GovernmentPolicy—TheGrantPeacePlan
TherapidexpansionofthenationaftertheCivilWaraddedcomplexnewissuestothegovernmentIndianpolicy.Inthe
trans-MississippiWestsignificantcontactbetweenEuropeansandwesterntribes—Comanches,Navajo,Apaches,
Cheyennes,andSioux—wasrelativelynew.WhilegenerationsofU.S.leadershadadvocatedmovingIndianswholivedin
theeasternUnitedStatesfurtherwesttomakeroomforwhitesettlement,oncewhitesettlementreachedtheWestitself
therewassimplynoplacetopushthewesterntribes.Alloftheseissuescomplicatedgovernmentpolicyandtribal
responsesintheWest.
PriortotheCivilWar,theArmyrepresentedtheU.S.governmenttoIndianswestoftheMississippi.Whilethe
armywasoftenfarfromrespectfulinthewaysitdealtwithwesterntribes,thegoalwasusuallytolimitwarfarewhile
allowingwhitetransitacrosstheGreatPlainstoCaliforniaandOregon.FewwhitessettledontheGreatPlainspriortothe
1860s.ThefirstTreatyofFortLaramiein1851didnotlimitIndianlanduseexcepttotrytokeepthepeacebykeeping
tribeapartfromtribe.Noreservationswereestablished.Rather,inexchangeforgiftsthearmyaskedthetribestoavoid
conflictwitheachotherandwithmilitaryfortsandthetransitroutesforthemailsandsettlers.Askingformorewas
beyondthelimitsofwhatthe270soldiersatFortLaramiecouldreasonablyaskinameetingattendedbyperhapsten
thousandAmericanIndiansincludingtheSioux,Arapaho,Cheyenne,Assinboins,Shoshones,Arikaras,Hidatsas,Mandans,
andCrows.
AftertheCivilWarthepressureforspaceforwhitesettlementgreatlyexpanded.In1862aRepublicanCongress
passedandPresidentLincolnsignedtheHomesteadActfulfillingamajorRepublicancampaignpromisetomakemore
federallandavailableforwhitesettlement.TheActprovided160acresoffederallandtoafamilythatwouldsettleand
maintainthelandforfiveyears.MuchoftheinitialhomesteadsettlementswereinMinnesota,Iowa,Nebraskaand
Kansas,allonlandsthathadbeenprimebuffalohuntinglocationsforIndians.IfbeforetheCivilWarmostwhiteshad
movedacrosstheGreatPlainsandkeptgoingundertheprotectionofU.S.Army,aftertheCivilWarwhiteswerecoming
tothePlainstostayandlargerarmyforceswerecomingwiththem.Inadditiontofarmingthediscoveryofmineral
wealthinplacesliketheBlackHillsoftheDakotasbroughtmorewhitesandfurtherracialconflict.
ImmediatelyafterthewarthesameCongressthatwastakingcontrolofReconstructionalsocreateditsown
Indianpeacepolicy.ThebattleswiththeLakotaSiouxledCongresstoseekamorepeacefulplanandCongresscreated
theIndianPeaceCommissiontonegotiatetreaties.TheCongressionalCommissiondevelopedtheideaoftribalreserves
orreservations,largetractsoflandthatwould,theyhoped,besetasidefortheIndians,protectingthetribesfrom
encroachingwhitecivilizationwhileensuringtheireventualassimilationintowhiteculture.Atthesametime,ofcourse,
confiningthetribesonreservationswouldensurethatmostofthelandoftheWestcouldbeopenedforwhite
development.Theplanwasnotagreatsuccess.
TribesliketheSioux,NezPerce,andComancheresentedtheconfinementofreservationlifeandoftenwanderedfar
beyondtheirassignedbounds.
WhenUlyssesS.Grantbecamepresidentin1869heinitiatedanewpeacepolicythatbecameknownasGrant’s
PeacePolicy.Grant’sthinkingwasshapedbytheterriblebloodshedhehadseenintheCivilWarandbyhisidentification
withtheemancipationofslaves.HewantedtoendthecorruptionthathesawintheIndianBureau,andwantedtotreat
theIndianswithdignity.Hisgoalwaspeace.AtthesametimeGrantwantedroomforwhitesettlementandwascertainly
notplanningtokeepwhitesoutofthevasttractsofwesternlandthattheIndiansusedforhunting.Hesaidtherewasno
turningbacktheclockandthatthepast,“cannotbeundone,andthequestionmustbemetaswenowfindit.”Meeting
thequestion,hebelieved,meantassimilatingIndiansintowhitesocietyorasthepresidentsaid,“Themoralviewofthe
questionshouldbeconsidered,andthequestionasked,cannottheIndianbemadeausefulandproductivememberof
societybyproperteachingandtreatment.”SincemostoftheIndiansdidnotwanttobecome“usefulandproductive
members”ofwhitesociety,Grant’spolicymayhavebeendoomedfromthebeginning,buthetriedtofindahuman
solutiontotheclashofquitedifferentculturesintheAmericanWest.
InhisfirstannualmessagetoCongressinDecember1869GrantannouncedhisIndianPeacePolicy.The
presidentsaid,“Thebuildingofrail-roadsandtheaccesstherebygiventoalltheagriculturalandmineralregionsofthe
countryisrapidlybringingcivilizedsettlementsintocontactwithallthetribesofIndians....Iseenoremedyforthis
exceptinplacingalltheIndiansonlargereservations...andgivingthemabsoluteprotectionthere.”Grantthen
appointedamemberoftheSenecatribe,ElyS.Parker,asthefirstCommissionerofIndianAffairs,thefirstnonwhiteto
holdhighgovernmentposition.AndGrantturnedfromboththearmyandtheIndianOfficetoChristianmissionariesto
taketheleadinmanagingreservationaffairs.Hedeclaredthereservationsofflimitstothearmy,eventroopswhowere
chasingIndianswithwhomtheyhadbeeninbattle.
Themissionaries,peopleliketheQuakerLawrieTatumwhowasappointedtoleadtheComancheandKiowa
reservation,triedtomakethepeacepolicywork.Butgovernmentsupplieswereslowincomingandoftenofshoddy
workmanship.ManyIndiansresistedtheconfinementofreservationlife.Forthearmytherulethattheycouldnotfollow
Indiansintothereservationasylumwhiletheywereexpectedtopolicethenon-Indianterritorieswasfrustrating.General
SheridancondemnedthePeacePolicysaying,“Ifawhitemancommitsmurderorrobs,wehanghimorsendhimtothe
penitentiary;ifanIndiandoesthesame,wehavebeeninthehabitofgivinghimmoreblankets.”TheIndians,onthe
otherhand,sawthewhitesasthieveswhowerestealingtheirland.
InthefaceofcontinuedbattlesacrosstheGreatPlains,theIndianPeacePolicywasnotrepealedbutthearmy
simplyignoredit.Sherman’sdefeatoftheComanchesin1874-1875wasinviolationofthepolicythatarmyunitscould
notenterreservations,butthegeneralwaspraisednotreprimanded.WithinayearafterCuster’s1876defeat,thearmy
hadsubduednearlyalloftheSioux.CrazyHorse,oneoftheSiouxwhowasattheLittleBigHornthedayCusterdied,
becameanarmyscoutandwaskilledatanarmypostinSeptember1877.SittingBullwasarrestedin1881afterreturning
fromexileinCanada.HetouredbrieflywithBuffaloBillCody’sWildWestShowinthe1880sthenretiredtotheStanding
Rockreservationwhere,astheGhostDancemovementgrew,hewaskilledinastandoffwithotherSiouxsentbythearmy
toarresthim.ButtheGrantPeacePolicyhaddiedlongbeforetheoldchiefmethisend.
GovernmentPolicy—TheDawesAct
WithinadecadeofthelastmajorIndianwarsinthe1870sandthesettlementofmostwesternIndianson
reservations,theU.S.governmentagainbegantochangepolicy.Bythe1880sreformersinandoutofgovernmentwere
concludingthattheassimilationofIndiansintowhitesociety—agoalmanyshared—wouldnothappenaslongasthey
maintainedtheirancientwaysonreservations.IftheroutetoIndiansurvivalwasbecomingindependentfarmerswho
attendedchurchesandschoolsjustaswhitesdidthenwhy,reformersasked,shouldtheyliveonreservations?Whynot
givethemallthebenefitsoftheHomesteadActandallowIndians,likewhites,togainfreetitletotheirown160acrefarm
andAmericancitizenship?
TheresultoftheseargumentswasthatCongresspassedtheGeneralAllotmentAct,knownastheDawesActfor
itsprimesponsorMassachusettsSenatorHenryL.Dawes,in1887.TheDawesActdividedthereservationsinto160-acre
tractstobeassignedtoeachfamily.Afteratwenty-fiveyearwaitingperiodIndianamiliescouldsellthelandliketheir
whiteneighbors,.IndianswhotookpossessionofahomesteadalsobecameU.S.citizens.AtfirstglancetheDawesAct
mightseemlikeanenlightenedpieceoflegislationandatleastsomeofitssponsorscertainlybelievedthatitwas.
TheDawesActhadotherprovisions,however.WhereIndianculturewastribalandcommunalandhuntingwasa
majoractivity,theDawesActpushedIndianstobefarmers;tojoinanindividualisticculturethatmanyfoundtobequite
alien.Beyondthat,themostimmediateimpactoftheActwasthataftereachfamilyonareservationwasallottedits160
acres;all“surplus”landcouldbesoldbythegovernmenttowhitefamilies.LaterasIndianlandcameonthemarket,
Indianfamiliessometimessoldtheirland,givingthemaprofitbutalienatingthemfromtheirtribe.Afewtribes,the
NavajoandtheSeneca,wereabletoavoidimplementationoftheDawesActandretaincommunalownershipoftheir
reservations.Butformanytheactwasaneconomicandculturaldisaster.
In1881155millionacresweresetasideasreservationsbelongingtoIndiantribes.AsaresultoftheDawesAct,
by1900Indianscontrolledonly78millionacres.WhiletheDawesActbrokeuptriballands,otherfederalpolicies
undercutIndianculture.FewwhiteauthoritiesbelievedthattheFirstAmendmentprotectionsofreligiousfreedom
appliedtoIndianreligion,especiallybecauseIndianreligionandIndianwarfarewereoftenlinked.Itwasnotuntil1978,
thatCongressdeclaredtraditionalIndianreligionstohaveFirstAmendmentrights.
SendingIndianyoungpeopletospecialschoolswasalsoseenbyofficialsasoneofthesurestwaysof
implementingGrant’spromiseto“favoranycoursetowardsthemwhichtendstotheircivilizationandultimate
citizenship.”In1875thearmyorderedseventy-twoIndianprisoners—Cheyenne,Arapaho,Kiowa,Comanche,and
Caddo—movedfromFortSill,IndianTerritorytoanewfederalprisoninSt.Augustine,Florida.LieutenantRichardHenry
Pratt,aCivilWar,veteranwasputinchargeoftheprisonersdecidedtocreateamodelIndianschool.HehiredSarah
MatherfromMt.HolyokeCollegeandthetwobegantoteachtheprisonersAmerican-styledress,theEnglishlanguage,
andProtestantChristianity.PrattandMatherviewedconvertingtheIndianstowhitewaysandtoChristianityasessential.
Theisolationoftheprisoner-studentsmadetheprocessearlier.SoaringEagle,ACheyennewarriorsaid,“Itisgoodtogo
tochurch....WhenIgohome,IhopetositdownandsingGod’shymns.”OfcourseSoaringEagleandtheother
prisonersknewthatabouttheonlychancetheyhadtoactuallygohomewastocomplywiththeschool’spolicies.
PrattandMather’sexperimentdrewwidespreadpraise.Theywereauthorizedtoexpandtheireffortsandopen
theCarlisleIndianSchoolinoldarmybarracksinCarlisle,Pennsylvania.Prattwasconvincedthattotalimmersioninwhite
culturewastheonlykeytoeffectiveIndianeducation.Eventuallytwenty-fiveIndianboardingschoolswerebuiltonthe
Carlislemodelbetween1879and1902.Usingfederaltaxdollarstheseschools—eventuallytherewereCatholicaswellas
Protestantones—taughtreligion,westerncustomsandvaluestotheirIndianstudents.
WhilethegoaloftheIndianboardingschoolswasthetransformationofindividualIndians,resistancecontinued
thoughitwasharshlypunished.FrancisLaFlesche,anOmahawhoattendedaPresbyterianmissionschoolinthe1860s
reportedthatheandhisfriendsspokeEnglishduringtheday,butatnightwhenthemissionariesweregone,they
continuedtotelleachothertheOmahastoriesandspeaktheOmahalanguage.