Queensland University of Technology The Written Assignment A guide to the writing and presentation of assignments EDITED BY BOB COPE © This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Enquiries should be made to the Publications Section, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin Grove, Queensland. The Written Assignment may be purchased from the QUT Bookstore. © QUT 2006 Produced and printed by QUT Publications and Printing 242922 9223 ISBN 1 74107 051 1 The booklet is also available for download for current staff and students of QUT, at the OLT homepage under ‘writing and referencing’, or through the library home page. ii Preface The Written Assignment was first released in 1980 as a publication of the Kelvin Grove College of Advanced Education which, became part of the new Brisbane College of Advanced Education and then Queensland University of Technology. The booklet does not purport to cover every type or aspect of assignments rather, it is intended as a guide and students are referred to more detailed texts listed in the Annotated Bibliography and to their lecturers. The booklet is available is available on the web; see page ii. Referencing in the booklet is according to the Harvard style. For the production of the 2006 edition, thanks to the people who suggested changes, especially Waveney Croft, from QUT Carseldine and Nicole Healy, Law Library. Bob Cope Editor Faculty of Education Qut r.cope@qut.edu.au CRICOS 00213J iii iv Contents Page Preface ................................................................................iii Chapter 1: Assignment topics and topic analysis..............................................1 1.1 Essays . ......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Reviews . ......................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Literature review.................................................................................................. 3 1.4 Reports . ......................................................................................................... 3 Chapter 2: Preparing and presenting the assignment.........................................4 2.1 Preparation of an assignment............................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Purpose.............................................................................................. 4 2.1.2 Read extensively and take notes........................................................ 5 2.1.3 Critical analysis of argument/thesis.................................................. 6 2.1.4 Decide on your argument/thesis........................................................ 6 2.1.5 Plan the assignment........................................................................... 8 2.2 Structure of an assignment................................................................................... 9 2.2.1 Essays and research assignments...................................................... 9 2.2.2 Title page or cover sheet................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Abstract/summary............................................................................. 9 2.2.4 Introduction....................................................................................... 9 2.2.5 Body................................................................................................ 10 2.2.6 Conclusion....................................................................................... 10 2.2.7 Appendices...................................................................................... 11 2.2.8 References and/or bibliography...................................................... 11 2.2.9 Problem or hypothetical question in the legal discipline................ 11 2.2.10 Scientific, technical and business reports........................................ 11 2.3 Presentation of an assignment............................................................................ 13 2.3.1 Audience......................................................................................... 13 2.3.2 Tone................................................................................................. 13 2.3.3 Language......................................................................................... 14 2.3.4 Overwriting..................................................................................... 15 2.3.5 Padding............................................................................................ 15 2.3.6 Rhetorical questions........................................................................ 15 2.3.7 Overgeneralisation.......................................................................... 16 2.3.8 Spelling, punctuation and grammar................................................ 16 2.3.9 Abbreviations.................................................................................. 16 2.3.10 Expressing numbers........................................................................ 16 2.3.11 Paragraphs....................................................................................... 16 2.3.12 Headings and sub-headings............................................................. 17 2.3.13 Quantitative and symbolic information........................................... 17 2.3.14 References and bibliographies........................................................ 17 2.3.15 Planning the workload..................................................................... 17 2.3.16 Submitting the assignment.............................................................. 18 2.3.17 The mechanics of presentation........................................................ 18 2.3.18 Editorial checklist............................................................................ 18 Chapter 3: Citing sources of information...................................................... 20 3.1 Why cite sources?.............................................................................................. 20 3.2 What should be cited?........................................................................................ 20 3.2.1 Plagiarism........................................................................................ 21 3.2.2 Copyright......................................................................................... 22 3.3 How should sources be referenced in-text?....................................................... 22 3.4 Author-date systems........................................................................................... 22 3.4.1 Author's name ................................................................................ 23 3.4.2 Year of publication.......................................................................... 23 3.4.3 Page numbers.................................................................................. 23 3.4.4 Placement of in-text references....................................................... 24 3.4.5 Using direct quotations................................................................... 24 3.4.6 Short and long quotations................................................................ 25 3.4.7 Using indirect speech (paraphrases)................................................ 26 3.4.8 Examples of direct quotations and paraphrases.............................. 26 3.4.9 Examples of citations using the author-date systems . ................... 27 3.4.10 Australian Government Printing Service [AGPS] citations............ 27 3.4.11 Citations of the American Psychology Association [APA]............ 31 3.4.12 Citations using the Harvard style [Chicago Manual of Style]........ 34 3.5 Other systems of referencing............................................................................. 38 3.5.1 The MLA [Modern Languages Association].................................. 38 3.5.2 The footnoting or endnoting system............................................... 38 3.5.3 The Vancouver system.................................................................... 39 3.5.4 The legal footnoting system............................................................ 39 3.6 EndNote . ....................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 4: Compiling lists of references and bibliographies.............................. 42 4.1 References and bibliographies in the author-date systems................................ 42 4.1.1 Lists of references and bibliographies – AGPS style...................... 43 4.1.2 Lists of references and bibliographies – APA style........................ 49 4.1.3 Lists of references and bibliographies – Harvard style................... 55 4.2 Writing a bibliography for the footnoting or endnoting system........................ 61 4.3 Legal bibliographies........................................................................................... 61 4.4 Works cited for the MLA system....................................................................... 62 4.5 Annotated bibliographies................................................................................... 62 vi Appendix A: Directive words.................................................................... 63 Appendix B: Abbreviations...................................................................... 65 Appendix C: The presentation of quantitative and symbolic information................ 66 Quantities, units and symbols..................................................................... 67 Appendix D: Outline of an essay................................................................ 72 Appendix E: Annotated bibliography........................................................... 75 vii Chapter 1 Assignment topics and topic analysis At university students are required to submit written assignments for assessment. This is a reflection of the fact that all professional occupations involve writing to some extent. The techniques and principles involved in producing good written material are generalisable, however students should always follow unit outlines and lecturer's directions. At tertiary level students are not assessed on their ability to recite facts or reproduce information. Assessment includes the ability to interpret a question intelligently, to demonstrate depth of understanding of a topic or to critically analyse and report upon a situation. In all cases, the ability to organise information from various sources into a clear, concise and logical argument will be central to success. There are many types of assignment topics: an essay in response to a directive question or writing an objective report as part of performed exercise. Topics also will vary widely, from alternative energy sources to political viewpoints. Some examples of assignment topics are given below, along with suggested approaches. 1.1 Essays • Point of view Critics like Sam Bowles, Herbert Gintis, Clarence Karier and others view education as a form of social control. Evaluate this viewpoint and state the extent to which you agree with it. Illustrate with examples from other readings. • Argument and persuasion Substantiate or refute one of the following propositions: (a) Boys are better than girls at mathematics. (b) Solar energy is more efficient than geothermal energy. (c) Organisational culture has a significant effect on organisational performance. • Analysis and criticism ‘Nursing practice should be solidly based on objective knowledge and, if that is the case, it should be solidly based on scientific knowledge.’ Critically discuss this assertion. • Comparison and contrast Choose two poets whose work you enjoy. Make specific reference to at least three poems by each poet and compare the distinctive characteristics of their work. Chapter 1 • Assignment Topics and Topic Analysis • Problems and hypothetical questions John assaults Bill. Bill uses more than reasonable force to repel John. Advise both parties about their respective legal rights and liabilities. The last example, a legal problem, requires the selection of relevant material from knowledge of a body of law and the application to a hypothetical situation. The approach to take is to identify the issues (the points of dispute) raised by the factual situation presented and then to solve the issues raised. It is usual for the issues to be drawn only from the unit of study in which the assignment is set. Each of these five essay topics requires a different approach to writing, so it is essential to carefully read and understand the question. Key words ‘evaluate’, ‘substantiate or refute’, ‘analyse’, ‘compare and contrast’ should be identified. The first topic asks for a personal perspective; the second requires a persuasive argument; the third requires a combination of analysis, interpretation and value judgments; the fourth requires the selection of common features and differences between two authors; and the fifth, a legal problem, requires a choice of relevant material from a knowledge of a body of law and application to a particular situation. Appendix A has a list of directive words, typical in essay questions. The differences in these examples may be subtle: justifying a personal perspective and substantiating a proposition both require that the use of references to support an argument. In all cases students are expected to present an argument based on analysis and the arguments and interpretations of others. The argument, and hence the position in relation to the question, will be clear from the supporting evidence chosen for incorporation into the text. A narrative or descriptive account . . . is not sufficient in essay work at university level. While it is true that you must collect information and evidence, this task is a relatively simple one because all it requires is application. What is really important is what you do with this information and what type of argument you construct from it. You must seek to develop a logical, coherent argument regarding the problem you are studying – that is, you must offer some interpretation regarding the problem. (Deutscher 1983, 13) Students are often reluctant to do this because they are afraid they will be marked down for disagreeing with the ‘experts’. This is a mistaken view. They are, however, marked down for a position obviously superficial or demonstrably erroneous. The way to avoid this is to read widely and to think about the questions raised (Chapter 2). Lecturers want well-informed, logical and reasoned arguments, supported by sufficient evidence. They are not interested in ill-conceived generalisations, or simply their own lecture notes, or the textbook used There are two traps that must be avoided. One is the mere presentation of factual material for its own sake and the other is the presentation of a series of rash generalisations without supporting evidence. Factual material, is relevant only when it is used to support intelligent arguments. Chapter 1 • Assignment Topics and Topic Analysis 1.2 Reviews Review the development and current state of inertial navigation systems. This is an example of a ‘review’ topic. Reviews are common in technical fields and in all fields may form part of a larger work such as a thesis. This example requires a trace the developments of inertial navigation systems from their inception to the present day. Relevant information on components of inertial navigation systems, details of their capabilities and examples of applications and specific devices would be presented. It is not sufficient to rely only upon existing reviews in journals or other sources, although these may supply references to begin a literature search. Excessive use of technological jargon or ‘buzz’ words should be avoided. Rather than convincing a reader of depth of knowledge, they are likely to be interpreted as a cover-up for a lack of understanding. Plain English should be used wherever possible and any terminology not in common use explained. Material for review topics is most simply organised chronologically. Both an introduction (outlining what will be discussed) and a conclusion (summing up the major points, current state, or future directions) are necessary. 1.3 Literature review Written assignments in the social sciences and the humanities also often take the form of literature reviews; for example: Review the development of the literature on transformational leadership. The literature review is a specific form of research essay and follows all the rules of good essay writing. It requires critical analysis a body of literature and the identification main themes, findings, arguments, main trends and future directions in that literature. It should not be just a list of works and summarised read. A literature review should demonstrate that the ability to identify the main points in the literature, (a summary of common findings may be appropriate), that links between statements or findings in the literature, and discrepancies or weaknesses in arguments or gaps in the writers’ research. It may be appropriate to either quote from or paraphrase material in some of the literature reviewed (Newman 1997). 1.4 Reports Perhaps the most common written assignment in technical or vocational areas is a report describing experimental or practical work. While the principles of good writing apply in reports, a more structured approach is generally used. There may be an established format in the discipline or subject. The sheer number of different report formats precludes exhaustive examples being given here. Chapter 2 will outline a common layout for reports and more detail can be found in some of the books listed in the Annotated Bibliography at the end of this booklet. Chapter 2 Preparing and presenting the assignment It is not within the scope of this booklet to specify how and what a student should write in an assignment. There are some general points about preparation, written expression and aspects of presentation, however, with which all students should be familiar. Some of these points will be briefly dealt with in this booklet, but you should refer to style manuals (see the Annotated Bibliography) for greater depth of information on such topics as awareness of audience, conciseness of expression and the pitfall of spelling and punctuation errors. A valuable site on the Internet is the Wisconsin-Madison Writer’s Handbook at www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ (See Annotated Bibliography). Appendix D shows an example of an outline for a fictional essay, illustrating the main structural points of a good essay made in this booklet. 2.1 Preparation of an assignment Different types of assignments require different steps in preparation. The following suggestions may, therefore, have to be modified to suit the set task. 2.1.1 Decide on the purpose The purpose will be determined by the nature of the assignment. The topic read carefully and directive words isolated (see Chapter 1, page 2 and Appendix A) question. Ask yourself: Decide on your purpose (aim) Read widely – take notes What am I going to write? Why am I going to write? For whom am I going to write? Then write your purpose in one sentence. Check for understanding of the terms used. For example, my purpose/aim is to analyse (or describe, or discuss, or evaluate). Critically analyse the material Students should write what they know before any literature search. Decide on your argument (thesis) Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment 2.1.2 Read extensively and take notes Refine your question and then start reading analytically. Wide reading is essential to secure a high grade in an assignment. But mere quantity is not enough; material should be chosen intelligently so as to not waste time. Most unit outlines include a bibliography to help selection of reading materials. In addition, a bibliography can be compiled by using the references in textbooks and consulting the subject index catalogue and the periodical indexes in the library. There are many databases to assist searches; and material is available in the library, showing how to use these databases. Material may be found in the following categories: • General texts. These are useful as a starting-point, but are not likely to give enough in-depth information. • Specialised texts. These give detailed treatment to a particular topic. Plan the assignment Decide on your purpose (aim) Read widely – take notes Critically analyse the material Decide on your argument (thesis) Plan the assignment • Journal articles also called periodicals. Scholarly articles provide recent material on a variety of topics. • Newspapers. These will provide topical material, but articles in newspapers are not usually written as scholarly pieces. Not all disciplines will accept newspaper or magazine references. • Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) publications. These give factual and numerical information on topics such as demographic trends, education, industry, employment and most topics where quantitative data can be collected and analysed. ABS information is usually objective and accurate. • Official or government publications. While useful, they can have political biases. • Material from the Internet. Caution should be used about using material from the Internet as some is unreliable and not peer reviewed. During reading, notes should be taken carefully, because it is from these that the paper will be written. The following points should be considered: • Pages of notes should not be copied word for word. Notes or summaries should be taken. Page numbers must be noted, even though it may not be a direct quotation. Ideas as well as direct words must be acknowledged. (See Chapter 3, What should be referenced?) • If the words of the original author are used in quotation marks should be used in notes as a reminder. • Some people prefer to take notes and keep them by author; others prefer to keep them by subject matter. Cards are often used. Alternatively, a spreadsheet can be used to classify your material or data. • Endnote is a program which allows automatic development of a reference list. See page 40. Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment • To save time with your references in writing an assignment, a record the full details of sources should be noted. Below are the main elements needed for the most common types of references: For books: Author/s or editor/s Year published Title of book Place of publication Publisher Page numbers of the If applicable: volume number/ For journal articles: Author/s Year published Title of article Journal Volume Issue number Page numbers For Internet sites: Author/s Date published (if available) Title website Name of website If applicable: volume number/ series/edit ion/ [chapter] Internet address (URL) Date you accessed the site (Mahoney and Bruns 2003, 4) 2.1.3 Critical analysis of material Critical analysis of material requires identification and analysis of the main points and themes followed by comparison, contrast and evaluation of arguments. It therefore involves much more than understanding and identifying and summarising key points. It also involves: • analysing the information to discover the key themes and arguments in the literature; • comparing and contrasting what various authors believe about a topic; and • evaluating the research/thinking of the authors you have read. In addition, critical thinking is creative, because it involves synthesising (making or creating) something new (the argument/position/thesis and ultimately the assignment) based on reading. Decide on your purpose (aim) Read widely – take notes Critically analyse the material Decide on your argument (thesis) Critical thinking is a skill and, like all skills, it can be learned. There are many publications in the library dealing with logic, reasoning, argumentation and critical thinking. A few suggestions, such as the works of De Bono, and Rudinow and Barry, are given in the Annotated Bibliography. 2.1.4. Decide on your argument or thesis The reading should be formulated into a point of view. The next step is to formalise that point of view into a central argument, called a ‘thesis’. A ‘thesis statement’ is a single sentence that summarises the entire paper and it must follow the purpose (aim). Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment Once a thesis has been formed, other statements in the paper must relate directly to it. For example, a thesis statement for an essay where the purpose is to substantiate or refute the statement Organisational culture has a significant effect on organisational performance could be: There is no direct link between organisational culture and organisational performance because only behaviour can affect performance, and culture is not the only determinant of behaviour. In the essay, evidence to support this statement should be provided. It may be necessary at this stage to read further in specific areas to gather more material to support the thesis. The thesis statement (argument) should be regarded as a statement of destination to guide the paper, helping in selection of material. Consider the following topic, purposes and thesis statements; and note how the change of purpose alters the thesis statement. Decide on your purpose (aim) Read widely – take notes Critically analyse the material Decide on your argument (thesis) Plan the assignment Topic Bias in television news. Purpose 1: To show that TV news is not biased. Thesis statement 1:TV news coverage is balanced, partly because government regulations require equal time for opposing political parties, but the appearance of bias results from the negative nature of the news itself, which TV merely reports as objectively as possible. Purpose 2: To show that TV news is biased. Thesis Statement 2:TV news coverage is not balanced, in spite of government regulations requiring equal time for opposing political parties; for the items of news reported represent a slanted selection of the events that actually happen and those events are discussed in language designed to influence the viewer’s attitude toward the news. Purpose 3:To explain techniques used to measure TV news bias. Thesis Statement 3:Bias in TV news reporting, or the lack of it, could be established by keeping records of what stories are carried by different TV networks and what ones are omitted, by calculating the total amount of exposure given to various issues and personalities, and by making counts of the positive and negative words used by TV newscasters to describe the people whose activities are reported. The thesis statement is more fully developed than the statement of purpose because it must anticipate the major parts of the paper. Whereas the statement of purpose states the writer’s destination, the thesis statement shows how he/she will reach it. The thesis statement is usually also in the form of a complete sentence. Because of the importance of the thesis statement to the overall development of the paper, it is necessary to form it as precisely as possible. Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment To decide whether the thesis statement is suitable or not, the following questions should be considered: • Does it relate directly and accurately to the topic and the purpose (aim)? • Does it express the central argument clearly and precisely? • Could the reader understand the central argument of your paper from reading the thesis statement? • Is it broad enough to allow expansion of ideas and interpretations? • Is it limited enough to eliminate digressions in the paper? • Is it a complete, objectively phrased statement? • Can it be supported with concrete facts? If the thesis statement fulfils all these conditions, it will be invaluable in the development of ideas and the writing. 2.1.5. Plan the assignment The following plan is a guide only; it may not suit everyone’s style of working. However, whatever plan you use, more than one draft of the paper is necessary. Information on each of the dot points not already explained will be elaborated on in sections on structure or style. The student should: • Write a rough outline, jotting down headings. All points should support the thesis statement and contribute to the purpose. • Organise the material, putting points in a logical order. ‘Logical’ here means an order that will best support the thesis and achieve the purpose. • Classify ideas into main points and minor points and use sub-headings to show the relationship between minor and major points. Number or organise divisions logically. (See Appendix D.) Decide on your purpose (aim) Read widely – take notes Critically analyse the material Decide on your argument (thesis) Plan the assignment • Write the first draft from beginning to end, letting the ideas flow. Keep a note of sources of information. • Be critical and analytical in the points made, and ensure it is not just a list of facts or opinions. • Revise the first draft, checking spelling and polishing so the essay reads clearly and runs smoothly. • Write the conclusion and introduction. This is called '2, 3, 1' writing. • Write an abstract, if required. • Make sure the assignment is balanced; that is, the number of words used in discussing a point or subtopic is in proportion to its relative importance. • Have a ‘critical friend’ read the paper for final corrections, both in terms of clarity of ideas and for mechanical correctness. Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment 2.2 Structure of an assignment Assignments will vary in structure depending on their purpose and the discipline for which they are being written. 2.2.1 Essays and research assignments Most assignments using directive words such as analyse, compare, criticise, discuss, etc., (see Appendix A) will consist of an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Some may require a separate section called an abstract or summary. While there are variations in the content of each of these parts, the following information is a good general guide. Basic layout of paper Original Research Paper Literature Review/Research Essay Title page Title page Abstract Abstract Introduction Introduction Methods Results Body (main points) Discussion (of results) Conclusions Conclusion Appendices (if applicable) Appendices (if applicable) References References Bibliography (if required) Bibliography (if required) Usually the reference list is the only appendix, in this case ‘Appendices’ is not required. Disciplines differ as to whether references are included before or after appendices, usually before. 2.2.2 Title page or cover sheet This should be clear, neat and uncluttered. Most schools or faculties have a proforma cover sheet. 2.2.3 Abstract/summary While many style manuals use the terms abstract and summary interchangeably, some see a subtle difference. An abstract is sometimes considered to reflect upon what the essay is about and a summary to describe what the essay contains. The abstract/summary is not part of the paper itself and should be written last. An abstract/summary should be no longer than five to ten per cent of the paper. 2.2.4 Introduction The introduction is the first part of the paper. It must define the subject of the paper, state its purpose, limit it in scope, and orient the reader as to what is to follow. The thesis statement (argument) is stated in the introduction, even though it may also have been stated in the abstract/summary. This is because abstracts/summaries are independent of the papers they represent, while introductions lead into papers and are incomplete on their own. Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment There are a number of ways of approaching introductions. It may be an historical background – what has been done in the past, or what research has been carried out in the past. It will define the subject and narrow it in scope. A statement of purpose and thesis should be given. The introduction should also include a short explanation of the main points. At the end of the introduction the reader should know what is to be said and how the paper will be structured. In a paper of 2000 words, the introduction should be about 100–150 words. For an example of an introduction to an essay, see Appendix D. The introduction should be finalised after the body and conclusion. 2.2.5 Body The body of the paper is the main ideas, with information and evidence to support each point. This information varies depending on the type of assignment. (See Appendix D.) It should be written first. Original research paper The unit outline or lecturer should be consulted for correct format. This is a guide only. Materials and methods In this section, sufficient details of the materials (apparatus?) and methods used should be supplied to enable someone else to repeat the experiment. Graphs, line drawings and photographs are useful for illuminating this section. Results This section will contain most of the graphic aids. Complex graphs and charts should be explained, formatted correctly, and given an informative heading. The results section typically only describes the findings. A full interpretation is in the discussion. Discussion Here results are intrepreted and discussed and state what you see them as meaning. The interpretation should relate to the literature. Suggestions for further research can be offered. Research essay In most research essays, the body is the main section of the paper and written from the outline. It will contain all the main points in a logical order, and all the sub-points. It is in the body that the thesis (argument, point of view) stated in the Introduction is developed. Every part of the argument (thesis) must be surveyed and no material should be introduced that is not relevant to this argument. All statements must be backed up by evidence and all ‘evidence’ must be properly acknowledged. (See Chapter 3.) The use of headings and sub-headings will be discussed in Presentation of an Assignment (p. 19). Literature review Refer to Reviews in Chapter 1, page 3. 2.2.6 Conclusion In an original research paper this is the conclusions are drawn from results and in a literature review it is a drawing together of the main ideas developed. No new material is introduced. The conclusion should match the thesis (argument, point of view) stated in the introduction. 10 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment 2.2.7 Appendices Appendices contain all important supplementary material that would obstruct the main text but must be cited in the text. Charts, tables, illustrations, letters, sample documents, lengthy mathematical work, if not immediately necessary in the text, should be put in an appendix. Appendices are not a ‘catch-all’ for material nor are they to be used to ‘swell’ a paper. Like abstracts/summaries, they are not part of the paper itself, and are not counted in the number of words. The Appendices for The Written Assignment are an illustration of suitable types of material for appendices. 2.2.8 References and/or Bibliography These are discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 4. More detailed information on the components of a research essay can be found in Huff (1999), listed in the Annotated Bibliography. 2.2.9 Problem or hypothetical question in the legal discipline For the legal discipline, when answering a problem or hypothetical question, the method of approaching the topic differs from that used in conventional assignments. It is helpful to identify in the opening paragraph what it considered to be the crucial issues of a legal nature and how it is proposed to answer those issues in turn. Each issue should be approached in a systematic way. One convention in the legal discipline is to use the mnemonic ‘IRAC’: I Issue – identify the issue (or issues) that a hypothetical question raises. R Rule – state the legal rule (or rules) that will help to resolve the legal issue. A Application – apply the rule to the relevant facts. C Conclusion – reach a conclusion on the question of whether the facts satisfy the legal rule(s). At the ‘Rule’ stage, it is necessary to consider whether the law is clear or uncertain on the legal rules to be applied to the issue identified. If the law is uncertain, or if there are opposing schools of thought about the law, it may be necessary to discuss the uncertainty in the law and suggest the better or best formulation of the law that is to be carried forward to the next stage (the ‘Application’ stage). 2.2.10 Scientific, technical and business reports Because reports vary so greatly in their format and purpose, no attempt will be made here to discuss them in detail the lecturer should be consulted. Reports differ from research assignments in both their function and format. Generally a research assignment is aimed at a narrow, specific audience, most often the professional peer group of the writer. Scientists write research papers for other scientists so they can advance the frontiers of knowledge; and others write research papers to explore new ideas in their different disciplines. A report is a form of research essay in that it searches for knowledge, but reports cover a much wider field than research essays. Often they contain recommendations for a course of action, and they are often aimed at several different kinds of readers. 11 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment Very few people read a report from cover to cover, whereas a research paper is meant to be read from beginning to end. A report is also generally longer than a research essay and its separate sections are more clearly visible than in a research essay. A report consists of three main parts – the Front Matter, the Body and the End Matter. The Front Matter can vary considerably, but will always contain a • Title Page • Executive Summary or Abstract It may also include a • • • • Table of Contents Letter of Transmittal Glossary of Terms Acknowledgements page In The Body of the report, the headings • • • • • • • • Introduction Theory Background or review Experimental design or procedure Results Discussion Conclusions Recommendations are a good starting point for reports in scientific areas, although sometimes not all are relevant and others may be appropriate. The following guide will help organise material for a report. A description of: • • • • • • • what is intended why it was intended what was done how it was done the results the conclusions the recommendations on what should be done as a result of the results and conclusions. The End Matter includes any • References • Appendices • Addenda 12 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment While concise and clear presentation of important facts and all relevant information is vital, it is the analysis that is of prime importance. An analysis should be presented in a way that is easily followed. The report should be read while trying to reconstruct the work with no other information, just as a reader will have to do. There should be no unanswered questions. Statements such as ‘reasons for this are not clear’ are more acceptable than trying to gloss over a point. 2.3 Presentation of an assignment – style While a lecturer or tutor will be concerned mainly with the content of an assignment in most disciplines, it will be the style and layout that distinguishes a barely satisfactory assignment from a good one. Style in writing refers to many things but, in general, it means the way words are used. Writing style will improve with practise. An important element in developing good writing skills is reading the works of good writers; for example, good novels, history, philosophy, current affairs, science, sport, etc. A few pieces of advice on style are given here, but their value will be minimal without writing practice. 2.3.1 Audience It is important to keep the audience in mind when writing an essay or report. Appreciating a reader’s priorities and background knowledge will ensure the points are clear, concise and convincing. Generally, it will be written for the lecturer or tutor, but some assignments are written for a ‘client’ or specific organisation as in a proposal, a report or a submission. ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘my’, ‘we’, ‘our’, ‘ours’, should be avoided in order to make the work sound objective rather than personal. ‘In my opinion’ and ‘I think’ should be eschewed. Usually 'third person' should be used. However, sometimes lecturers set essays that ask students to express personal views or relate personal experience; and other essay types, such as those in areas of human development, may also require first person. The use of the term 'the writer' as in 'in the opinion of the writer, …' is clumsy and unecessary. There seems to be a trend towards an increased use of the first person in academic papers and the practice is accepted in a number of scholarly journals. It would be wise to check with the lecturer or tutor. 2.3.2 Tone Tone is the combination of two things: namely, the attitude towards your subject and audience. In general, the tone of writing should be objective and persuasive. Emotional outbursts detract from work. In argumentative essays avoid fallacies or stereotypes that weaken the logic and coherence of the point of view. Avoid using underlining, bold or italics for emphasis, as emphasis should emanate from the language, not the format. Where bold type has been used in The Written Assignment, it is to draw students’ attention to words or phrases when they are skimming a page and this work is not an assignment. 13 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment 2.3.3 Language Simplicity and jargon Simplicity of language and straightforward expression is preferred. Jargon is appropriate to an audience in the same field, but can be overused. Most readers prefer plain English, which conveys meaning simply, clearly and in an uncluttered fashion. Words should not be used just because they ‘sound’ impressive. The academic discourse of your discipline (its ‘jargon’ and ideas) must be balanced with clear, straightforward English expression. Often repetition increases clarity and synonyms may cause confusion. Colloquialisms Colloquialisms and slang should not be used. There is a difference between written and spoken English and you should observe the distinction between conversation and language suitable in a written document. Never use colloquialisms to show that you are up to date and do not use contractions such as ‘don’t’, ‘doesn’t’, ‘can’t’. Inclusive language Another aspect of language that must be adhered to is non-discriminatory or inclusive language. QUT has a policy of non-discriminatory presentation. Copies of the booklet , Working with Diversity: A Guide to Inclusive Language and Presentation for Staff and Students, are available from the Equity Section at QUT and on the Internet at www.equity. qut.edu.au (See Annotated Bibliography.) QUT’s staff and students represent a broad mix of people, with a diversity of ideas, lifestyles and cultures. Inclusive language and images ensure that groups and the individuals are not demeaned or excluded. In contrast, discriminatory language affects the targeted people. Those who use discriminatory language can be seen as sexist, racist, ignorant or rude. Avoiding discriminatory language and images requires an awareness and the development of a range of alternatives. Students should use inclusive language and images in assignments. Any visual representations, examples or quotations used in written work must be relevant to all participants and do not devalue, demean or exclude groups or individuals on the basis of gender, disability, culture, sexuality, age, etc. Here are some general points: Gender • Using gender-inclusive language means acknowledging both men and women. Avoid using words like ‘man’, ‘mankind’ or ‘he’ when writing generally about men and women, and use terms such as ‘staff’ vs ‘manpower’ and ‘spokesperson’ vs ‘spokesman’. Neutral terms for occupational titles, such as ‘police officer’ and ‘homemaker’ should be used. Ethnicity • Using culturally inclusive language means representing all ethnic and cultural groups as equally valid. Stereotyping must be avoided as it is misleading and ignores the personal worth of individuals. For example, not all Vietnamese accents are difficult to understand. There is also diversity among the Indigenous groups within Australia. Sensitivity must be shown to the preference of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in their names. Some people may prefer to be known by their regional name, 14 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment e.g., Murri, or to be referred to as ‘an Aboriginal person’ rather than an ‘Aborigine’. Torres Strait Islanders have a linguistic and cultural identity different from that of the Indigenous people of mainland Australia and hence should be referred to as such. When referring to the two cultural groups together, use ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’ consistently. The use of the correct terminology should be considered part of the research for assignments. Disability • The aim of using inclusive language when referring to people with a disability is to focus on the individual. People with a disability do not want to be pitied, ignored, or to be seen as somehow more heroic or ‘special’ than others. Avoid using the term ‘normal’ as a contrast to people with a disability. If it is relevant to refer to a person’s disability, a general guide is to refer to it as a condition, rather than the disability being the person. For example, refer to ‘people with epilepsy’ rather than ‘epileptics’. Sexuality • Discrimination against people on the basis of their sexual orientation is illegal. To be inclusive, language should reflect the fact that our community contains people who are heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual. The terms ‘gay men’ for men and ‘lesbian’ for women are generally accepted within the homosexual community. When used in the same context as the terms ‘heterosexual men’ and heterosexual women’, the terms ‘homosexual men’ and ‘homosexual women’ are appropriate. Ageism • Inclusive language also counters myths about ageing as the majority of older people are busy, independent and contributing to the social and economic wellbeing of the community. Using words like ‘pensioners’, ‘geriatric’ and ‘senile’ perpetuates negative stereotypes about older people. The term ‘older people’ is broadly acceptable and other popular terms at the present are ‘seniors’, ‘senior citizens’ and ‘mature aged’. 2.3.4 Overwriting Do not overwrite in an essay. Lecturers and tutors will tend to penalise essays of, say, 4000 words when the assignment called for 1500. The word count is commonly from the first word in the title to the last in the conclusion. Hence, words in appendices and in lists of references and bibliographies are not in the word count. All words count, so those such as ‘a’ and ‘the’ are included. For counting purposes, word processor programs recognise a word as one or more characters with a space at either end; so numbers like ‘2002’ are words. The easy way is to let the word processor program do it. 2.3.5 Padding Avoid padding out your essay with unrelated comments, irrelevant material, or inflated and verbose expression. Expression should be succinct and relevant. 2.3.6 Rhetorical questions The rhetorical question is a question asked for a purpose other than to obtain the information the questions asks for. For example, ‘Why are you so stupid?’ is likely to be a statement regarding one’s opinion of the person addressed rather than a genuine request to know. 15 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment Rhetorical questions carry an implicit message for which no supporting evidence is provided. They tend to appeal to the emotions rather than to logic. Genuine questions need to be answered immediately. To a great extent, therefore, there is no need for questions to appear in an essay. Re-writing the question as a statement requires that reference be made to the relevant literature for supporting argument. (See Annotated Bibliography.) 2.3.7 Overgeneralisation Avoid sweeping statements. Unjustified claims should be deleted. Sweeping statements should be supported with evidence, logic or citation of the literature. 2.3.8 Spelling, punctuation and grammar Errors in spelling, punctuation or grammar make it difficult for the audience to follow ideas, however insightful. If you are unsure of how to use various punctuation marks, consult some of the relevant texts cited in the Annotated Bibliography. For correct spelling consult a dictionary or use a Spell Check. However, be aware that computers often use American spelling. Grammar can be checked by using the Grammar Check. A dictionary will help with the spelling and the correct use of words, while a thesaurus will help find the right word to express a particular idea.. Like all other aspects of style, many errors in spelling, punctuation and grammar can be avoided by wide reading of good authors. 2.3.9 Abbreviations Words other than the names of organisations should be spelt out in full in formal essay work. Abbreviations such as ‘e.g.’ are acceptable, as is the use of the ampersand, ‘@’ in some forms of referencing. (See Chapters 3 and 4.) Avoid abbreviations such as ‘Qld’, ‘Aust.’, ‘dept’, govt’, don’t’. (See Appendix B for a guide to abbreviations.) When using names of organisations, write the name of the organisation in full, followed by the acronym in parentheses the first time it is introduced; e.g., World Health Organisation (WHO). Thereafter use the acronym. 2.3.10 Expressing numbers There are certain guidelines that can be followed. The Publication Manual of the APA (2001) and The Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (Australian Government Printing Service [AGPS] 2002) advise the use of words for numbers up to nine, and figures for numbers 10 and above. Dates are usually written as figures; e.g., The first year of the third millennium is correctly 2001. However, where they begin a sentence words are preferred; e.g., Two thousand and one is correctly the first year of the third millennium. Effectively this means sentences should not start with a number. Figures are often preferred in works of a mathematical, scientific, technical or statistical nature, while words are preferred in descriptive or narrative works. Consistency and common sense are the best guides. 16 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment 2.3.11 Paragraphs Paragraphing is essential as a means of signposting the direction and development of ideas. As a general rule there should be one developed idea per paragraph. You should check your discipline for formatting requirements, for example, indenting. 2.3.12 Headings and sub-headings Opinions vary on the use of headings. Reports, whether they be scientific, technical or business reports, always use headings and sub-headings. (See Structure of an assignment, p. 10.) In longer research essays too, it is often necessary to indicate divisions and sub-divisions of a topic. However, many assignments are meant to take the form of essays rather than reports, in which case headings may not be appropriate, depending also on the length of the essay. The numbering of sections, sub-sections and paragraphs is inappropriate in formal essays. Check with your lecturer to see whether headings are required. If it is appropriate to use headings, consistency is important. There are systems of headings. Some systems use numbers, with combinations of Arabic and Roman numerals; others use letters of the alphabet, both upper-case and lower-case; some use no letters or numbers, but different type-face and position to indicate whether the heading is a major division or a sub-division. Headings are not meant to be used as a substitute for transitions between paragraphs. The essay should still flow smoothly if the headings are removed. For further information on the use of headings, consult the Annotated Bibliography, in particular Anderson and Poole (1993). 2.3.13 Quantitative and symbolic information While graphs, equations and tables are common in all fields, they are usually essential in scientific and technical reports and essays. A brief explanation of how to use such data is given in Appendix C. 2.3.14 References and bibliographies Check whether a list of references or a bibliography is required for the assignment and note the difference between references and bibliography. Generally, assignments will require a list of references, which are works referred to in the assignment; few assignments will require a bibliography, material found useful in the writing of the assignment even though not directly cited. Some bibliographies include references, while others contain only useful, but not cited, material. Your lecturer should state what is required. 2.3.15 Planning the workload A common reason given by students in requesting extensions for assignments is ‘pressure of work’. In many cases this is avoidable. Planning the assignment should begin as soon as the assignment topics and due dates are known. Preparations should begin early so that all assignments are completed in good time. Compiling a study plan can be an efficient form of time management, as it will provide an opportunity to allocate time appropriately for tasks such as planning, researching and note taking. An example of this is provided in Butler (1996). 17 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment 2.3.16 Submitting the assignment Familiarise yourself with the faculty and school requirements relating to the submission of written assignments. The conditions applying to due dates, requests for extensions and acknowledgement of receipt of assignments are of importance. 2.3.17 The mechanics of presentation • All assignments require a title page or cover sheet. Your school will supply a cover or title sheet. The minimum requirements for the title page are: name, student number, unit name and code, title of assignment, lecturer’s and/or tutor’s name, date the assignment is due, date submitted. • Typed and written assignments should be neat and legible and usually typed in double or one and a half spacing. Long quotations should be typed in single spacing and indented. (See Chapter 3 for an explanation of the difference between ‘short’ and ‘long’ quotations.) • A margin (about 4cm) is required on the left-hand side of each page, with at least 2cm on all other edges. Font size 12, plain type, usually Times New Roman. • Type on one side of the paper only. • Clearly set out the References and /or Bibliography with the relevant details. • Underline or italicise the titles of any books, journals, or other works. • Number the pages of your assignment except the title page, which is assumed to be page (i) (Roman numerals). The abstract/summary page is usually numbered (ii). The paper itself is numbered in Arabic numerals from 1 to the end, beginning on the Introductory page. • Do not cover or encase your pages in film or plastic. Such casings make it difficult for lecturers who want to write on the work. • Ensure the assignment is properly bound, usually just stapled on the top left. If it has computer disks or other inclusions it should be, well packaged and labelled. 2.3.18 Editorial checklist Items to check before you submit your assignment: • Have you answered the question? Is your purpose clear from the beginning? • Have you developed your ideas in a logical sequence? • Have you correctly acknowledged all references, including tapes, photographs, newspaper items, pamphlets, Internet sources? Is the material in the references/ bibliography accurate? • Have you checked your expression, spelling and punctuation? • Have you deleted slang expressions and colloquialisms? 18 Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment • Have you used the form and expression most appropriate to the topic? • Do your transitions link ideas well? • Have you kept to the required number of words? • Do you have margins and a title page? • Have you included a summary/abstract/executive summary? • Have you given all figures and tables an identifying number and caption? • Have you referred to all figures and tables in the essay itself to establish their relevance to the work? • For larger pieces of work and for reports, have you included a contents page, listing all sections and sub-sections, figures and tables? • Have you kept a copy of your assignment either on disk or on paper in case of loss of the original? NOTE: Overseas students at QUT can obtain help with assignments through International Student Services. The Counselling Centre is a resource for all students in genuine difficulty. 19 Chapter 3 Citing sources of information Almost every work that is neither fiction nor an account based on personal experience relies on secondary sources, other publications on the same or related subjects, or on primary sources, manuscript collections, diaries, personal interviews, parliamentary documents, etc. (Chicago Manual of Style 2003, 444). References are works (books, journal articles, documents, non-print media, Internet sources, etc.) actually referred to or cited from in the paper. There is a need to know, therefore, both how and what to reference. It follows conventional practices; deciding what to reference requires some judgment. 3.1 Why use cite sources? • To validate a point, statement or argument. Opinions carry much more weight if they are supported by the ideas of experts. • To give credit to the originator of the thought. Ethical considerations, as well as the laws of copyright, require authors to acknowledge their sources. • To permit readers to check the original work and assess it for themselves. • To add value to a paper by demonstrating familiarity with relevant literature. 3.2 What should be cited? • Direct quotations. These should be put in inverted commas. • Any information (ideas or data) obtained from another author, whether that information be a direct quotation or paraphrased comments. • Definitions of terms, if necessary. Some students think references are included in a paper only when a direct quotation is used. This is not so. All published material of an informative nature (information you did not know before you read it) should be duly acknowledged. Sources of information of a general nature, however, such as facts and ideas that are common knowledge, do not need to be identified. For example, the equation for Einstein’s theory of relativity (E=mc2), the chemical symbol for water (H2O), or the date of the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia (1901) do not need acknowledgment. Lecture notes are not normally cited. If you wish to use material from a lecture, the original source should be referenced. Interviews 20 Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information and telephone conversations need to be referenced in the text, but are not listed in the list of references or in the bibliography (see page 31). 3.2.1 Plagiarism Plagiarism, a failure to acknowledge sources of material correctly, is an offence against professional standards and is a form of academic dishonesty. Any of the following acts constitutes plagiarism unless the work is appropriately acknowledged through referencing: • copying the work of another student; • directly copying any part of another’s work; • summarising the work of another; • using or developing an idea or thesis derived from another person’s work; • using experimental results obtained by another; • copying information directly from the Internet and pasting into your assignment without acknowledgment. (QUT Handbook 2003, 18) Plagiarism, therefore, refers not only to the inclusion of an entire article or section, but also to the paraphrasing of another’s material. Thus, summarising someone else’s ideas and putting them into your own words does not free you from the responsibility of referencing your source. Failure to acknowledge sources of material correctly is an offence against professional standards. Plagiarism will be dealt with as outlined in the QUT Handbook; see 9.3.1 and 9.3.3 NESB (Non-English Speaking Background) students often encounter difficulty with appropriate academic writing and particularly with plagiarism. Non-deliberate plagiarism, where there is no deliberate intention to cheat or steal ideas, is often related to learning processes, especially in the areas of language and dealing with knowledge. For NESB students, plagiarism can be related to cultural and academic expectations and language proficiency. (http://clb.ed.qut.edu.au/teaching/tesol/bookletinhouse.pdf 2003) NESB students, therefore, are especially advised to seek help from International Student Services or from their lecturers and tutors to ensure they do not unintentionally plagiarise in their assignment writing. See the QUT Manual of Policies and Procedures Policy C/9.3 document for more information on QUT’s procedures for academic dishonesty. This document can be viewed at: www.qut.edu.au/admin/mopp/C/C_09_03.html. 21 Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information 3.2.2 Copyright Written material, artistic and dramatic works, computer programs, compilations of data, cinematographic films, sound recordings, broadcasts, published editions and the work of performers are protected by copyright law. Generally it will be sufficient simply to reference the source of the material, but with the more non-traditional forms of material such as films, recordings and videos, it would be wise to check the requirements for their use. Some material, for example, will require you to get the written permission of the owner before you may use it. QUT’s Copyright Guide is contained in the University’s Manual of Policy and Procedures, at http://www.tils.qut.edu.au/copyright/crguidefrontpage.html. More information on how to access advice on copyright is contained in the Annotated Bibliography. 3.3 How should sources be referenced in text? Conventions and practices for referencing sources of information vary from discipline to discipline. It is essential that you be familiar with the main referencing systems so that you are able to use whichever style is required by individual lecturers or by the journal for which the paper is being written. Your own school will instruct you on the method of referencing that is required. The author of The Written Assignment adopts the view that no one system is superior to all others, but that consistency is the most important consideration. Most referencing systems are variations of either ‘author-date’ or ‘footnoting’ systems. Illustrations for three common forms of the ‘author-date’ system are given in this booklet. General references in the booklet and items listed in the Annotated Bibliography are given in the system recommended in the Chicago Manual of Style (2003) The Harvard System. But this is for consistency rather than because that system is considered superior to any other. 3.4 Author-date systems These systems were traditionally used by biological and physical scientists and have now gained wide acceptance by social scientists. Unless given specific instructions to use another system, one of the author-date systems illustrated in this booklet should be used in QUT assignments. Most are variations on Harvard, which exists in different forms and is not published as a complete system in any particular manual. It is not possible now to refer to THE Harvard System. You may, therefore, find a number of style manuals that purport to illustrate the Harvard System, yet use slightly different forms of punctuation and ordering of information. Author-date systems do not use footnotes for referencing, but are based on parenthetical documentation within the text, which gives enough information to enable the reader to locate the item by checking the full citation in a reference list at the end of the paper. As well as being simple and time-saving, these systems are also flexible in that it is possible to add or delete entries without disrupting any numbering system. The three basic elements of a reference in the author-date system are the last name 22 Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information of the author, the year of publication of the work, and the page number. Note that if the reference is to a whole work, no page numbers are required. However, if the reference is to a specific part of a work, page numbers are required. Direct quotations, précis and paraphrases always require page numbers. Three variations of author-date systems of referencing are explained in this booklet: • Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 2002). • Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA 2001) • Variations of the Harvard System (Chicago Manual of Style 2003) There are a number of specific differences between the three systems, many of which are comparatively minor and will be demonstrated in the examples given. 3.4.1 Author’s name If the author’s name is issued in a sentence, it should be followed by the year of publication, as in Smith (1989) states that . . . Sometimes you will refer to an author to support a statement of yours, without quoting or paraphrasing them directly, as in Some authors have noted that . . . (Smith 1989). See page 26 for examples in all systems. 3.4.2 Year of publication The year of publication of a work (found in the printing details at the front of a book, after the copyright symbol ©, should always follow the author’s surname. If the author’s name is part of the sentence, the year is placed in parentheses immediately following the name; for example, Butler (1996). If the author’s name is in parentheses, then the year is written inside the same brackets; for example, (Butler 1996). 3.4.3 Page numbers If you make a direct quotation, or paraphrase or summarise a point made by another writer at a particular place in their work, you should include the page number(s) on which their statements were made. Single pages are abbreviated as either “8” or “p. 8”; multiple pages are abbreviated as either “3-6” or “pp. 3-6”. In the AGPS and Harvard systems, place page numbers after the date, inside the same brackets: AGPS Pasmore (1994, p. 10) argues that ‘change is a cognitive and emotional shift’. OR ‘Change is a cognitive and emotional shift’ (Pasmore 1994, p. 10). APA In the APA system place page numbers at the end of a quotation or paraphrase. Pasmore (1994) argued that “change is a cognitive and emotional shift” (p. 10). OR “Change is a cognitive and emotional shift” (Pasmore, 1994, p. 10). In addition, under the APA system, verbs referring to authors’ actions are written in the past tense (‘argued’ instead of ‘argues’). 23 Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information Harvard The latest version of Harvard does not normally use ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’ to signify page numbers in citations. Pasmore (1994, 10) argues that “change is a cognitive and emotional shift”. OR “Change is a cognitive and emotional shift” (Pasmore 1994, 10). 3.4.4 Placement of in-text references In-text references are placed within the punctuation of the sentence they refer to unless the quote is a long one. (See Short and Long quotations). 3.4.5 Using direct quotations Students are advised to use the direct quotation sparingly. An essay is more than a copying-out exercise; it requires individual selection, ordering and development of ideas and should, therefore, demonstrate the ability to analyse, synthesise, precis and paraphrase what is read, and relate it to the essay topic. (See Chapter 2, Section 3, Critically analyse the material.) Use the direct quotation to support a point. It is up to you as the writer to make the point; the direct quotation reinforces it (Hewitson 1986, 7). When you do quote another writer, out of respect for the other writer, you must do so verbatim; that is, without alteration. There are three exceptions to this rule: • If necessary, change the case of the first word quoted to fit your sentence. For example, the first word of a quotation, which may have been a capital, may be changed to lower case to follow your own words. • If necessary, insert words to make the quotation understandable out of context. To indicate words inserted, use square brackets, [ ]. For example: It is a point of contention as to the degree to which [things like the size of the organisation, the age, the function, the hostility of the external environment and the technology we use] dictate how we manage. • If necessary, delete words to make the quotation more concise. To indicate words deleted, ellipses, a series of periods or dots (…). One simple rule is that three dots indicate an omission within a quoted sentence and four marks the omission of one or more sentences. The omission of one or more paragraphs within a quotation is indicated by four ellipsis points. When three ellipsis points are used, a space appears before the first dot and after the final dot. When four are used, the first dot is a true period; i.e., there is no space. For example, The Australian spirit is an egalitarian one .... Speaking on the eve of the new millennium ... the Prime Minister argued passionately for the Ozzie Battler. If the writer has made a grammatical or typing error, you still copy their work, with the note (sic) following it, to indicate that you recognise the mistake. ‘Sic’ means ‘thus’. There is no set rule for the percentage of an assignment that may be comprised of direct quotations, just don't overdo it. 24 Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information The quoted words are enclosed by single quotation marks (‘ ’) under the AGPS system, and double quotation marks (“ ”) under APA and Harvard systems. If the quotation includes a quotation made in the original work, the enclosed quotation is enclosed by the opposite type of quotation marks; for example: • AGPS ‘Children need experience with “real world” problems’ (Smith 1995, p. 22). • APA “Children need experience with ‘real world’ problems” (Smith, 1995, p. 22). • Harvard “Children need experience with ‘real world’ problems” (Smith 1995, 22). In plays or transcripts, if the name of the speaker is given, quotation marks are not required. Caesar: The ides of March are come. Soothsayer: Ay, Caesar; but not gone. 3.4.6 Short and long quotations What is ‘short’ and ‘long’ is arbitrary, but the most common practice is to consider quotations of more than 40 words as ‘long’. A short quotation is incorporated into a sentence without disrupting the flow of the text, and quotation marks are used: • AGPS Cope (2005, p.1) suggests that 'there is a requirement for order in the classroom'. • APA Cope (2005) suggests that "there is a requirement for order in the classroom" (p. 1). or "There is a requirement for order in the classroom" (Cope, 2005, p. 1). • Harvard Cope (2005, 1) suggests that "there is a requirement for order in the classroom". By contrast, a long quotation is set out as a block quotation. The block is indented, or put in italics. No quotation marks are necessary. • AGPS Some of the difficulties in carrying out competitor analysis are described by Hussey: One of the difficulties of competitor analysis is knowing what information to obtain. The problem often varies between the extremes of having too few data for meaningful analysis and having so much that it becomes difficult to make sense of it. (1995, p. 221) • APA Some of the difficulties in carrying out competitor analysis are described by Hussey (1995): 25 Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information One of the difficulties of competitor analysis is knowing what information to obtain. The problem often varies between the extremes of having too few data for meaningful analysis and having so much that it becomes difficult to make sense of it. (p. 221) • Harvard Some of the difficulties in carrying out competitor analysis are described by Hussey: One of the difficulties of competitor analysis is knowing what information to obtain. The problem often varies between the extremes of having too few data for meaningful analysis and having so much that it becomes difficult to make sense of it. (1995, p. 221) Double spacing or one and a half spacing should be used both before and after the block quotation which is in single spacing. There is also a line space before and after the quotation. 3.4.7 Using indirect speech (paraphrases) If you wish to use the work of another writer, but do not want to quote directly, you may paraphrase. Note that this includes instances where you make reference to the ideas of another writer. An indication that you may need to make reference to another writer is if you have written “Many people believe that . . .” If indeed many people do agree with the statement, you should make reference to an authority in the field who has published such a statement. Because a paraphrase is not written using exactly the same words as the original, there are no quotation marks. However, the author’s name and the publication year are still used to reference the citation. The page number(s) will be needed if the other writer’s idea or statement you refer to is made on a particular page or pages in the original writing. If your sentence is a summary of the other writer’s work as a whole, then page numbers are not needed. 3.4.8 Examples of direct quotations and paraphrases Lomas wrote the following statement: “It is difficult to believe that Australia’s present transportation system will be able to cope with the needs of society in the 21st century.” You could refer to this statement as a quotation or in a paraphrase. For efficiency of space, these examples are all written using the modern Harvard System. Quotation: Lomas (1988, 54) states that “it is difficult to believe that Australia’s present transportation system will be able to cope with the needs of society in the 21st century.” Paraphrase: Lomas (1988, 54) states that he doubts the ability of our present system of transportation to cope with the next century’s requirements. OR At least one writer has expressed doubts about the fitness of our transportation system for future needs (Lomas 1988, 54). OR It is difficult to see how Australia’s future transportation needs will be served by the present system (Lomas 1988, 54). 26 Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations 3.4.9 Examples of citations using the author-date systems Not all references are entirely straightforward. Examples are given below of the three main referencing systems. While these examples illustrate some variations, they will not answer all the questions you are likely to have about referencing. For more detail you should consult the appropriate style manual. (See the Annotated Bibliography for a full list of these manuals.) The three styles concentrated on in this booklet are in alphabetical order of their acronym or usual reference (AGPS, APA, Harvard). The order presented in this work does not indicate a preference of one style over another. 3.4.10 Australian Government Printing Service (AGPS) style citations Quoting from one page of a book or journal article with a single author Tayeb (1996, p. 59) states that ‘In all societies the majority of people want to do well.’ OR ‘In all societies the majority of people want to do well’ (Tayeb 1996, p. 59). Paraphrasing from two pages Rokeach (1968, pp. 110–111) says attitudes are difficult to measure because there is much controversy over what an attitude is. Reference to argument of a whole work Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary for corporate success. Example of book or journal article with two authors Both names should be cited. Bean and Papadakis (1998, p. 219) say that ‘Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990’. OR ‘Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990’ (Bean & Papadakis 1998, p. 219). Note the use of 'and' in the sentence but ampersand (&) in parentheses. Example of book or journal article with three authors Vecchio, Hearn and Southey (1996, p. 351) say that ‘organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation’. OR ‘Organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation’ (Vecchio, Hearn & Southey 1996, p. 351). For APA, cite all three authors for the first citation, afterward use one with 'et al.'. 27 Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations Reference to a work by more than three authors For AGPS, do not list the names of all authors, but only the first-named author followed by et al. ‘Et al.’ means ‘and others’. Note the use of the period after al. The subject is treated in detail by Robbins et al. (2001). Reference to more than one work by an author or authors in the same year A lower case letter of the alphabet attached to the publication date distinguishes the different publications. The order of the letters is dictated by the alphabetical order of the title. For example, two publications by James Bell in 1981, The Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees of Africa, would be referenced as Bell (1981a) and Bell (1981b) respectively. If the publications are cited at the same time, they should be referenced as follows: Bell (1981a, p. 99; 1981b, p. 88) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts a lifetime. OR ‘The study of wildlife is a lifelong adventure’ (Bell 1981a, p. 99; 1981b, p. 88). Reference to more than one work in the same citation Names are listed in alphabetical order. When both name and date are in brackets, a semi-colon separates one citation from another. (Albert 1985, p. 12; Allen & Kraft 1984, p. 24; Kanter 1983; 1985, p. 99) OR Albert (1985, p. 12), Allen and Kraft (1984, p. 24) and Kanter (1983; 1985, p. 99) demonstrated that . . . One author quoted in the work of another For in-text citations of the work of one author by another, provide both authors’ names. AGPS is silent on the method; the inference in that following is acceptable: Adrian West (in Thompson 1970, p. 116) recommends … Quoting from an anonymous author It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (1973, p. 9) that ‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world.’ OR ‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world’ (Wild Life of Australia 1973, p. 9). This second example is not accepted in some disciplines. Reference to a corporate author The Australian Government Publishing Service (2002, pp. 119–120) claims that while there are variations in the conventions for the use of capitals in English speaking countries, there is an overall trend towards reducing the number of capitals on a page. OR The AGPS (2002, pp. 119-120) claims that while there are variations in the conventions 28 Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations for the use of capitals in English speaking countries, there is an overall trend towards reducing the number of capitals on a page. Note that it is acceptable in AGPS style to use well-known abbreviations, contractions and acronyms, even if they have not previously been explicated in the text. Where the corporate author is not well known, the name in full should be used the first instance in the text. The abbreviated form may be used subsequently. Reference to a newspaper article If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article. However, if the author is not named provide, full details in-text, and the name of the newspaper takes the place of the author. Check with your discipline. The Courier-Mail (20 April 2003, p. 5) said that... Reference to an interview, email or conversation (personal communications) Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal (or telephone) interview on 21 April 1999 that . . . . OR Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated that . . . (personal interview, 21 April 1999). OR In an interview (or telephone conversation) I conducted on 21 April 1999, Ms Annie Schultz revealed that . . . . Details of a personal communication do not need to be included in the reference list. Check all these with your discipline. Classical and religious works These include ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have page numbers or a date of publication. Tacitus Agricola, 35.1 For a Biblical reference, indicate the book, chapter, and verse(s). (These are usually consistent across all versions and translations): John 3:16 (New International Version) Citing material from the Internet Material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be referenced, failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. However material should be used cautiously; it may not be reliable, valid, nor referenced. • Each reference should provide sufficient information for a reader to identify and retrieve the Internet source used. For instance, the web address the Uniform Resource Location, (URL) should be the actual web address used i.e., the specific document, rather than a home page. 29 Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations • If you have trouble identifying the title of the web page, look at the top of the web page above FILE on the browser. • Each reference to an Internet source should be accompanied with the date accessed, since information on the Internet can be amended regularly. • All references cited in the text of the assignment must appear in your reference list and each entry in your reference list must match a citation in the text. • Always include the date on which you accessed the item and present it according to the style adopted: e.g., 20 November 2005. • Web documents often have two dates, an original publication date and a last modified date. Use only the date the page was last modified. If the URL has to be broken (i.e., its length is greater than the width of your page), do not insert a hyphen. Break the URL after a slash and continue it on the next line. In-text citations of electronic sources, known author To cite a document (journal article or other) within the text of an assignment, use only the name of the author, followed by the year of publication or latest update in parentheses. Jones (2001) concords that the reaction was not appropriate. In-text citations of internal sources, unknown author To cite a document without an author use the title.As a last resort use the URL of the document, encased in ‘< >’ followed by the year of publication in parentheses. <http://netec.mcc.ac.uk/WoPEc/data/Papers//wopbawlad_007.html> (2001) reported that “this has significantly eroded the region’s chances of competing in global markets”. If page numbers are not available, use the term “para” or the symbol ¶ to acknowledge which paragraph your quote has come from. (Myers 2000, ¶ 5) (American Psychological Association 2003, Conclusion section, para. 1) Reference to other non-print media Within the text of the paper or essay, most non-print media can be referenced in the same way as any print source, using either the author (or producer/director) or the title of the film, video, production, etc. All examples of the AGPS citation system shown in the preceding pages obviously do not by themselves give the reader complete information about sources. Such information can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a List of References or Bibliography discussed in Chapter 4. 30 Chapter 3 • APA Citations 3.4.11 Citations of the American Psychology Association (APA) style Quoting from one page of a book or journal article with a single author Tayeb (1994) stated that “In all societies the majority of people want to do well” (p. 59). OR “In all societies the majority of people want to do well” (Tayeb, 1996, p. 59). Paraphrasing from two pages Rokeach (1968) said attitudes are difficult to measure because there is much controversy over what an attitude is (pp. 110-111). Reference to argument of a whole work Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary for corporate success. Example of book or journal article with two authors When a book or journal article has two authors, both names should be cited every time the reference occurs in the text. Bean and Papadakis (1998) said that “Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990” (p. 219). OR “Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990” (Bean & Papadakis, 1998, p. 219). Note the use of ampersand (&) only in parentheses Example of book or journal article with three, four, or five authors When first making reference to such a work in the text, cite all the authors the first time the reference occurs. The form is: Vecchio, Hearn, and Southey (1996) said that “Organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation” (p. 351). For subsequent citations, in the APA style, the form is: Vecchio et al. (1996) said that “Organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation” (p. 351). Reference to a work by six or more authors When a work has six or more authors, always cite the last name of the first author followed by et al. The subject is treated in detail by Robbins et al. (2001). Reference to more than one work by an author or authors in the same year A lower case letter of the alphabet attached to the publication date distinguishes the different publications. The order of the letters is dictated by the alphabetical order of the title. 31 Chapter 3 • APA Citations For example, two publications by James Bell in 1981, The Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees of Africa, would be referenced as Bell (1981a) and Bell (1981b) respectively. If the publications are cited at the same time, they should be referenced as follows: Bell (1981a, 1981b) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts a lifetime. OR ‘The study of wildlife is a lifelong adventure’(Bell, 1981a, 1981b). OR Bell (1981a, 1981b) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts a lifetime Reference to more than one work in the same citation Names are listed in alphabetical order. When both name and date are in brackets, a semi-colon separates one citation from another. (Albert, 1985; Allen & Kraft, 1984; Kanter, 1983, 1985) In APA there is one exception. You may separate a major citation from another by inserting the words ‘see also’: (Albert, 1985; see also Allen & Kraft, 1984; Kanter, 1983, 1985) One author quoted in the work of another West (as cited in Thomson, 1970) recommended that nursing education be made an integral part of the provincial education. Quoting from an anonymous author The first few words of the reference list entry, usually the title, and the year should be cited. If it is the title, it should be italicized and double quotation marks used. It was stated in the book Wild Life of Australia (1973) that “Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world” (p. 9). OR “Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world” (Wild Life of Australia, 1973, p. 9). Reference to a corporate author The American Psychology Association [APA] (2001) argues that the only words to be capitalised in reference lists are those commencing the beginning of sentences, the first word after a colon, or proper nouns (p. 228). OR The APA (2001) argues that the only words to be capitalized in reference lists are those commencing the beginning of sentences, the first word after a colon, or proper nouns (p. 95). With the first reference to a corporate author, use the full name of the government entity and follow this with a readily identified abbreviation, enclosed in square brackets. The next time you cite this corporate author you can just use the abbreviation. 32 Chapter 3 • APA Citations Reference to a newspaper article If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article. However, if the author is not named, the title of the article is the reference. In The Courier-Mail, it was reported that . . . (“Ex-governor’s view criticised”, 2003, p. 5) Reference to an interview, email or conversation (personal communications) Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal (or telephone) interview on April 21, 1999 that . . . . OR Ms Annie Schultz, (personal communication, April 21, 1999) stated that . . . . OR In an interview (or telephone conversation) I conducted on April 21, 1999, Ms Annie Schultz revealed that . . . . Details of a personal communication do not need to be included in the reference list. Classical and religious works This includes ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have page numbers or a date of publication. Tacitus Agricola, 35.1 For a Biblical reference, indicate the book, chapter, and verse(s). (These are usually consistent across all versions and translations): John 3:16 (New International Version) Citing material from the Internet The Internet has greatly enhanced the sharing of information around the world. Most material accessed from the Internet and used for academic purposes is found on the Web. As with print media, material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be referenced. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. Students should observe the following referencing guidelines when using and citing information from the Internet: • Each reference should provide sufficient information for a reader to identify and retrieve the Internet source used. For instance, the web address should be the actual web address used (i.e., the specific document) rather than a home page. • Each reference to an Internet source should be accompanied by date of publication or update, and by the date accessed, since information on the Internet can be amended regularly. If publication date not available, use access date. • All references cited in the text of your assignment must appear in your Reference List and each entry in your Reference List must match a citation in the text. • If the URL has to be broken (i.e., its length is greater than the width of your page), do not insert a hyphen. Break the URL after a slash and continue it on the next line. 33 Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations In-text citations of electronic sources, known author To cite a document (journal article or other) within the text of an assignment, use only the name of the author, followed by the year of publication or latest update in parentheses. If there is no date, write 'n. d.' Jones (2001) concords that the reaction was not appropriate. In-text citations of electronic sources, unknown author To cite a document without an author (journal article or other) within the text of an assignment, use the title of the document, followed by the year of publication in parentheses. URLs in text are stongly discouraged – use title if author unavailable. Aldolase is present in all animal and plant tissue (Alsolase, n. d., para. 2). If page numbers are not available, use the term “para” or the symbol ¶ to acknowledge which paragraph your quote has come from. (Myers, 2000, ¶ 5) (American Psychological Association, 2003, Conclusion section, para. 1) Other non-print media Within the text of the paper or essay, most non-print media can be referenced in the same way as any print source, using either the author (or producer/director) or the title of the film, video, production, etc. 3.4.12 Citations using the Harvard style (Chicago Manual of Style) Quoting from one page of a book or journal article with a single author Tayeb (1996, 59) states that “In all societies the majority of people want to do well”. OR “In all societies the majority of people want to do well” (Tayeb 1996, 59). A variation in (Tayeb, 1996: 59). This is confusing; consistency is fundamental and lecturers should be consulted. Paraphrasing from two pages Rokeach (1968, 110–111) says attitudes are difficult to measure because there is much controversy over what an attitude is. Reference to argument of a whole work Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary for corporate success. Example of book or journal article with two authors When a book or journal article has two authors, both names should be cited. 34 Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations Bean and Papadkis (1998, 219) say that “Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990”. OR “Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990” (Bean and Papadakis 1998, 219). Example of book or journal article with three authors Vecchio, Hearn, and Southey (1996, 351) say that “organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organization”. OR “Organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organization” (Vecchio, Hearn, and Southey 1996, 351). Reference to a work by more than three authors For the Harvard system, do not list the names of all authors, but only the first-named author followed by et al. ‘Et al.’ means ‘and others’. Note the use of the full-stop after al. The subject is treated in detail by Robbins and others (2001). OR In one study (Robbins et al. 2001) the subject is treated in detail. Reference to more than one work by an author or authors in the same year A lower case letter of the alphabet attached to the publication date distinguishes the different publications. The order of the letters is dictated by the alphabetical order of the title. For example, two publications by James Bell in 1981, The Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees of Africa, would be referenced as Bell (1981a) and Bell (1981b) respectively. If the publications are cited at the same time, they should be referenced as follows: Bell (1981a, 99; 1981b, 88) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts a lifetime. OR “The study of wildlife is a lifelong adventure” (Bell 1981a, 99; 1981b, 88). OR Bell (1981a, 99; 1981b, 88) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts a lifetime, Reference to more than one work in the same citation Names are listed in alphabetical order. When both name and date are in brackets, a semi-colon separates one citation from another. (Albert 1985; Allen and Kraft 1984; Kanter 1983; 1985, 99) One author quoted in the work of another The original author is quoted in-text. In the reference list you must acknowledge the original source was found in a secondary source. Adrian West (cited in Thomson 1970, 116) recommended that nursing education be made an integral part of the provincial education. 35 Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations Quoting from an anonymous author It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (Anon. 1973, 9) that ‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world.’ OR ‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world’ (Anon. 1973, 9). Reference to a corporate author The Chicago Manual of Style [CMS] (2003, 311) argues for the sparse use of capitals in reference lists, reserving these for the first word in a title or sub-title, and for proper nouns. OR CMS (2003, 311) argues for the sparse use of capitals in reference lists, reserving these for the first word in a title or sub-title, and for proper nouns. With the first reference to a corporate author, use the full name of the corporate or government entity and follow this with a readily identified abbreviation, enclosed in square brackets. In subsequent references you may use the abbreviated form. If you do this, ensure you clarify the cross reference in the subsequent references. Reference to a newspaper article If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article. However, if the author is not named, the name of the newspaper is the reference. In The Courier-Mail (2003, 5) it was reported that.... Reference to an interview, email or conversation Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal (or telephone) interview on April 21, 1999 that . . . . OR Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated that . . . (personal interview, April 21, 1999). OR In an interview (or telephone conversation) I conducted on April 21, 1999, Ms Annie Schultz revealed that . . . . Details of a personal communication do not need to be included in the reference list. Classical and religious works This includes ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have page numbers or a date of publication. Tacitus Agricola, 35.1 For Biblical reference, indicate the book, chapter, and verse(s). (These are usually consistent across all versions and translations): John 3:16 (New International Version) 36 Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations Citing material from the Internet The Internet is a vast collection of inter-connected computer networks that has greatly enhanced the sharing of information within the world. The graphical interface of the World Wide Web is the most popular method of navigating and sharing information across the networks. Most material accessed from the Internet and used for academic purposes can be found on the Web. As with print media, material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be referenced. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. Students should observe the following referencing guidelines when using and citing information from the Internet: • Each reference should provide sufficient information for a reader to identify and retrieve the Internet source used. For instance, the web address should be the actual web address used (i.e., the specific document) rather than a home page. • Each reference to an Internet source should be accompanied by the date accessed, since information on the Internet can be amended regularly. See note p. 36. • All references cited in the text of your assignment must appear in your Reference List and each entry in your Reference List must match a citation in the text. • If the URL has to be broken (i.e., its length is greater than the width of your page), do not insert a hyphen. Break the URL after a slash and continue it on the next line. In-text citations of electronic sources, known author To cite a document (journal article or other) use the title. As a last resort use only the name of the author, followed by the year of publication or latest update in parenthesis. Jones (2001) concords that the reaction was not appropriate. In-text citations of electronic sources, unknown author To cite a document without an author (journal article or other) use the title, as a last resort use the URL of the document, followed by the year of publication in parenthesis. http://netec.mcc.ac.uk/WoPEc/data/Papers//wopbawlad_007.html (2001) reported that “this has significantly eroded the region’s chances of competing in global markets”. If page numbers are not available, use the term “para” or the symbol ¶ to acknowledge which paragraph your quote has come from. (Myers 2000, ¶ 5) (American Psychological Association 2003, Conclusion section, para. 1) Other non-print media Within the text of the paper or essay, most non-print media can be referenced in the same way as any print source, using either the author (or producer/director) or the title of the film, video, production, etc. All examples of the Harvard referencing system shown in the preceding pages obviously do not by themselves give the reader complete information about sources. Such information can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a List of References or Bibliography, which is a necessary accompaniment to these systems. Compilation of bibliographies is discussed in Chapter 4. 37 Chapter 3 • Citing information 3.5 Other systems of referencing 3.5.1 The MLA (Modern Languages Association) system The MLA system is another author-date system and provides in the text the author and location, as in the following example: In the nineteenth century, the supposed golden age of American education, ‘college faculties acted as disciplinary tribunals, periodically reviewing violations of rules .....’ (Graff 25). 3.5.2 The footnoting or endnoting system This system, in varying forms, uses footnotes (references at the foot of each page) or endnotes (references at the end of the paper) to indicate the source of any direct quotations, and of any ideas, opinions, or statistical material that you have taken – not necessarily as direct quotations – from another author. Some examples of the use of the system are shown below, but they are not an exhaustive coverage of all possibilities. • Insert a number in your text for each footnote – either at the end of a sentence, after the name of an author to whom you refer, or at the end of a direct quotation. This number is called a ‘superscript’ or ‘supernumeral’. Use one series of numbers throughout the paper, a separate number for each footnote; e.g., 1–20. Place the footnote at the bottom of the page on which the reference occurs or at the end of the paper. If you wish to add an extra reference to your paper, you will need to change all the supernumerals that occur after the new reference. • In your first reference to a book or article in a footnote, give full publication details and page; e.g., J. Pierce & R. Dunham, Managing, Glenview, Illinois, Scott/Foresman, 1990, 25. Note that the author’s (or authors’) initials are placed before the surname. Some footnoting systems omit the name of the publisher in the footnote. • Thereafter, you may refer to that book or article by using the following abbreviations: ibid. (i.e., ibidem, meaning ‘in the same place’.) This is used when references to the same book or article immediately follow one another: 1. J. Pierce & R. Dunham, Managing, Glenview, Illinois, Scott/Foresman, 1990, 25. 2. ibid. (to indicate same book, same page) 3. ibid., 99. (to indicate same book, different page) op. cit. (i.e., opere citato, meaning ‘in the work cited’.) This is used when references to the same book or article do not immediately follow each other: 1. J. Pierce & R. Dunham, Managing, Glenview, Illinois, Scott/Foresman, 1990, 62. 2. B. Bass, Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research and Managerial Applications, 3rd edition, New York, The Free Press, 1990, 359. 38 Chapter 3 • Citing information 3. Pierce & Dunham, op. cit., 50. (You are referring to Pierce and Dunham’s book that you mentioned above, but not immediately above.) • If you wish to quote a statement that you have found already quoted by another author, include in your footnote both the name of the person who made the original statement and the place where you found it: 1. R. G. Menzies, quoted in L. F. Crisp, The Parliamentary Government of the Commonwealth of Australia, 3rd ed., London, Longmans, 1963, 165. • At the end of the article, chapter or paper, place a bibliography arranged in alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames, and chronologically for each author where more than one work of an author is cited. In a ‘bibliography’, include all books and articles consulted – and found useful – whether or not references were made to them. In a ‘list of references’, include only those authors you refer to by name in your text. Bibliographic entries will be discussed in Chapter 4. 3.5.3 The Vancouver System The Vancouver system is most commonly used in medical literature and also by many allied health professions. It is a variation on the footnoting or endnoting system, the main difference being that it allows more than one superior figure to be used at a time and one number to be repeated when referring to the same citation. The following are further differences found in the Vancouver system: • Minimal capitalisation is given to titles of books and articles, which should not be written in italics. • Journal articles are not placed within quotation marks. • All authors should be listed unless there are more than six. When this is the case the first three should be listed, followed by ‘et al.’. • Authors’ initials follow the surnames without the use of full stops or a space. 3.5.4 The legal footnoting system The legal discipline has its own footnoting systems. These vary from country to country. The Australian conventions are set out in the works listed in the Annotated Bibliography. In the legal discipline it is not conventional to use the Harvard System or any of its variants. Occasionally, some legal journals use the Harvard System (or a variant of it), but students should not use it unless writing for these journals and this type of footnoting referencing system is stipulated in the journal’s style guide. With the influence of the ‘Plain English’ movement in the legal discipline, the use of Latin terms such as ‘infra’ and ‘supra’ is diminishing. Students should use the English equivalents (i.e., below and above). The works in the Annotated Bibliography provide a complete list of the English equivalents for Latin terms. Latin terms, may, of course, be used for legal terms in the body of the assignment if this is appropriate. 39 Chapter 3 • Citing information Students should never cite material they have not personally consulted. If it is necessary to refer to a source cited by an author in a work cited that you have not personally consulted, use the following convention: See S Fisher, Commercial and Personal Property Law (Butterworths, Sydney, 1997), p 379 (n 38), citing SJ Stoljar, A History of Contract at Common Law, (ANU Press, Canberra, 1975), pp 7–15. Use of the Internet within the legal discipline If you are preparing assignments or reports within the legal discipline, it is recommended that you consult with the requirements of your individual school. Within the legal discipline, there are several variations of referencing and citing material from the Internet available. 3.6 EndNote EndNote is bibliographic management software that allows researchers to record, organise and use references and to manage information. It is a powerful tool that will help you manage your references and write your assignments. QUT holds a site licence that makes this software available to current QUT staff and students. EndNote is especially helpful in: • creating a database (a library) of references for a specific topic; • directly searching the QUT Library catalogue; • organising references and images; • downloading references directly from library catalogues or other remote bibliographic databases; e.g., ScienceDirect or PsycINFO; • linking references into word processed documents; • generating a bibliography in a specific style, especially for publication. EndNote has over 1000 output styles including AGPS, APA, Harvard and many particular to individual journals; e.g., Journal of Educational Psychology. Obtaining EndNote software Endnote software is available to, and can be used by, all current QUT staff and students only. Ex-staff and ex-students of QUT are not permitted to retain or use the software. The software, including an online complete version of the EndNote manual, can be obtained by either: • downloading it from the QUT Library website at www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/ download.jsp • borrowing the appropriate software in CD-ROM format from the Library. There are several copies of the CD-ROM available at each branch library. To locate the call number, do a title search in the Library Catalogue on the title EndNote. 40 Chapter 3 • Citing information Learning more about EndNote For more information on EndNote go to www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/ where you can • download the EndNote software available to QUT students and staff; • choose from several EndNote online tutorials produced by QUT and other universities; • access an Online Learning and Teaching (OLT) site dedicated to EndNote training; • learn more about EndNote filters; • learn more about EndNote styles; • download EndNote Connect files for specific library catalogues; • book online for EndNote training courses. QUT Library also provides EndNote technical assistance for all staff and postgraduate students. The contacts of the QUT EndNote Helpdesk are on the following webpage: www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/assistance.jsp 41 Chapter 4 Compiling lists of references and bibliographies Students are often confused in the use of the terms ‘list of references’ and ‘bibliography’. This confusion is not surprising, as the different referencing systems use the words in different ways. (See References and Bibliographies, Chapter 2, p. 20, and Chapter 3). The concentration here will be on conventions used in writing lists of references and bibliographies for the author-date systems. It cannot be over-emphasised that there is no one correct form. Authorities differ among themselves, but the differences are about matters of detail, such as punctuation, rather than about fundamentals. A particular form should be chosen and then used consistently. Some professional bodies lay down that a particular form must be used to ensure consistency; it does not imply that the required form is considered the only correct one. Always check with your lecturer to find out what is required. References cited in the text must appear in the reference list. The text citation and reference list entry must be the same. Because one purpose of listing references is to enable readers to find and use the sources for themselves, reference data must be complete and correct (APA, 2001). 4.1 References and bibliographies in the author-date systems At the end of your essay or paper, place a list of references or a bibliography arranged in alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames, and chronologically for each author where more than one work of an author is cited. • AGPS The term ‘References’ is used to indicate all those works cited in the text. ‘Bibliography’ is reserved for those works not cited but relevant to the subject. A list of references is compulsory and a bibliography is optional. • APA The term ‘References’ is used to indicate all those works cited in the text. A Bibliography is not used with the APA system. • Harvard The traditional Harvard System uses the terms ‘Works Cited’, ‘Works Consulted’, ‘Literature Cited’, or ‘References’ to refer only to those works cited in the text. 42 Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing ‘Bibliography’ is used for a combined list of all works cited in the text and other relevant works consulted in the preparation of the text. You should consider carefully which non-cited works you include in your bibliography and should not use the bibliography to make your research look more impressive than it actually was. Be guided by your school or lecturer as to which convention you are to follow. 4.1.1 Examples of entries in lists of references and bibliographies – AGPS style BOOKS The information needed for books is the author’s(s’) name(s), initials, date of publication, place of publication, publisher, and edition. If more than one place of publication is identified, use the first one named. These examples deal only with the cases most commonly encountered by students. For more information refer to more detailed works such as the style manuals listed in the Annotated Bibliography. Book: one author Generally only the author’s initials should be used. However, the author’s given name may be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with the same initials. Do not place a full-stop after the author’s initial(s). Rowling JK, 2003, Harry Potter and the order of the phoenix, Bloomsbury, London. Book: two authors Purdie, N & Smith, D 1999, Case studies in teaching and learning: Australian perspectives, Prentice Hall, Sydney. Book: three authors Meadmore, D, Burnett, B & O’Brien, P 1999, Understanding education: contexts and agendas for the new millennium, Prentice Hall, Sydney. Book: more than three authors All authors’ names are listed in the ‘List of References’ or ‘Bibliography’, even when et al. is used in the textual reference. (See Chapter 3.) Robbins, SP, Millett, B, Cacioppe, R & Waters-Marsh, T 2001, Organisational behaviour: leading and managing in Australia and New Zealand, Prentice Hall, Sydney. Book: edition other than the first Bevington, PR & Robinson, DK 1992, Data reduction and error analysis for the physical sciences, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, Melbourne. Book: authors(s) unknown Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note of the author’s name during your reading. 43 Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing The Macquarie dictionary and thesaurus, 1991, 2nd edn, Herron Publications by arrangement with The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. Book: editor (or compiler, reviser, translator) as ‘author’ Often a book is a collection of writings – called ‘readings’, ‘papers’ or ‘essays’ – by different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more persons. Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more often to one particular article in the book. However, if you were using a system that required a bibliography, you would include an edited work in the Bibliography. Hussey, DE (ed.) 1995, Rethinking strategic management, Wiley & Sons, London. Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by another Kabanoff, B 1997, ‘Organisational justice across cultures: integrating organisationlevel and culture-level perspectives’, in PC Earley & M Erez (eds), New perspectives on international industrial/organisational psychology, New Lexington Press, San Francisco, pp. 676-712. If the book states that the author wrote the component part in a different year from the publication of the book, an alternative form is to put the year of writing after the name of the author and finish the entry with the book’s full imprint. Sometimes editors (or compilers) include one or more of their own writings in such a work. The same form is used, thus requiring repetition of their name. Book: corporate authorship It is important that the textual reference agrees in all details with the entry in the List of References. Curriculum Corporation 1995, National principles and guidelines for Aboriginal studies and Torres Strait Islander studies, K-12, Curriculum Corporation, Melbourne. Government publications Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated. They are therefore not treated here. Refer to the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 2002, 220–228), which is available in most libraries. Quoting from a secondary source This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find the words in a secondary source, not in the author’s original writing (the primary source). The referencing you use should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the primary source. In the example given in Chapter 3, West’s words were found in a book written by Thomson. Your List of References should include an entry for Thomson’s book, not West’s: Thomson, JG 1970, Nursing education in Ontario, Milestone Press, Toronto. 44 Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing ‘Standard’ reference works These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new editions come out fairly frequently. They are entered under the title even though an editor is mentioned in the title page. Editors come and go over the years and consequently these works are usually known by title. It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be mentioned. The Macquarie illustrated world atlas 1984, Macquarie Library, Sydney. Unpublished material Unpublished material is difficult to treat as an entity, as the details will vary according to the nature of the document. Check with the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 2002, 207). PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS Conference proceedings Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are listed in the same manner as multi-author books. Hart, G, Albrecht, M, Bull, R & Marshall, L 1992, ‘Peer consultation: a professional development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings’, in Infront, Outback – Conference Proceedings, Australian Rural Health Conference, Toowoomba, pp. 143–148. ERIC documents Imel, S 2002, Career development for meaningful life work, Washington, DC: Office of educational research and improvement, ERIC document reproduction service No. ED 467240. Journal article Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are included in the list of references or bibliographic entry for a journal. French, E 2001, ‘Approaches to equity management and their relationship to women in management’, British Journal of Management, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 267–285. Johnson I 2002, ‘The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 99–114. In scientific works the titles of journals are often abbreviated, but only for the appropriate readership of the paper. If you were writing an assignment in Education, for example, and quoting from a scientific journal, you would not abbreviate the title of that journal. If, however, your assignment was in Physics, it may be appropriate to do so. An example of a reference in the Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments would be: Moore, GI, Stacey, FD, Tuck, GJ, Goodwin, BD, & Roth, A 1988, ‘A balance for precise weighing in a disturbed environment’, J Phys E: Sc. Instru, vol. 21, pp. 534–539. 45 Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing In scientific publications, when the title is abbreviated, take careful note of how the abbreviations are presented, as you must present them exactly as they are shown. This instruction applies to punctuation as well as to the letters in the abbreviations themselves. Newspapers If the name of the author of a newspaper article is known, the same format is used as for journal articles, with volume and series information being replaced by the day and the month. Alexander, M 2003, ‘The tribute that brought a tear to Hayden’s eye’, Sunday Mail, 7 December, p. 13 If the article has no obvious author, and the details have been provided in the in-text citation, there is no need for an entry in the reference list: Note that the article “The” is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper’s name. As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English-speaking world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication. Plays and poetry Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as the following: Murray, L Blood, verse 9, line 2. Williamson, D Don’s Party, act 2. Referencing external studies material Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by the University for students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your List of References: Sumner, R 1991, ‘Test types’ in CUB443 Module two readings (1993), Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled ‘Test Types’ and is included in Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993. The book was published in Brisbane by QUT. Queensland University of Technology 1993, CUB443 Module One Notes, Brisbane, QUT. In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed to be the University as corporate author. Only the one date (1993) applies in this case. In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source. Hence, ‘Sumner (1993, 52) states that . . . ‘ refers the reader to page 52 of the 1993 QUT booklet. 46 Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing REFERENCING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET Book chapter on the CMD Flores, A 1988, ‘Introduction: What kind of person should a professional be?’, in A. Flores Professional Idea, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, pp. 1–11. Queensland University of Technology, Course Materials Database, viewed 20 November 2003, <https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd/HUB007/HUB007_BK_4764.pdf>. Document available on University program or department Web site Robertson, M (Acting Copyright Officer) 2003, QUT Copyright Guide, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, viewed 20 November 2003, <http://www.tils.qut.edu.au/copyright /crguidefrontpage.html>. Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original) Vessenes, PM 2003, ‘The secrets of managing your time’ Journal of Financial Planning, vol. 16, iss. 8, pp. 30-32, viewed 20 November, 2003, <http://gateway.library.qut.edu. au:2052/pqdlink?index= 16&did=000000394421021&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt= 6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1069707779&c lientId=14394>. Journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from a database (exact replica of original) Kabot, S, Masi, W & Segal, M 2003, ‘Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders’, Professional psychology: Research and practice, vol. 34, pp. 26-33, viewed 20 November 2003, <http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au:2060/ embimages/pdh2/pro/pro34126.pdf>. Journal article – (Available only on-line, with no hard copy equivalent) Glogoff, S 2001, ‘Virtual connections: community bonding on the Net’, First Monday, vol. 6, no. 3, viewed 20 November 2003, <http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_3/ glogoff/index.html>. Journal article on the CMD (Course Materials Database) The CMD provides journal articles in two ways: 1) Scanned images of a print journal; 2) Links to the full text of an article in a full-text database. The reference below pertains to a journal article from the QUT Course Materials Database that is a scanned image of a print journal. When citing a journal article linked from the CMD to a full-text database, use the format for Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original) Gillam, L 1993, ‘Experimenting on human subjects: the ethical issues’, Bioethics News, vol. 12, no. 3. pp. 30–47, viewed 20 November 2003, <https://cmd.qut.edu. au/cmd/HUB009 /HUB009_AR_7662.pdf>. 47 Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing Newspaper article – Internet equivalent of a print newspaper article King, D ‘Charter a course for green unis’, Australian, 3 October 2001, viewed 20 November 2003, <www.theaustralian.news.com.au>. Resource materials provided on OLT Eugarde, S 2001, PYB012 Introduction to Psychology: Abnormal behaviour (psychological disorders), from Queensland University of Technology Online Learning and Teaching Web site, viewed 20 November 2003, <https://olt.qut.edu.au/hlth/PYB012/ sec/index.cfm?fa=getFile&rNum=887845>. Web document with author Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 1997, Australia’s Welfare 1997: Services and assistance. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, ACT, viewed 20 November 2003, <www.aihw.gov.au /publications/welfare/aw97/>. Web document – no author identified The cost of the Troubles survey: Final report 1999, viewed 20 November 2003, www. incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/publication/research/cott/index.html>. Website (e.g., organisational or personal homepage, subject gateway) Amnesty International, London, 2001, viewed 20 October 2003, <www.amnesty. org/>. OTHER NON-PRINT MEDIA As these differ markedly from one another, they cannot all be treated here separately. However, videos are written in a list of references or in a bibliography as follows: Babakiueria, 1986, Produced by Julian Pringle. Directed by Don Featherstone, Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Video recording. 48 Chapter 4 • APA Referencing 4.1.2 Examples of entries in lists of references and bibliographies – APA style BOOKS The information needed for books is the author’s(s’) name(s), initials, date of publication, place of publication, publisher, and edition. If more than one place of publication is identified, use the first one named. These examples deal only with the cases most commonly encountered by students. For more information refer to the APA manual. Check with your school lecturer or unit outline as to which style you should use. Book: one author Generally only the author’s initials should be used. However, the author’s given name may be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with the same initials. R owling, J. K. (2003). Harry Potter and the order of the phoenix. London: Chapman & Hall. Book: two authors Purdie, N., & Smith, D. (1999). Case studies in teaching and learning: Australian perspective. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Book: three authors Meadmore, D., Burnett, B., & O’Brien, P. (1999). Understanding education: Contexts and agendas for the new millennium. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Book: three to six authors Robbins, S. P., Millett, B., Cacioppe, R., & Waters-Marsh, T. (2001). Organisational behaviour: Leading and managing in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Book: more than six authors For the APA system, cite the names of the first six authors, and replace the seventh and subsequent authors with et al. Book: edition other than the first Bevington, P. R., & Robinson, D. K. (1992). Data reduction and error analysis for the physical sciences (2nd ed.). Melbourne: McGraw Hill. Book: authors(s) unknown Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note of the author’s name during your reading. The Macquarie dictionary and thesaurus. (2nd ed.). (1991). West End, Queensland: Herron Publications by arrangement with The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. 49 Chapter 4 • APA Referencing Book: editor (or compiler, reviser, translator) as ‘author’ Often a book is a collection of writings – called ‘readings’, ‘papers’ or ‘essays’ – by different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more persons. Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more often to one particular article in the book. H ussey, D. E. (Ed.). (1995). Rethinking strategic management. London: Wiley & Sons. Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by another Kabanoff, B. (1997). Organisational justice across cultures: Integrating organisationlevel and culture-level perspectives. In P. C. Earley, & M. Erez (Eds.), New perspectives on international/organisational psychology (pp. 676–712). San Francisco: The New Lexington Press. If the book states that the author wrote the component part in a different year from the publication of the book, an alternative form is to put the year of writing after the name of the author and finish the entry with the book’s full imprint. Sometimes editors (or compilers) include one or more of their own writings in such a work. The same form is used, thus requiring repetition of their name. Book: corporate authorship It is important that the textual reference agrees in all details with the entry in the List of References. Curriculum Corporation. (1995). National principles and guidelines for Aboriginal studies and Torres Strait Islander studies. Melbourne: K–12, CC. Government publications Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated. They are therefore not treated here. Government publications are usually written in the AGPS system. Plays and poetry Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as the following: Murray, Les, Blood, verse 9, line 2. Williamson, David, Don’s Party, Act 2. Quoting from a secondary source This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find the words in a secondary source, not in the author’s original writing (the primary source). The referencing you use should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the primary source. In the example given in Chapter 3, West’s words were found in a book written by Thomson. 50 Chapter 4 • APA Referencing Your List of References should include an entry for Thomson’s book, not West’s: Thomson, J. G. (1970). Nursing education in Ontario. Toronto: Milestone Press. ‘Standard’ reference works These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new editions come out fairly frequently. They are entered under the title even though an editor is mentioned in the title page. Editors come and go over the years and consequently these works are usually known by title. It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be mentioned. The Macquarie illustrated world atlas. (1984). Sydney: Macquarie Library. PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS Conference proceedings Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are referenced in the same manner as multi-author books. Hart, G., Albrecht, M., Bull, R., & Marshall, L. (1992). Peer consultation: A professional development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings. Infront, Outback – Conference Proceedings (pp. 143–148). Toowomba: Australian Rural Health Conference. ERIC Documents Imel, S. (2002). Career development for meaningful life work (Report No. EDO-CE-02237). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED467240). Journal article Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are included in the list of references or bibliographic entry for a journal. French, E. (2001). Approaches to equity management and their relationship to women in management. British Journal of Management, 12(4), 267–285. Johnson, I. (2002). The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 12(2), 99–114. Newspapers If the name of the author of a newspaper article is known, the same format is used as for journal articles, with volume and series information being replaced by the day and the month. Alexander, M. (2003, December 7). The tribute that brought a tear to Hayden’s eye. Sunday Mail, p. 13. If the article has no obvious author, the form of entry is: Ex-governor’s view criticised. (1999, April 20). Courier-Mail, p. 3. 51 Chapter 4 • APA Referencing These same details should be provided in the textual citation. (See Chapter 3.) Note that the article ‘The’ is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper’s name. As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English-speaking world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication. Referencing external studies material Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by the University for students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your ‘List of References’: Sumner, R. (1991). Test types. In CUB443 Module two readings (1993). Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled ‘Test Types’ and is included in Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993. The book was published in Brisbane by QUT. Queensland University of Technology. (1993). CUB443 Module one notes. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed to be the University as corporate author. Only the one date (1993) applies in this case. In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source. Hence, “Sumner (1993, p. 52) states that . . .” refers the reader to page 52 of the 1993 QUT booklet. REFERENCING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET Information is given here on selected sources from the Internet. Two different styles of referencing have been provided: Book chapter on the CMD (Course Materials Database) Flores, A. (1998). Introduction: What kind of person should a professional be. In A. Flores (Ed.), Professional ideas (pp. 1–11). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from Queensland University of Technology, Course Materials Database: https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd /HUB007/HUB007_BK_4764.pdf Document available on university program or department Web site Robertson, M. (2003). QUT copyright guide. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from Queensland University of Technology, Division of Technology, Information and Learning Support Web site: http://www.tils.qut.edu.au/copyright/crguidefrontpage. html Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original) Vessenes, P. M. (2003). The secrets of managing your time [Electronic version]. Journal of Financial Planning, 16(8), 30–32 52 Chapter 4 • APA Referencing Journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from a database (exact replica of original) Kabot, S., Masi, W., & Segal, M. (2003). Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders [Electronic version]. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 26–33 Journal article – (Available only on-line, with no hard copy equivalent) Glogoff, S. (2001, March 7). Virtual connections: community bonding on the Net. First Monday, 6 (3). Retrieved November 20, 2003, from www.firstmonday.org/issues/ issue6_3/glogoff/index.html Journal article on the CMD The CMD provides journal articles in two ways: 1) Scanned images of a print journal; 2) Links to the full text of an article, in a fulltext database. The reference below pertains to a journal article from the QUT Course Materials Database that is a scanned image of a print journal. When citing a journal article linked from the CMD to a fulltext database, use the format for Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original) Gilam, L. (1993). Experimenting on human subjects: The ethical issues. Bioethics News, 12(3), 30-47. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from Queensland University of Technology, Course Materials Database: https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd/HUB009/ HUB009_AR_7662.pdf. Newspaper article – Internet equivalent of a print newspaper article King, D. (2001, October 3). Charter a course for green unis. The Australian. Retrieved November 20, 2003 from www.theaustralian.news.com.au Resource materials provided on OLT Eugarde, S. (2001). PYB012 Introduction to psychology: Abnormal behaviour (psychological disorders). Retrieved November 20, 2003, from Queensland University of Technology, Online Learning and Teaching Web site: https://olt.qut. edu.au/hlth/PYB012/sec/index.cfm?fa =getFile&rNum=887845 Web document with author Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (1997). Australia’s welfare 1997: Services and assistance. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from http://www.aihw.gov.au/ publications/welfare/aw97/ Web document – no author identified The cost of the Troubles survey: Final report. (1999). Retrieved November 20, 2003, from www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/publication/research/cott/index.html 53 Chapter 4 • APA Referencing Website (e.g., organisational or personal homepage, subject gateway) Amnesty International. (2001). Amnesty International on-line:Human rights website. Retrieved October 20, 2003, from www.amnesty.org/ OTHER NON-PRINT MEDIA As these also differ markedly from one another, they cannot all be treated here separately. However, videos are written in a list of references or in a bibliography as follows: Pringle, J. (Producer) & Featherstone, D. (Director). (1986). Babakiueria [Motion picture]. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 54 Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing 4.1.3 Examples of references and bibliographies – Harvard style BOOKS The information needed for books is the author’s(s’) name(s), initials, date of publication, place of publication, publisher, and edition. If more than one place of publication is identified, use the first one named. These examples deal only with the cases most commonly encountered by students. For more information refer to more detailed works such as the style manuals listed in the Annotated Bibliography. Book: one author Generally only the author’s initials should be used. However, the author’s given name may be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with the same initials. Rowling, J. K. 2003. Harry Potter and the order of the phoenix. London: Bloomsbury. An alternative punctuation with Harvard is to use a comma rather than a colon after the place of publication. Examples given in The Written Assignment will, however, use the colon. Book: two authors Purdie, N. and D. Smith. 1999. Case studies in teaching and learning: Australian perspectives. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Note in Harvard that for the second (and subsequent) authors, the initial(s) precede their name. Book: three authors Meadmore, D., B. Burnett and P. O’Brien. 1999. Understanding education: Contexts and agendas for the new millennium. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Book: four to ten authors Robbins, S. P., B. Millett, R. Cacioppe, and T. Waters-Marsh. 2001. Organisational behaviour: Leading and managing in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Book: more than ten authors For the Harvard system, list the first seven authors mentioned on the title page, followed by “et al.” Book: edition other than the first Bevington, P. R. and D. K. Robinson. 1992. Data reduction and error analysis for the physical sciences. 2nd ed. Melbourne: McGraw Hill. 55 Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing Book: authors(s) unknown Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note of the author’s name during your reading. The Macquarie dictionary and thesaurus. 1991. West End, Qld: Herron Publications by arrangement with The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd.. Book: editor (or compiler, reviser, translator) as ‘author’ Often a book is a collection of writings – called ‘readings’, ‘papers’ or ‘essays’ – by different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more persons. Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more often to one particular article in the book. However, if you were using a system that required a bibliography, you would include an edited work in the Bibliography. Hussey, D. E. ed. 1995. Rethinking strategic management. London: Wiley & Sons. Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by another Kabanoff, B. 1997. Organisational justice across cultures: Integrating organisation-level and culture-level perspectives. In New Perspectives on International/Organisational Psychology, ed. P. C. Earley and M. Erez, 676-712. San Francisco: The New Lexington Press. If the book states that the author wrote the component part in a different year from the publication of the book, an alternative form is to put the year of writing after the name of the author and finish the entry with the book’s full imprint. Sometimes editors (or compilers) include one or more of their own writings in such a work. The same form is used, thus requiring repetition of their name. Book: corporate authorship It is important that the textual reference agrees in all details with the entry in the List of References. Curriculum Corporation. 1995. National principles and guidelines for Aboriginal studies and Torres Strait Islander studies. Melbourne: K–12, CC. Government publications Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated. They are therefore not treated here. Quoting from a secondary source This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find the words in a secondary source, not in the author’s original writing (the primary source). The referencing should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the primary source. In the example given in Chapter 3, West’s words were found in a book written by Thomson. 56 Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing The References should include an entry for West’s book, followed by the ‘quoted in’ information West, A. quoted in J. G. Thomson 1970. Nursing education in Ontario. Toronto: Milestone Press. ‘Standard’ reference works These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new editions come out fairly frequently. They are entered under the title even though an editor is mentioned in the title page. Editors come and go over the years and consequently these works are usually known by title. It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be mentioned. The Macquarie illustrated world atlas. 1984. Sydney: Macquarie Library. PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS Conference proceedings Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are referenced in the same manner as multiauthor books. Hart, G., M. Albrecht, R. Bull, and L. Marshall. 1992. Peer consultation: A professional development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings. In Infront, Outback – Conference Proceedings, 143–148. Toowoomba: Australian Rural Health Conference. ERIC Documents Imel, S. 2002. Career development for meaningful life work. Washington, DC: Office of educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 467240). Journal article Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are included in the list of references or bibliographic entry for a journal. French, E. 2001. Approaches to equity management and their relationship to women in management. British Journal of Management, 12 (4): 267–285. Johnson, I. 2002. The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 12 (2): 99–114. In scientific works the titles of journals are often abbreviated, but only for the appropriate readership of the paper. If you were writing an assignment in Education, for example, and quoting from a scientific journal, you would not abbreviate the title of that journal. If, however, your assignment was in Physics, it may be appropriate to do so. An example of a reference in the Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments would be: Moore, G. I., F. D. Stacey, G. J. Tuck, B. D. Goodwin, and A. Roth. 1988. A balance for precise weighing in a disturbed environment. J. Phys. E: Sci. Instru. 21:534–539. 57 Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing In scientific publications, when the title is abbreviated, take careful note of how the abbreviations are presented, as you must present them exactly as they are shown. This instruction applies to punctuation as well as to the letters in the abbreviations themselves. Newspapers Alexander, M. 2003. The tribute that brought a tear to Hayden’s eye. Sunday Mail, December 7, 13. If the article has no obvious author, the form of entry is: Courier-Mail. 1999. Ex-governor’s view criticised. April 20, 3. These same details should be provided in the textual citation. (See Chapter 3.) Note that the article ‘The’ is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper’s name. As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English-speaking world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication. Plays and poetry Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as the following: Murray, Les. Blood. verse 9, line 2. Williamson, David, Don’s Party. Act 2. Referencing external studies material Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by the University for students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your ‘List of References’: Sumner, R. 1991. Test types. In CUB443 Module Two Readings (1993). Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology. In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled ‘Test Types’ and is included in Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993. The book was published in Brisbane by QUT. Queensland University of Technology 1993. CUB443 Module One Notes. Brisbane: QUT. In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed to be the University as corporate author. Only the one date (1993) applies in this case. In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source. Hence, “Sumner (1993, 52) states that . . .” refers the reader to page 52 of the 1993 QUT booklet. Unpublished material Unpublished material is difficult to treat as an entity, as the details will vary according to the nature of the document. Check the Chicago Manual of Style (2003) for details on how to reference this. 58 Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing REFERENCING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET Book chapter on the CMD (Course Materials Database) Flores, A. 1998. Introduction: What kind of person should a professional be. In A. Flores (Ed.), Professional Ideas, ed. A. Flores, 1–11. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Queensland University of Technology: Course Materials Database https://cmd.qut. edu.au/cmd/HUB007/HUB007_BK_4764.pdf (accessed November 20, 2003). Document available on university program or department Website Robertson, M. 2003. QUT Copyright guide. Queensland University of Technology, Division of Technology, Information and Learning Support Web site: www.tils.qut. edu.au/copyright /crguidefrontpage.html (accessed November 20, 2003). Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original) Vessenes, P. M. 2003. The secrets of managing your time. Journal of Financial Planning, 16 (8): 30–32. (accessed November 20, 2003, from ProQuest: Accounting and Tax database). Journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from a database (exact replica of original) Kabot, S., W. Masi, and M. Segal. 2003. Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34:26–33. (accessed November 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database). Journal article – (Available only on-line, with no hard copy equivalent) Glogoff, S. 2001. Virtual connections: community bonding on the Net. First Monday, 6 (3). www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_3/glogoff/index.html (accessed November 20, 2003). Journal article on the CMD The CMD provides journal articles in two ways: 1) Scanned images of a print journal; 2) Links to the full text of an article in a fulltext database. The reference below pertains to a journal article from the QUT Course Materials Database that is a scanned image of a print journal. When citing a journal article linked from the CMD to a full-text database, use the format for Journal article – from a full-text database Gilam, L. 1993. Experimenting on human subjects: the ethical issues. Bioethics News, 12(3): 30–47. Queensland University of Technology, Course Materials Database https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd/HUB009/HUB009_AR_7662.pdf (accessed November 20, 2003). Newspaper article – Internet equivalent of a print newspaper article King, D. 2001. Charter a course for green unis. The Australian, October 3, 2001. www.theaustralian.news.com.au (accessed November 20, 2003). 59 Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing Resource materials provided on OLT Eugarde, S. 2001. PYB012 Introduction to psychology: Abnormal behaviour (psychological disorders). Queensland University of Technology, Online Learning and Teaching Web site: https://olt.qut.edu.au/hlth/PYB012/sec/index.cfm?fa=getFile&rNu m=887845 (accessed November 20, 2003). Web document with author Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 1997. Australia’s welfare 1997: Services and assistance. www.aihw.gov.au/publications/welfare/aw97/ (accessed November 20, 2003). Web document – no author identified The cost of the Troubles survey: Final report. 1999. www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/ publication/research/cott/index.html (accessed November 20, 2003). Website (e.g., organisational or personal homepage, subject gateway) Amnesty International. 2001. Amnesty International on-line: Human rights website. www.amnesty.org/ (accessed October 20, 2003). Retrieved October 20, 2003, from www.amnesty.org/. OTHER NON-PRINT MEDIA As these also differ markedly from one another, they cannot all be treated here separately. However, videos are written in a list of references or in a bibliography as follows: Babakiueria. (1986) Produced by Julian Pringle and directed by Don Featherstone. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation [Video recording: VHS]. 60 Chapter 4 • Referencing 4.2 Writing a bibliography for the footnoting or endnoting system These systems use the term ‘bibliography’. At the end of your essay or paper, place a bibliography arranged in alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames, and chronologically for each author where more than one work of an author is cited. Include all books and articles consulted – and found useful – whether or not references were taken from them. The temptation in using this system is to include ALL works consulted, whether useful or not. This may make your bibliography look impressive, but it would not be a true reflection of the range of your reading on a topic. If you use endnoting you will have two lists at the end of your paper. One list will be titled ‘References’ with each entry having a number corresponding to the superscript in the text; entries will be in the order in which they appear in the text. The second list will be titled ‘Bibliography’. If you use footnoting you will have the numbered references at the foot of each page, and then the Bibliography at the end of the paper. Items in a Bibliography are placed in alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames. (See Chapter 3.) They are NOT numbered, as the numbers could be confused with the numbers used for footnotes or endnotes. Entries in a bibliography should be as follows: • For a book Punch, P. Australian Industrial Law, Sydney, CCH Australia Limited, 1995. • For an article Bennis, W. ‘Dealing with the way things are’, Executive Excellence, 8 (2), February 1991, pp. 9-11. Note that a bibliographic entry is similar to a first reference in a footnote, but differs in two ways: • Where the entry in the bibliography is a book, no page numbers are given. Where the entry is a journal, the page numbers of the entire article are given. Page numbers of individual references are always given, where possible, in footnotes or endnotes. • In the bibliography, the author’s surname is put first, followed by the initials. In the footnote, the initials are put first. 4.3 Legal bibliographies For books the following form should be used – the author’s surname, followed by the title, the edition, the publisher and the volume number. The title should be in italics. Greig, DW & NA Gunningham, Commercial Law, 3rd ed, Sydney, Butterworths, 1988. 61 Chapter 4 • Referencing For journal articles the following form should be used: Roberts, HR “The Law Relating to Contracts with Government and Public Authorities” (1991) 7 QUTLJ 1. Also see bibliography for more texts. For electronic serials on the Internet, an example is: McGregor-Lowndes, Myles and Davidson, Alan. Practical Strategies for Using Computers in Legal Education. E Law – Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law [online]. July, 1995 [cited 1 August 1996]. Available from Internet <URL: www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v2n2/mcgregor.txt> Unless requested, it is not necessary or conventional for an annotated bibliography to be included in legal assignment work. It is not necessary to include a Table of Cases or a Table of Statutes, unless either or both of these tables are to be included in the assignment under the assignment instructions. 4.4 Works cited for the MLA system The MLA system uses a list called ‘Works Cited’ in the same way as the author-date systems use ‘References’. A reference to a book by one author would appear in the ‘Works Cited’ as: Adams, Ian. Political ideology today. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993. An example of an entry for a journal article is: Fulwiler, Toby. “How Well Does Writing across the Curriculum Work?” College English 46 (1984): 113–25. Check the bibliography for further good advice. 4.5 Annotated bibliographies An annotated bibliography gives the bibliographic details of the publication along with a few sentences describing its content. The publication may be a book, a chapter in a book of readings, or an article. A useful reference for the writing of annotated bibliographies is an on-line publication published by the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and listed in the Annotated Bibliography at the end of this book. 62 Appendix A Directive words Analyse Show the essence of something by breaking it down into its component parts and examining each part in detail. Argue Present the case for and against a particular proposition. Compare Look for similarities and differences between propositions. Contrast Place the two propositions in opposition in order to show the differences between them. Criticise Give your judgment about the merit of theories or opinions about the truth of facts, and back your judgment by a discussion of evidence. Critically'Critically examine … ' The writer should 'examine' carefully and attempt to find merit or faults, expecially the latter. Define Set down the precise meaning of a word or phrase. Show that the distinctions implied in the definition are necessary. Describe Give a detailed or graphic account of the characteristics of the subject. Differentiate Show the difference between two things by determining their distinctions. Discuss Investigate or examine by argument, sift and debate, giving reasons for and against. Enumerate List or specify and describe one by one. Evaluate Make an appraisal of the worth of something, in the light of its apparent truth or utility. Include your personal opinion, supported by evidence. Explain Make clear, interpret, and account for in detail. Explore Thoroughly enquire into a topic by examining and analysing every aspect of it. Illustrate Explain and make clear by the use of concrete examples or by the use of figure diagrams. 63 Interpret Bring out the meaning of, and make clear and explicit; usually also giving your own judgment. Investigate Search, study and carefully survey all areas of the subject. Justify Defend or show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions. Outline Give the main points or general principles of a subject, omitting minor details, and emphasising structure and relationship. Prove Demonstrate truth or falsity by presenting evidence. Relate Narrate or show how things are connected to each other and to what extent they are alike or affect each other. Review Make a survey of, examining the subject critically. Selectively The writer does not have to cover all aspects of the field, but selects. The selection is usually clarified in the introduction. 'Selectively review the reasons for … ' State Specify details fully and clearly. Summarise Give a concise account of the chief points or substance of a matter, omitting details and examples. Trace Identify and describe the development or course of history of a topic from some point or origin. [Adapted from Marshall and Rowland 1998, 88.] 64 Appendix B Abbreviations ©., copyright c., circa, about a certain date (as in ‘c. 1901’) cf., confer, compare ed., eds, editor(s) edn, edns, edition(s) e.g., exempli gratia, for example et al., et alii, ‘and others’ (used when a book has several authors as in ‘P. March et al.’) etc., et cetera, and so forth et seq., et sequentes, ‘and following’ (as in ‘pp. 64 et seq.’) f., ff., ‘and the following’ (to refer to page numbers) fig., figs, figure(s) fol., fols, folio(s) ibid., ibidem, ‘in the same work’ (as previously cited) id., idem, the same i.e., id est, that is loc. cit., loco citato, ‘in the same place (already) cited’ (that is, in the same passage referred to in a recent reference note) MS, MSS., manuscriptum(a), manuscript(s) NB., nota bene, note well n.d., no date (of publication) n.p., no place (of publication) non seq, non sequitur, it does not follow op.cit., opere citato, in the work (recently) cited p., pp. page(s) para., paras, paragraph(s) PS, PSS, postscriptum(a), postscript(s) sec., s., ss., section (in legislation) (sic), ‘thus ss’ (to guarantee exact quotation when the reader might doubt this) v., vv., verse(s) v. versus, against 65 Appendix C The presentation of quantitative and symbolic information Numerical values, equations, graphs and tabulated information are common in many fields, especially in technical or report writing. It is important not only to maintain a consistent style in presentation of such information but also to present the information in an unambiguous, concise fashion. This appendix presents some guidelines and conventions that you may find useful. For further information you should consult the appropriate Standards Australia publications, (AS1000 1976 and AS2900 1986). Quantities, units and symbols A number, by itself, is a rare and usually meaningless entity. Numbers associated with physical quantities, with a few exceptions, are always accompanied by a unit. The use of units is not merely an exercise in pedantry, but is absolutely necessary if you wish to convey useful information. For example, if you asked the question ‘How far is it to the next town?’ and the reply was ‘Twenty’, then you might assume that the town was twenty kilometres distant. It was, in fact, twenty miles away and you ran out of fuel before reaching it! A quantity refers to the ‘stuff’ that you are enumerating. For example, volume is a quantity as are mass, temperature and the number of apples in a box. A unit defines how a number relates to a given quantity. To take the three examples above: Volume might be measured in cubic metres or litres, mass in kilograms or tonnes and the number of apples in the box is ten apples not simply ten, since ‘ten’ can also refer to half apples. A symbol in this context is the abbreviation used to refer to a unit in written material. For example, metres or metre is abbreviated as m. Australia has now legally adopted the ‘metric system’ or more accurately the Systeme International d’Unites (SI units). However, there are many non-SI units still in common use. Table 1 lists some selected quantities and associated units. 66 Table 1. Selected Quantities, Units and Symbols Quantity Length Mass Time Force Electric current Electric potential Electrical resistance Energy Plane Angle Area Volume Frequency Pressure Power Temperature a b c Unit metre millimetre kilometre kilogram milligram gram tonne second minute hour day year newton kilonewton ampere volt ohm joule kilojoule kilowatt hour degree minute of arc second of arc radian square metre hectare cubic metre litre millilitre hertz kilohertz megahertz pascal kilopascal millibar watt kilowatt megawatt degrees Celsiusa kelvinb,c Symbol m mm km kg mg g t s min h d y N kN A V Ω J kJ kW h ° ‘ “ rad m2 ha m3 l ml Hz kHz MHz Pa kPa mb W kW MW °C K Names are written or typed wholly in lower case; the exception being Celsius. The word degree and the symbol ° are not used with kelvin. If a symbol is derived from a person’s name then the first letter of the symbol is capitalised. 67 In addition to the basic unit (such as metre) prefixes can be used to refer to multiples or submultiples (kilometre, millimetre). Table 2 lists the full set of prefixes available. The prefixes that are multiples of 1000 are usually preferred; deci and deka are almost never seen and, although centi and hecto are more common, they should be avoided unless they are the standard for a particular area; for example, cm are used universally in clothing sizes. Table 2: List of SI unit prefixes and corresponding multiplier Prefix atto femto pico nano micro milli centi deci deka hecto kilo mega giga tera peta exa Symbol Multiplier a10-18 f10-15 p10-12 n 10-9 µ10-6 m10-3 c10-2 d10-1 da10 h102 k103 M106 G109 T 1012 P1015 E 1018 Note that the case of the prefix abbreviation is important: compare milli and mega. A quantity is always written as a single unit not as a combination; for example, 8.32 m is correct but 8 m 32 cm is incorrect. The exception occurs with plane angles when degrees, minutes and seconds are used – in this case 47° 29’ 38” – although 47.4939° is often preferred. A unit symbol is never modified to indicate plural: 10 kg is correct; 10 kgs is incorrect. When units are raised to a power, such as cm3 or m2 the corresponding spoken expressions are ‘cubic centimetres’ and ‘square metres’, not ‘centimetres cubed’ or ‘metres squared’. The phrase ‘two metres cubed’ would mean raising ‘two metres’ to the power 3 (equivalent to 8 cubic metres). In addition, the unit name is spoken in full; the letters of the symbol are not used. For example, ‘5 kilograms’ is correct; ‘5 kay gee’ and ‘5 kay gees’ are incorrect. Some common combinations of units such as kph (kilometres per hour) are incorrect. Under the SI system the k would be interpreted as kilo and the p as pico. In other words, kph stands for ‘kilo-pico-hours’! The correct method in this case is km.h-1 (preferred) or km/h. The use of a ‘/’ character to indicate demoninatorial quantities is convenient but may be misinterpreted when there are several quantities in the denominator (unless parentheses are used). For example, the unit of pressure, the pascal, is equivalent to kilograms per metre per squared second. This combination is best written as kg.m-1.s-2 rather than kg/m/s2 or kg/(m.s2). Note the use of a dot separator between units that are multiplied together. This avoids confusion between say milli-Newton, mN, and metre by Newton m.N, although in this case the latter would be better written as N.m to avoid any chance of confusion. 68 Writing numerical values When numerical values of more than five digits are written the digits should be grouped in sets of three, starting from the position of the decimal point. The sets should be separated by a space (half space when typing) and not by commas. When there are four digits the use of the space is optional. However, if entering the numbers in a table, you should use the space to maintain vertical alignment with other lines of more than four digits. Numbers less than unity require a leading zero before the decimal marker: 0.73 is correct, .73 is incorrect. Many physical quantities have an uncertainty associated with them. For example, the length of a metal bar might have been measured to within 0.1 mm; the result should be written in the format (967.7±0.1) mm. Parentheses are used and the units are written once. If the value has a multiplying power of ten then this should also appear outside the parentheses: (967.7±0.1)x10-3 m. Never express the value and its uncertainty in different units or multiplied by different powers of ten. Tables of data A table is a good way of presenting collections of numerical (or other symbolic) information. Several points to note are: • Maintain alignment of numerical information on the decimal point. • Use a common multiplying factor if necessary. For example, if you have currents ranging between 10 µA and 10 mA, express them all in either µA or mA but not a mixture. • Place the units and any common multiplying factor in the heading of the row or column; do not replicate the units on each number. • If the numbers have a common uncertainty, this can also be placed in the column heading. If the uncertainties vary, you can use a separate column with appropriate heading or include them in the same column as the value using the ± symbol. • Avoid overfilling the boxes within the table. Explanatory notes may be added to a table by using an appropriate superscript notation. • Tables should be numbered and have a caption. Before finalising your table layout, try sketching it out roughly and look at it from the point of view of a reader who is not familiar with the data being presented. It is far easier to modify the structure of the table before you have gone to the trouble of typing it. Figures and Captions If figures are to be presented, they should be incorporated into the text at an appropriate location, usually after the first textual reference to the figure and on the same or next page. Figures should be numbered and have a caption. The positioning of captions on tables and figures is not critical, but you should be consistent throughout the assignment. A different typeface to the main text may be used if available. If the caption is meant to form a sentence, it should be punctuated and capitalised as such. If the caption is simply a descriptive name, no full stop is required. 69 When referring to tables or figures within the text use the word Table or Figure, followed by the number; e.g. as shown in Figure 2. Graphs Graphs are a useful method of presenting numerical data in such a way as to emphasise or clarify various inter-relationships; e.g. trends with time. Graphs are an extremely powerful method of highlighting relationships between data but unfortunately sometimes are misused. Classic examples of misuse appear in advertising material where origins are not shown on axes and scales are inappropriately magnified or reduced. In this case the aim is to deceive, not to enlighten. There are many possible types of graphs: line graphs, 3D meshes, pie charts, bar charts etc. The types of graphs used vary widely even within a given discipline. The full scope of graphing, therefore, is beyond this simple guide and you should peruse works within your own field to gain an appreciation of any conventions applied or common graphing techniques used. However, there are some points you should remember: • Before preparing a graph, consider carefully what it is that you are trying to achieve and select graph style, axes and scales to best achieve this. • Use a descriptive title on your graph. • Make your graph large enough so that all details can be seen. • Label any axes with appropriate names and units. • Use clearly printed labels and legends. • Uncertainties in measured data should be indicated using error bars. • Points marked on graphs should be marked using a symbol such as an open circle, filled box, + symbol etc. and not as points. Points do not reproduce well in photocopying and can often be obscured by lines drawn at a later stage. • In general graphs are treated as figures and should be captioned, numbered and referred to as such. Equations Many assignments in technical fields will require you to use equations. Although there are standard styles for typeset equations, unless you have a wordprocessor and printer capable of handling the font sizes and graphic symbols needed, you will be unable to implement these. While you might like to consult the appropriate standard (AS2900.0 Standards Australia 1986), you will find that scientific journals use a variety of styles and authors always need to refer to the guidelines published by each journal. In general, the most widely applicable guidelines are: • Number each equation with a number at the right margin so that it can be referenced within the body of the text. f(x) = ax2 + bx + c 70 (1) If your work contains several chapters and requires a large number of equations, use a two level numbering scheme (1.1, 1.2, 1.3 . . . 2.1 . . . etc.). This means that if you have to revise a chapter then the equation numbers for subsequent chapters will be unaffected. • Referring to an equation in the text may be done in several ways; e.g. . . . the coefficient a in (1) . . . . . . coefficient a in equation 1 . . . . . . coefficient a in equ. 1 . . . If your readers are not likely to be familiar with technical works, then using the word ‘equation’ followed by a number is probably best. • If you are using a word processor, make sure that when symbols from equations are referred to in the text they are printed in a font or typeface that matches the appearance in the equation as closely as possible. Overall, the most important point is to be consistent within your assignment. 71 Appendix D Outline of an essay The following is an example of an outline for a fictional essay on The Effects of Doppleweed1. on People. The information in it is partly fabricated and the entire outline is in no way the product of genuine research. The example illustrates how you might start with a topic, develop a statement of purpose from that topic, write a thesis statement from your purpose and the research you conduct, identify the main points, then break up the main points into sub-points for the body of your assignment. The system of headings in the example uses different forms of type, but these headings are there only to demonstrate how you might check the logic and coherence of your essay in outline form. You may prefer to use numbers in your outline. You may not be required to use headings at all in a short essay, in which case your headings would form a basis for the different paragraphs. Check with unit outline, author or lecturer. Introduction You could start by setting the scene for the essay; that is, state what it is about and give some background information on reasons for the study. Follow this with a statement of the purpose of the essay. The purpose of this essay is to describe the physical, behavioural and social effects of doppleweed on a person. State your thesis; that is, where you stand with respect to the question. It will be argued that doppleweed has both positive and negative effects on a person, but that the positive effects outweigh the negative ones because of the stronger evidence of doppleweed’s benefits. State the scope of the essay and an indication of the main points to follow. The essay will provide an overview of the methods used in the research and the findings from that research, examining each of the effects in turn. Negative aspects of doppleweed examined are that it can affect a person’s brain cells and lungs, change their personality and behaviour, adversely affect their relationships with other people and possibly be the first step in addiction to harder drugs. Positive aspects are that it can help people relax and overcome some social inhibitions, it has been found to assist in the performance of repetitive tasks, it is useful as a pain-killer for cancer sufferers, unlike cigarettes it is non-addictive and, unlike alcohol, there is no hangover. Research Method (Not required in literature reviews or essays using secondary sources such as library materials) Research was conducted using medical records and case files, empirical research with clients at outpatient clinics, and anecdotal evidence from interviews with smokers of doppleweed. (You need to describe the details of these methods in an original research paper.) 72 Body of an essay Negative effects of doppleweed (First main point) Effects on a person’s body (First sub-point) Effects on brain cells Effects on other organs Lungs Liver Heart Effects on personality and behaviour (Second sub-point) Immediate observable effects Long-term effects Effects on human relationships (Third sub-point) Short-term effects • Relationships with family • Relationships with colleagues • Casual relationships Long-term effects • Relationships with family • Relationships with colleagues • Casual relationships Addiction to hard drugs (Fourth sub-point) Positive effects of doppleweed (Second main point) Relaxation and social contacts (First sub-point) Evidence of assistance in relaxation Evidence of assistance in social contacts Repetitive tasks (Second sub-point) It may not be necessary to have sub points for every heading. You should never have only one sub point. Pain killer (Third sub-point) Use in cancer patients Use in acute, short-term trauma Non-addictive and no hangover (Fourth sub-point) Comparison with cigarettes and addiction Comparison with alcohol and hangover 73 Conclusion There should be no new evidence here, the body should be summarised. Any material contained in the conclusion should already have been discussed in the body of the paper. The conclusion should link to the thesis statement. From the evidence presented in this paper, it can be seen that doppleweed has been claimed to affect a person’s brain cells and lungs, but that findings here have been inconclusive. Doppleweed does change people’s behaviour, but not their personality; and it affects their relationships with other people, but not always negatively. There is some correlation with the later use of hard drugs, but further study needs to be done on other variables, as the correlation may be spurious. On the other hand, doppleweed has been shown to have a number of beneficial effects such as relaxation, assistance in the performance of repetitive tasks and as a painkiller for cancer sufferers. It is also non-addictive and there is no residual hangover. For these reasons, the benefits of doppleweed would seem to outweigh the dangers. 74 Appendix E Annotated Bibliography The QUT Library contains many books on how to write essays, reports etc. for particular purposes and audiences. These can be found in the Dewey numbers 808.02 – 808.068. The following list, therefore, is far from exhaustive. Use it as a starting point only. • American Psychological Association. 2001. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 5th edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. The APA Publications Manual instructs students and authors on general style requirements and provides advice on preparing manuscripts. It also provides explicit instruction on citing material and preparing a reference list according to the APA style. This is the only accepted style in psychology and counselling. • American Psychological Association. 2005, August 11. APA Style: Electronic References. www.apastyle.org/elecref.html (accessed November 30, 2005) This website provides a convenient complement to the APA Publication Manual. Tips and examples on the APA style of writing and referencing are given. In particular, this is an excellent item to consult if referencing electronic materials. • Anderson, J. and M. Poole. 2001. Thesis and assignment writing, 4th edition, Milton Qld: John Wiley. A very comprehensive book containing material suitable for both undergraduate and post-graduate students. It is valuable for the general principles it explains and for the very up-to-date information it contains, especially on the new electronic tools available for writers and the importance of non-discriminatory language. • Australian Copyright Council. 2002. Information sheet G10: An introduction to copyright in Australia, November. This information sheet is one of a number of informative publications on the copyright status of material and the laws relating to its use. These publications can be found on the web at www.copyright.org.au. • Australian Government Publishing Service. 2002. Style manual: For authors, editors and printers, 6th edition, Canberra: AGPS. 75 Has useful sections on such topics as spelling, capitals and punctuation; as well as a very comprehensive chapter on “References, bibliographies and notes” (chapter 9). This is a software package which sets up an environment supporting APA style. • American Psychological Association. 2005. APA-Style Helper 5.1. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. • Australian Guide to Legal Citation. 2002. 2nd Edition. Melbourne: Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc. This publication provides examples of footnoting (and the citation of legal material). • Clark-Dickson, D. and Macdonald R. 2005. Clear and precise: Writing skills for today’s lawyer. Pyrmont, NSW: Thomson Custom Pub. This book is a general manual for lawyers and other writers on plain English writing. It is recommended as a general text for students. An informative guide that provides constructive advice from time management through to the technical aspects of writing. • Chicago Manual of Style. 2003. 15th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. A style manual that follows the conventions of the traditional Harvard system of referencing. • Curtin University. 2005. http://library.curtin.edu.au/referencing/index.html A succinct and comprehensive online guide to referencing and citing material in these styles: Harvard, APA, Vancouver, MLA, Footnotes (Chicago Style) • Endnote: Assistance on the use of Endnote may be found at the following sites: www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/ Download options for EndNote: www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote//download.jsp A selection of online tutorials: wwwlib.qut.edu.au/elearn/endnotetute/ • Gibaldi, J. 2003. MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 6th ed. New York: Modern Languages Association of America. A style manual giving a detailed explanation of the MLA system of referencing. • Huff, A. S. 1999. Writing for scholarly publication. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Part II of this book contains much good advice on the preparation of a research essay and Part III explains each of the components of the essay. The book is recommended for those students who wish to read a slightly more detailed explanation of these aspects of scholarly writing than is provided in The Written Assignment. • Lindsay, D. 1995. A guide to scientific writing. 2nd ed. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire. 76 Demonstrates ways of assembling facts, ideas and arguments in a form that is economical and enjoyable. • Macquarie Dictionary and Thesaurus. 2004. Melbourne: Macmillan. The first truly Australian dictionary with emphasis on how Australians use and pronounce English words. The dictionary and thesaurus were originally published separately, but this latest edition combines the two. • Mahoney, D. and A. Bruns. 2004. Studying and writing effectively. Brisbane: QUT Faculty of Arts. It seeks to provide students with a comprehensive guide to both preparation and academic writing. The book was developed from within the Faculty of Creative Industries, but a generalist approach has been retained. • Marshall, L. A. and F. Rowland. 1998. A guide to learning independently. 3rd ed. Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman. Answers many queries students have when doing first assignments. • McDermott, J. 1990. Punctuation for now. London: McMillan. This is a succinct guide on how to punctuate correctly. • Newman, J., E. Cusick, and A. La Tourette. eds. 2000. The writer’s workbook. London: Arnold. While much of this book deals with fictional writing, Chapters 15, 16 and 17 have valuable information on writing from research, redrafting and editing, and getting published. • Petelin, R. and Durham, M. (1998) The professional writing guide: Writing well and knowing why, Warriewood, NSW; Business & Professional Publishing. An excellent book on writing style, with much advice to writers on how to make their writing more understandable, readable and professional. • Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 2001 5th ed. Washington: American Psychological Association. A style manual for those wishing to follow the conventions laid down by the APA. • QUT Library. 2005. Referencing information on all major styles is available through QUT library homepage: http//www.library.qut.edu.au/reference/writing.jsp • Rudinow, J. and V. E. Barry. 1999. Invitation to critical thinking. 4th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. The book focuses on the recognition, analysis, evaluation and composition of arguments and takes readers through the steps of critical thinking. It is comprehensive, with many examples, and is recommended for readers who wish to explore the topic of critical thinking and argument in more detail. 77 • Scientific Style and Format: the CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers. 1994. 6th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Stuhmcke, A. 2001. Legal referencing. 2nd Edition. Sydney: Butterworths. A guide on citing print and electronic material for students studying in the legal discipline. • University of Wisconsin, 2005. The Writing Centre. University of Wisconsin-Madison: www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ (accessed Novermber 30, 2005). This on-line site will be of use to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. It has information on grammar, punctuation and style (note the American spellings), clear and concise English, and writing annotated bibliographies. • Working with Diversity: A Guide to Inclusive Language and Presentation for Staff and Students 2003. Brisbane: QUT Publications. This booklet is QUT’s official document and gives advice to enable people to interpret the guidelines correctly. It gives examples and practical suggestions on how to be inclusive in communication with students, staff and people in the community. The booklet is also available in electronic form at www.equity.qut.edu.au. 78 Notes 79 Notes 80