Add an ’s to the last noun to indicate joint ownership.
Pete and Willie’s Garage
Bob and Mary’s Diner
Add an apostrophe when the possessive follows the word it modifies.
The best drawings are usually Kristen’s and Philip’s.
Use an apostrophe to show missing letters in contractions.
couldn’t (could not) don’t (do not) hadn’t (had not) here’s (here is) it’s (it is)
something’s (something is) we’d (we would) we’ll (we will) what’re (what are)
Use an apostrophe to replace a letter or a figure omitted on purpose.
the ’37 flood (1937)
the summer of ’68 (1968)
the ’50s (the 1950s)
singin’ (singing)
wishin’ (wishing)
rock ’n’ roll (rock and roll)
Do no use an apostrophe with ages.
Mary is in her 90s.
Use an apostrophe to form plurals of letters, numbers and words.
She earned 12 A’s, 28 B’s and three C’s.
People sometimes forget occurred is spelled with two r’s.
Mind your p’s and q’s.
There are five 9’s in her birth date. She was born on the ninth day of the ninth month in 1999.
Do not use an apostrophe to form possessives of relative and personal pronouns.
Correct: ours
its
whose
yours
theirs
hers
Incorrect: our’s
it’s
who’s
your’s
their’s
her's
The ellipsis
The AP Stylebook says to treat it as a three-letter word. That’s good advice. The ellipsis indicates the
deletion of one or more words from a sentence.
It is constructed with three periods, no spaces and a space on either side ( … ). SEE AP STYLEBOOK
EXAMPLE, P. 307
If a full sentence precedes an ellipsis, use a period at the end of the last word before the ellipsis, then a
space before the ellipsis (blah, blah, blah. …) SEE AP STYLEBOOK EXAMPLE, P. 308
If other punctuation – question mark, exclamation point, etc. – is used, follow with a space, then the
ellipsis. SEE AP STYLEBOOK EXAMPLE, P. 308
If words are deleted at the end of one paragraph and the beginning of another, use an ellipsis in both
places. SEE AP STYLEBOOK EXAMPLEP. 308
Do not use ellipsis at the beginning or end of direct quotations. SEE AP STYLEBOOK, P. 308
In creative writing, the ellipsis is used to indicate a pause in dialogue.
“I just want to say … I do love you.”
But in journalism, the dash is used to indicate pause or interruption.
There is one thing – maybe two – that could be done.
The hyphen
Used to avoid ambiguity, but can be confusing. Most-often used in compound modifiers, prefixes and
suffixes, but there are other frequent uses. If in doubt – and there frequently is doubt – check the AP
Stylebook or a dictionary.
The three-alarm fire destroyed an apartment building. (compound modifier)
The team physician was given a well-deserved award. (compound modifier)
The 35-year-old catcher is in his 14th season with the Angels. (compound modifier)
The veteran catcher is 35 years old. (no hyphen if the compound age comes after the word it modifies)
The concert tentatively is scheduled for mid-December. (prefix)
He was a pre-1940 sports icon. (prefix)
Always use a hyphen after the prefixes self, all and ex. (self-help, all-knowing, ex-governor)
Use a hyphen to replace to, through or until in words or figures that show an extension: 1-5 p.m. (from 1
p.m. to or until 5 p.m.); Pages 111-130 (111 through 130); Grades 9-12 (9 through 12); January-March
reporting period (January through March)
Use a hyphen in suspended compounds that modify the same word (known as suspensive hyphenation):
He was given a 15- to 25-year prison sentence.
The difference in earnings between first- and fifth-place finishers in the tournament is $300,000.
Use a hyphen with the suffixes elect and designate.
The president-elect plans meetings on Capitol Hill with top lawmakers from both parties.
Confirmation hearings for the ambassador-designate are expected to be contentious.
The parentheses
Used to include incidental material. Best to rewrite the sentence or ask yourself if commas or dashes (to
show emphasis) would be more effective. Should be used only to insert explanations or clarifications or
missing information deemed helpful to reader’s understanding.
MacBeth repeats a four-syllable phrase: “non alzero, non alzero” (“I will not raise, I will not raise).
“There is no doubt that Judge (Caroline M.) Peterson is the person best qualified for the appointment,”
the governor said.
The prosecutor said she could prove the defendant was in the bank at the time of the robbery (11:05
a.m. July 5).
He finally answered (after staring at the prosecutor for nearly a minute) that he did not understand the
question.
Do not use parentheses to include acronyms following a name:
The Committee to Recognize Outstanding Pupils (CROP) was founded 20 years ago. (incorrect)
The period
See AP Stylebook.
The question mark
Question marks follow interrogative words, phrases and clauses and tell readers a response is requested or
demanded. The placement of a question mark in quotation marks often causes problems, but remember: If
a question is in quotation marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks; if a
question is outside quotation marks, the question mark should be placed outside the quotation marks.
She asked, “Will you still be my friend?” (question is inside the quote)
“Will you still be my friend?” she asked.
Do you agree with the saying “All’s fair in love and war”? (question is outside the quote)
When you have a question outside quoted material AND inside quoted material, use only one question
mark and place it inside the quotation mark.
Did she say, "May I go?"
The exclamation point
Use to indicate a high degree of surprise or strong emotion. Tough to do because a certain amount of the
writer’s personal opinion comes into play. Best to avoid and just use a period. You are not writing fiction. In
any case, use sparingly – VERY sparingly.
Get back to work now! (a command)
That’s the greatest victory in UC history! (a declaration)
I can’t believe you didn’t get the job! (disbelief)
It’s the wrong color! (surprise)
Quotation marks
Use to surround the EXACT words of a speaker. Quotation marks are important because they indicate to the
reader that the words are those of the speaker, not the writer. Quotes are important and useful in a story
because they help personalize a story, provide emotion, and even inject opinion (that of the source). Most
of what you gather will be used as indirect or paraphrased quotations.
“I will answer those questions during my press conference,” the president said. (direct quotation)
Those questions will be answered during the press conference, the president said. (indirect quotation)
The president said he will answer those questions during his press conference. (indirect quotation)
“It might take until the fourth year of my term,” the president said, “but I will balance the budget.”
(attribution in the middle of a quotation)
Follow these rules when using quotation marks and other punctuation:
 Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.
 Do no use a comma after a question mark that separates a question or a statement from its
attribution.
 Use single quotation marks to indicate that the person being quoted within full quotation marks is
quoting someone else.
 Question mark. (Refer to the question mark entry.)
 Exclamation point. (Refer to the exclamation point entry.)
“This is a moment I’ll remember forever,” Larkin said. (comma inside quotation mark)
He said, “I fully understand what the cost will be to me if I fail.” (period inside quotation mark)
She said playing with an injured elbow “doesn’t bother me,” and she went on to win the match in
straight sets. (comma inside quotation mark)
“Heed the words of an old photographer who always explained, ‘The camera never lies,’ ” my editor
said. (quotation within a quotation)
What’s the name of that “can’t-miss horse”? (no comma here)
“If you are elected, will you raise taxes?,” the moderator asked. (no comma here)
The writer, not the speaker, provides correct punctuation and correct spelling in direct quotes. Get it right.
The following are examples of not getting it right.
“You need to monitor people more or less continuously – you can’t just look at them every five or 10
years for a re-investigtion; you’re missing too much,” Lewis said. (INCORRET)
“You need to monitor people more or less continuously. You can’t just look at them every five or 10
years for a re-investigation. You’re missing too much,” Lewis said. (CORRECT)
“You hear about this kind of tragedy everyday; you just feel helpless when you can’t help,” Markbreit
said. (INCORRECT)
“You hear about this kind of tragedy every day. You just feel helpless when you can’t help,” Markbreit
said. (CORRECT)
“The students weren’t expressing themselves over diversity, the main issue is race not diversity,” she
said.
“The students weren’t expressing themselves over diversity. The main issue is race, not diversity,” she
said.
To continue a full quotation from one paragraph to another, do not use close quotation marks at the end of
the first paragraph; begin the next paragraph with open quotation marks. Only use close quotation marks at
the end of the last paragraph. Journalists rarely use lengthy quotations unless they are extremely important
or unusually interesting.
“It will work something like a domestic Peace Corps. In exchange for federal grants to finance their
college educations, young people will devote two years of service to their country following graduation.
“They will be given a wide choice of services to be performed, and they will be paid a salary sufficient
to live on during that period.”
ALSO SEE ENTRIES ON RUNNING QUOTATIONS, Q-and-A FORMAT, QUOTATION FRAGMENTS, PARTIAL
QUOTES IN AP STYLEBOOK.
THE STYLEBOOK OFFERS A COMPLETE GUIDE TO PUNCTUARTION MARKS AND HOW TO USE THEM ON
PAGES 303-313. DON’T BE RELUCTANT TO USE THE STYLEBOOK TO ASSURE ACCURACY. THAT’S WHAT WE
ARE TRYING TO ENSURE: ACCURACY.
Semicolon, colon, dashes
The semicolon
Use a semicolon in place of a period to join two closely related independent clauses or that
express a clear contrast.
Voters don’t want promises; they want action.
News stories are written objectively; editorials are not.
Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore) used to join two
independent clauses.
There are times when everything goes according to schedule; however, this was not one of
those times
The candidate’s plane was grounded by bad weather; therefore, he will not arrive in time to
address the convention.
Use semicolons between items listed in a series to eliminate confusion that could result if
commas were used.
Members of the subcommittee are Mike S. White, District 1; Patricia D. Jones, District 7;
Lucas A. Perry, District 11; and Mary Ellen Davis, District 22.
The colon
Use the colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of items.
The journalism professor gave each student a list of required resource books: a dictionary, a
thesaurus and a stylebook.
Use a colon before an explanation.
The professor has only one major fault: tardiness.
Use a colon before some appositives (words or phrases that describe a noun).
The weather is typical for the middle of March: rainy and cold.
Use a colon for quotations that cannot be introduced with a comma.
For more than 40 years, he drilled this one point into his students’ heads: “It’s results, not
excuses, that count in life.”
Do not use a colon after a verb to introduce a list or a series unless a pause is clearly
necessary.
The five winners are: Rebecca Wright, Stephen Wallace, Travis Wellington, Nikki Forrester
and Jason Tubbs. (INCORRECT)
The five winners are Rebecca Wright, Stephen Wallace, Travis Wellington, Nikki Forrester
and Jason Tubbs. (CORRECT)
The following states were represented: Arizona, Florida, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, South
Dakota and West Virginia. (NECESSARY because there is a natural pause)
Do not use a colon after like, such as or including.
Network television executives depend on spectators enjoying Olympic events like/such
as/including: gymnastics, swimming and track and field. (INCORRECT)
Network television executives depend on spectators enjoying Olympic events like/such
as/including gymnastics, swimming and track and field. (CORRECT )
Dashes
Dashes are used to indicate added or dramatic emphasis, an interruption or an abrupt
change of thought.
Use dashes after an introductory list or series.
Professor, politician, philosopher and preacher – Roland Franklin was all of these before
retiring to his Montana ranch.
Use dashes to end a sentence with a list or a series when dramatic emphasis is wanted.
She is adept at spelling, writing, interviewing and working under pressure – all the skills an
editor wants in a reporter.
Use dashes to provide a surprise or a dramatic end to a sentence.
He had everything he needed to survive a week in the stifling desert – except water.
Use dashes to clarify or to emphasize appositive material (especially if it already contains
commas).
The professor’s students – eight Americans, four Saudi Arabians, three Chinese and one
Russian – have different perceptions about the meaning of free expression.
Use dashes to set off an abrupt interruption in a sentence.
Johnson was the colleague – the only one – who offered to help.
The emphasis on speed has masked weaknesses in the process that enabled Snowden and
Alexis – and perhaps others – to slide through.
Neither that incident – nor his purchase of a shotgun weeks later – set off alarms.
NOTE: Some computer keyboards do not have a dash key. To create a dash, strike the hyphen
key twice and include a space before and after the dash.
Subject-verb agreement
Singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects require plural verbs. When we write
sentences in which the subject and the verb are side by side, we have few problems making them
agree in number. The situation becomes complicated when we place phrases and clauses between
the subject and the verb. Additional complications: We sometimes use as subjects collective
nouns that are usually singular but can be plural depending on their intended meaning; some
nouns that look plural because they end in s are singular in meaning and take singular verbs.
Singular subjects
If the subject is singular, use a singular verb.
The fire is under control, the chief said.
Fire is a singular subject; therefore, use the singular verb is, not the plural verb are.
The Procter & Gamble Co. has its headquarters in Cincinnati.
Don’t be misled by the ampersand (&); Procter & Gamble Co. is a singular entity (one
company) and takes the singular verb is, not the plural verb are.
Friends of Sugarloaf State Park is launching a major fund-raising campaign.
Friends of Sugarloaf State Park is a single group operating together and takes the singular verb
is, not the plural verb are. Don’t be misled by the plural Friends.
Plural subjects
If the subject is plural, use a plural verb.
Union members are to vote Tuesday on the contract proposal.
Members is a plural subject; therefore, use the plural verb are, not the singular verb is.
Compound subjects
If two or more different subjects (compound subjects) are joined by the coordinating conjunction
and, use a plural verb.
The mayor and the police chief discuss safety issues each Monday.
Mayor by itself is a singular noun; police chief also is a singular noun. Alone, each would take a
singular verb, discusses. But when joined by the coordinating conjunction and, mayor and
police chief form a compound subject that requires the plural verb discuss, not the singular verb
discusses.
An exception to the rule: Those less-common instances in which a compound subject joined by
and refers to the same person or thing and takes a singular verb.
The producer and director is preparing the news special for airing at 8 p.m. Friday.
Producer and director refer to the same person so a singular verb is required. If the producer
and the director are different people, the article the would precede each noun and the plural verb
are would be required.
The producer and the director are preparing the news special for airing at 8 p.m. Friday.
Her aunt and confidant was killed in the accident.
Aunt and confidant refer to the same person so a singular verb is required. If the aunt and
confidant are different people, the pronoun her would precede confidant and the plural verb
were would be required.
Plural form but singular meaning
If the subject has a plural form (spelling) but is singular in meaning, a singular verb is required.
The news is on at 6:30 p.m. each day.
Even though the subject, news, has an s ending that makes it look plural, it is still singular
because the news is considered as a whole, one item, and, therefore, requires the singular verb is.
The series of documentaries is being produced by a public broadcasting station.
The subject, series, consists of more than one documentary, but it is only one series. Therefore, it
requires the singular verb is, not the plural verb are. Do NOT be confused by the word
documentaries. It is the object of the preposition of and has no influence on whether the verb will
be singular or plural.
Three minutes is considered a long time for a single item in a newscast.
Minutes usually would be a plural word because it consists of more than a single minute. But in
this example, three minutes is considered one lump sum, one period of time. Therefore, the
subject is singular and requires the singular verb is, not the plural verb are.
Six million dollars is more than the city can allot to the project, the mayor said.
The same reason as the previous example. Six million dollars is considered one lump sum.
Therefore, it is singular and requires the singular verb is, not the plural verb are.
Some other nouns that require singular verbs: civics, mathematics, measles.
Compound subjects that form one unit
If the members or parts of a compound subject are considered one item, one unit or one
substance, use a singular verb.
Liver and onions is a meal people either love or hate, the chef said.
Liver and onions is one meal or one menu item. The liver and the onions are not served and
eaten separately. Therefore, the subject is singular and requires the singular verb is, not the plural
verb are.
Subject and verb separated by phrases or clauses
Do not be confused by words that separate the subject from the verb. Some that create singularplural confusion include accompanied by, along with, as well as, in addition to, including, not
to mention, together with. If a phrase or clause comes between the subject and the verb, the verb
agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase or clause. Regardless of how
many words come between the subject and the verb, if the subject is singular, the verb will be
singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb will be plural.
The police chief, along with three of his assistants, visits several schools each month to warn
students about the dangers of taking drugs.
Police chief is the singular subject and requires the singular verb visits, not the plural verb visit.
Assistants is the plural object of the preposition along with and cannot be the subject.
Three assistants, along with the police chief, visit several schools each month to warn
students about the dangers of taking drugs.
This example just reverses the previous one. Now the subject is the plural assistants and requires
the plural verb visit, not the singular verb visits.
Collective nouns as subjects
Collective nouns may be either singular or plural depending upon their use in the sentence. If
collective nouns (team, group, family, etc.) and pronouns (none, some, most, etc.) are considered
as one unit, they require singular verbs. If the members or units of such words are considered
individually, they require plural verbs.
The staff is in a meeting.
A staff consists of more than one member, but all members combined form only one staff.
Therefore, staff is one collection of members and is considered singular.
The staff are in disagreement about the changes.
In this example, staff is considered to mean several individuals acting independently from one
another. They are not in disagreement as a unit but as individuals. Therefore, staff is used in a
plural sense and requires a plural verb.
NOTE: Using such words as family, faculty and jury as plurals is awkward. When a plural is
needed, substitute family members for family, faculty members or teachers for faculty and
jurors or members of the jury for jury.
Indefinite pronoun as the subject
Use a singular verb when the subject is one of the following indefinite pronouns that are always
singular:
anybody
anyone
any one
anything
each
either
everybody
everyone
everything
much
neither
nobody
no one
nothing
somebody
someone
something
such
Anybody studying journalism is expected to understand subject/verb agreement.
Each of us is applying for the job of editorial assistant.
Neither of the applicants has a job.
Any one of the three applicants is qualified.
In the second and third examples, do not be misled by the plural us (Each of us . . .) or
applicants (Neither of the applicants . . .). They are objects of the preposition of and do NOT
have any impact on subject/verb agreement.
Use a singular verb or a plural verb for all, some or none depending on the context.
All are here.
All is lost.
Some are coming.
Some is left.
None of the oceans are safe from pollution.
None of the flour is worth saving.
None of the experts agree.
None can be tricky. When none is used to mean not one, it is singular; when it is used to mean
not any, it is plural. A hint in determining singular or plural: Determine what there is none of
(money? crops? boots? players? residents?). If none means a quantity or an amount (i.e. liquid,
flour, cement, money, fighting, patriotism), the verb should be singular because readers or
listeners would not consider each particle or element separately. If none means several or a
number that can be counted (i.e. journalists, students, leaders, oceans), the verb should be plural.
If you remain unsure, substitute none with not one for singular and not any for plural.
Number, variety and majority as subjects
When the words number, variety and majority are preceded by the definite article the, the verb
is singular; when number, variety and majority are preceded by the indefinite article a, the
verb is plural.
The number of students studying journalism in colleges and universities has increased in
recent years.
A number of financial problems are keeping city officials from drafting the budget.
The variety of courses was designed to attract as many students as possible.
A variety of courses are available to journalism students.
The majority of the vote has been cast in favor of the incumbent.
A majority of the students are expected to vote in the election.
Either/Or and Neither/Nor before compound subjects
If two (or more) subjects are joined by the correlative conjunctions either/or or neither/nor, the
verb agrees with the nearer subject.
Either the senator from Kentucky or the governor of Ohio is expected to give the keynote
address.
Both subjects, senator and governor, are singular so the verb is singular.
Neither the politicians nor the reporters were surprised by the small voter turnout.
Both subjects, politicians and reporters, are plural so the verb is plural.
Neither the mayors nor the governor wants to raise taxes.
Neither the governor nor the mayors want to raise taxes.
Both are grammatically correct, but the first reads awkwardly and sounds strange. The
solution: When one subject is singular and the other is plural, place the plural subject last and
follow it with a plural verb.