Queensland University of Technology
The
Written
Assignment
A guide to the writing
and presentation of assignments
EDITED BY BOB COPE
© This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of private study,
research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be
reproduced by any process without written permission. Enquiries should be made to the
Publications Section, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria Park Road, Kelvin
Grove, Queensland.
The Written Assignment may be purchased from the QUT Bookstore.
© QUT 2006 Produced and printed by QUT Publications and Printing 242922 9223
ISBN 1 74107 051 1
The booklet is also available for download for current staff and students of QUT,
at the OLT homepage under ‘writing and referencing’, or through the library home page.
ii
Preface
The Written Assignment was first released in 1980 as a publication of the Kelvin Grove
College of Advanced Education which, became part of the new Brisbane College
of Advanced Education and then Queensland University of Technology.
The booklet does not purport to cover every type or aspect of assignments rather, it is
intended as a guide and students are referred to more detailed texts listed in the Annotated
Bibliography and to their lecturers.
The booklet is available is available on the web; see page ii. Referencing in the booklet
is according to the Harvard style.
For the production of the 2006 edition, thanks to the people who suggested changes,
especially Waveney Croft, from QUT Carseldine and Nicole Healy, Law Library.
Bob Cope
Editor
Faculty of Education Qut
r.cope@qut.edu.au
CRICOS 00213J
iii
iv
Contents
Page
Preface
................................................................................iii
Chapter 1: Assignment topics and topic analysis..............................................1
1.1 Essays
. ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Reviews . ......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Literature review.................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Reports . ......................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2: Preparing and presenting the assignment.........................................4
2.1 Preparation of an assignment............................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Purpose.............................................................................................. 4
2.1.2 Read extensively and take notes........................................................ 5
2.1.3 Critical analysis of argument/thesis.................................................. 6
2.1.4 Decide on your argument/thesis........................................................ 6
2.1.5 Plan the assignment........................................................................... 8
2.2 Structure of an assignment................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Essays and research assignments...................................................... 9
2.2.2 Title page or cover sheet................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Abstract/summary............................................................................. 9
2.2.4 Introduction....................................................................................... 9
2.2.5 Body................................................................................................ 10
2.2.6 Conclusion....................................................................................... 10
2.2.7 Appendices...................................................................................... 11
2.2.8 References and/or bibliography...................................................... 11
2.2.9 Problem or hypothetical question in the legal discipline................ 11
2.2.10 Scientific, technical and business reports........................................ 11
2.3 Presentation of an assignment............................................................................ 13
2.3.1 Audience......................................................................................... 13
2.3.2 Tone................................................................................................. 13
2.3.3 Language......................................................................................... 14
2.3.4 Overwriting..................................................................................... 15
2.3.5 Padding............................................................................................ 15
2.3.6 Rhetorical questions........................................................................ 15
2.3.7 Overgeneralisation.......................................................................... 16
2.3.8 Spelling, punctuation and grammar................................................ 16
2.3.9 Abbreviations.................................................................................. 16
2.3.10 Expressing numbers........................................................................ 16
2.3.11 Paragraphs....................................................................................... 16
2.3.12 Headings and sub-headings............................................................. 17
2.3.13 Quantitative and symbolic information........................................... 17
2.3.14 References and bibliographies........................................................ 17
2.3.15 Planning the workload..................................................................... 17
2.3.16 Submitting the assignment.............................................................. 18
2.3.17 The mechanics of presentation........................................................ 18
2.3.18 Editorial checklist............................................................................ 18
Chapter 3: Citing sources of information...................................................... 20
3.1 Why cite sources?.............................................................................................. 20
3.2 What should be cited?........................................................................................ 20
3.2.1 Plagiarism........................................................................................ 21
3.2.2 Copyright......................................................................................... 22
3.3 How should sources be referenced in-text?....................................................... 22
3.4 Author-date systems........................................................................................... 22
3.4.1 Author's name ................................................................................ 23
3.4.2 Year of publication.......................................................................... 23
3.4.3 Page numbers.................................................................................. 23
3.4.4 Placement of in-text references....................................................... 24
3.4.5 Using direct quotations................................................................... 24
3.4.6 Short and long quotations................................................................ 25
3.4.7 Using indirect speech (paraphrases)................................................ 26
3.4.8 Examples of direct quotations and paraphrases.............................. 26
3.4.9 Examples of citations using the author-date systems . ................... 27
3.4.10 Australian Government Printing Service [AGPS] citations............ 27
3.4.11 Citations of the American Psychology Association [APA]............ 31
3.4.12 Citations using the Harvard style [Chicago Manual of Style]........ 34
3.5 Other systems of referencing............................................................................. 38
3.5.1 The MLA [Modern Languages Association].................................. 38
3.5.2 The footnoting or endnoting system............................................... 38
3.5.3 The Vancouver system.................................................................... 39
3.5.4 The legal footnoting system............................................................ 39
3.6 EndNote . ....................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 4: Compiling lists of references and bibliographies.............................. 42
4.1 References and bibliographies in the author-date systems................................ 42
4.1.1 Lists of references and bibliographies – AGPS style...................... 43
4.1.2 Lists of references and bibliographies – APA style........................ 49
4.1.3 Lists of references and bibliographies – Harvard style................... 55
4.2 Writing a bibliography for the footnoting or endnoting system........................ 61
4.3 Legal bibliographies........................................................................................... 61
4.4 Works cited for the MLA system....................................................................... 62
4.5 Annotated bibliographies................................................................................... 62
vi
Appendix A: Directive words.................................................................... 63
Appendix B: Abbreviations...................................................................... 65
Appendix C: The presentation of quantitative and symbolic information................ 66
Quantities, units and symbols..................................................................... 67
Appendix D: Outline of an essay................................................................ 72
Appendix E: Annotated bibliography........................................................... 75
vii
Chapter 1
Assignment topics and topic analysis
At university students are required to submit written assignments for assessment. This is
a reflection of the fact that all professional occupations involve writing to some extent.
The techniques and principles involved in producing good written material are generalisable,
however students should always follow unit outlines and lecturer's directions.
At tertiary level students are not assessed on their ability to recite facts or reproduce
information. Assessment includes the ability to interpret a question intelligently,
to demonstrate depth of understanding of a topic or to critically analyse and report upon
a situation. In all cases, the ability to organise information from various sources into
a clear, concise and logical argument will be central to success.
There are many types of assignment topics: an essay in response to a directive question
or writing an objective report as part of performed exercise. Topics also will vary widely,
from alternative energy sources to political viewpoints. Some examples of assignment
topics are given below, along with suggested approaches.
1.1 Essays
• Point of view
Critics like Sam Bowles, Herbert Gintis, Clarence Karier and others view education
as a form of social control. Evaluate this viewpoint and state the extent to which you
agree with it. Illustrate with examples from other readings.
•
Argument and persuasion
Substantiate or refute one of the following propositions:
(a) Boys are better than girls at mathematics.
(b) Solar energy is more efficient than geothermal energy.
(c) Organisational culture has a significant effect on organisational performance.
• Analysis and criticism
‘Nursing practice should be solidly based on objective knowledge and, if that is
the case, it should be solidly based on scientific knowledge.’
Critically discuss this assertion.
• Comparison and contrast
Choose two poets whose work you enjoy. Make specific reference to at least three poems
by each poet and compare the distinctive characteristics of their work.
Chapter 1 • Assignment Topics and Topic Analysis
• Problems and hypothetical questions
John assaults Bill. Bill uses more than reasonable force to repel John. Advise both
parties about their respective legal rights and liabilities.
The last example, a legal problem, requires the selection of relevant material from
knowledge of a body of law and the application to a hypothetical situation. The approach to
take is to identify the issues (the points of dispute) raised by the factual situation presented
and then to solve the issues raised. It is usual for the issues to be drawn only from the unit
of study in which the assignment is set.
Each of these five essay topics requires a different approach to writing, so it is essential
to carefully read and understand the question. Key words ‘evaluate’, ‘substantiate or refute’,
‘analyse’, ‘compare and contrast’ should be identified. The first topic asks for a personal
perspective; the second requires a persuasive argument; the third requires a combination
of analysis, interpretation and value judgments; the fourth requires the selection of common
features and differences between two authors; and the fifth, a legal problem, requires
a choice of relevant material from a knowledge of a body of law and application to a
particular situation. Appendix A has a list of directive words, typical in essay questions.
The differences in these examples may be subtle: justifying a personal perspective and
substantiating a proposition both require that the use of references to support an argument.
In all cases students are expected to present an argument based on analysis and
the arguments and interpretations of others. The argument, and hence the position in relation
to the question, will be clear from the supporting evidence chosen for incorporation into
the text.
A narrative or descriptive account . . . is not sufficient in essay work at university level.
While it is true that you must collect information and evidence, this task is a relatively
simple one because all it requires is application. What is really important is what you do
with this information and what type of argument you construct from it. You must seek
to develop a logical, coherent argument regarding the problem you are studying – that
is, you must offer some interpretation regarding the problem. (Deutscher 1983, 13)
Students are often reluctant to do this because they are afraid they will be marked
down for disagreeing with the ‘experts’. This is a mistaken view. They are, however,
marked down for a position obviously superficial or demonstrably erroneous.
The way to avoid this is to read widely and to think about the questions raised (Chapter 2).
Lecturers want well-informed, logical and reasoned arguments, supported by sufficient
evidence. They are not interested in ill-conceived generalisations, or simply their own
lecture notes, or the textbook used
There are two traps that must be avoided. One is the mere presentation of factual material
for its own sake and the other is the presentation of a series of rash generalisations without
supporting evidence. Factual material, is relevant only when it is used to support intelligent
arguments.
Chapter 1 • Assignment Topics and Topic Analysis
1.2 Reviews
Review the development and current state of inertial navigation systems.
This is an example of a ‘review’ topic. Reviews are common in technical fields and
in all fields may form part of a larger work such as a thesis. This example requires
a trace the developments of inertial navigation systems from their inception to the present
day. Relevant information on components of inertial navigation systems, details of their
capabilities and examples of applications and specific devices would be presented.
It is not sufficient to rely only upon existing reviews in journals or other sources, although
these may supply references to begin a literature search. Excessive use of technological
jargon or ‘buzz’ words should be avoided. Rather than convincing a reader of depth
of knowledge, they are likely to be interpreted as a cover-up for a lack of understanding.
Plain English should be used wherever possible and any terminology not in common
use explained.
Material for review topics is most simply organised chronologically. Both an introduction
(outlining what will be discussed) and a conclusion (summing up the major points, current
state, or future directions) are necessary.
1.3 Literature review
Written assignments in the social sciences and the humanities also often take the form
of literature reviews; for example:
Review the development of the literature on transformational leadership.
The literature review is a specific form of research essay and follows all the rules of good
essay writing. It requires critical analysis a body of literature and the identification main
themes, findings, arguments, main trends and future directions in that literature. It should
not be just a list of works and summarised read. A literature review should demonstrate
that the ability to identify the main points in the literature, (a summary of common
findings may be appropriate), that links between statements or findings in the literature,
and discrepancies or weaknesses in arguments or gaps in the writers’ research. It may
be appropriate to either quote from or paraphrase material in some of the literature reviewed
(Newman 1997).
1.4 Reports
Perhaps the most common written assignment in technical or vocational areas is a report
describing experimental or practical work. While the principles of good writing apply in
reports, a more structured approach is generally used. There may be an established format in
the discipline or subject. The sheer number of different report formats precludes exhaustive
examples being given here.
Chapter 2 will outline a common layout for reports and more detail can be found in some
of the books listed in the Annotated Bibliography at the end of this booklet.
Chapter 2
Preparing and presenting the assignment
It is not within the scope of this booklet to specify how and what a student should write
in an assignment. There are some general points about preparation, written expression
and aspects of presentation, however, with which all students should be familiar. Some of
these points will be briefly dealt with in this booklet, but you should refer to style manuals
(see the Annotated Bibliography) for greater depth of information on such topics as
awareness of audience, conciseness of expression and the pitfall of spelling and punctuation
errors. A valuable site on the Internet is the Wisconsin-Madison Writer’s Handbook at
www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ (See Annotated Bibliography).
Appendix D shows an example of an outline for a fictional essay, illustrating the main
structural points of a good essay made in this booklet.
2.1 Preparation of an assignment
Different types of assignments require different steps in preparation. The following
suggestions may, therefore, have to be modified to suit the set task.
2.1.1 Decide on the purpose
The purpose will be determined by the nature of the assignment. The topic read
carefully and directive words isolated (see Chapter 1, page 2 and Appendix A)
question. Ask yourself:
Decide on your
purpose (aim)
Read widely –
take notes
What am I going to write?
Why am I going to write?
For whom am I going to write?
Then write your purpose in one sentence. Check for understanding of the terms
used. For example, my purpose/aim is to analyse (or describe, or discuss,
or evaluate).
Critically analyse
the material
Students should write what they know before any literature search.
Decide on your
argument (thesis)
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
2.1.2 Read extensively and take notes
Refine your question and then start reading analytically.
Wide reading is essential to secure a high grade in an assignment. But mere
quantity is not enough; material should be chosen intelligently so as to not waste
time. Most unit outlines include a bibliography to help selection of reading
materials. In addition, a bibliography can be compiled by using the references
in textbooks and consulting the subject index catalogue and the periodical
indexes in the library. There are many databases to assist searches; and material
is available in the library, showing how to use these databases.
Material may be found in the following categories:
• General texts. These are useful as a starting-point, but are not likely to give
enough in-depth information.
• Specialised texts. These give detailed treatment to a particular topic.
Plan the
assignment
Decide on your
purpose (aim)
Read widely –
take notes
Critically analyse
the material
Decide on your
argument (thesis)
Plan the
assignment
• Journal articles also called periodicals. Scholarly articles provide recent material
on a variety of topics.
• Newspapers. These will provide topical material, but articles in newspapers are
not usually written as scholarly pieces. Not all disciplines will accept newspaper
or magazine references.
• Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) publications. These give factual and numerical
information on topics such as demographic trends, education, industry, employment and
most topics where quantitative data can be collected and analysed. ABS information
is usually objective and accurate.
• Official or government publications. While useful, they can have political biases.
• Material from the Internet. Caution should be used about using material from
the Internet as some is unreliable and not peer reviewed.
During reading, notes should be taken carefully, because it is from these that the paper
will be written. The following points should be considered:
• Pages of notes should not be copied word for word. Notes or summaries should
be taken. Page numbers must be noted, even though it may not be a direct quotation.
Ideas as well as direct words must be acknowledged. (See Chapter 3, What should
be referenced?)
• If the words of the original author are used in quotation marks should be used in notes
as a reminder.
• Some people prefer to take notes and keep them by author; others prefer to keep
them by subject matter. Cards are often used. Alternatively, a spreadsheet can be used
to classify your material or data.
• Endnote is a program which allows automatic development of a reference list.
See page 40.
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
• To save time with your references in writing an assignment, a record the full details
of sources should be noted. Below are the main elements needed for the most common
types of references:
For books:
Author/s
or editor/s
Year
published
Title of
book
Place of
publication
Publisher
Page
numbers
of the
If applicable:
volume
number/
For journal articles:
Author/s
Year
published
Title of
article
Journal
Volume
Issue
number
Page
numbers
For Internet sites:
Author/s
Date
published (if
available)
Title
website
Name
of
website
If applicable:
volume number/
series/edit ion/
[chapter]
Internet
address
(URL)
Date you
accessed
the site
(Mahoney and Bruns 2003, 4)
2.1.3 Critical analysis of material
Critical analysis of material requires identification and analysis of the main
points and themes followed by comparison, contrast and evaluation of
arguments. It therefore involves much more than understanding and identifying
and summarising key points. It also involves:
• analysing the information to discover the key themes and arguments in the
literature;
• comparing and contrasting what various authors believe about a topic;
and
• evaluating the research/thinking of the authors you have read.
In addition, critical thinking is creative, because it involves synthesising (making
or creating) something new (the argument/position/thesis and ultimately
the assignment) based on reading.
Decide on your
purpose (aim)
Read widely –
take notes
Critically analyse
the material
Decide on your
argument (thesis)
Critical thinking is a skill and, like all skills, it can be learned. There are many publications
in the library dealing with logic, reasoning, argumentation and critical thinking.
A few suggestions, such as the works of De Bono, and Rudinow and Barry, are given in
the Annotated Bibliography.
2.1.4. Decide on your argument or thesis
The reading should be formulated into a point of view. The next step is
to formalise that point of view into a central argument, called a ‘thesis’.
A ‘thesis statement’ is a single sentence that summarises the entire paper and
it must follow the purpose (aim).
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
Once a thesis has been formed, other statements in the paper must relate
directly to it. For example, a thesis statement for an essay where the purpose
is to substantiate or refute the statement Organisational culture has a significant
effect on organisational performance could be:
There is no direct link between organisational culture and organisational
performance because only behaviour can affect performance, and culture
is not the only determinant of behaviour.
In the essay, evidence to support this statement should be provided. It may be
necessary at this stage to read further in specific areas to gather more material
to support the thesis.
The thesis statement (argument) should be regarded as a statement of destination
to guide the paper, helping in selection of material.
Consider the following topic, purposes and thesis statements; and note how
the change of purpose alters the thesis statement.
Decide on your
purpose (aim)
Read widely –
take notes
Critically analyse
the material
Decide on your
argument (thesis)
Plan the
assignment
Topic
Bias in television news.
Purpose 1:
To show that TV news is not biased.
Thesis statement 1:TV news coverage is balanced, partly because government regulations
require equal time for opposing political parties, but the appearance
of bias results from the negative nature of the news itself, which TV
merely reports as objectively as possible.
Purpose 2:
To show that TV news is biased.
Thesis Statement 2:TV news coverage is not balanced, in spite of government regulations
requiring equal time for opposing political parties; for the items
of news reported represent a slanted selection of the events that
actually happen and those events are discussed in language designed
to influence the viewer’s attitude toward the news.
Purpose 3:To explain techniques used to measure TV news bias.
Thesis Statement 3:Bias in TV news reporting, or the lack of it, could be established
by keeping records of what stories are carried by different TV
networks and what ones are omitted, by calculating the total amount
of exposure given to various issues and personalities, and by making
counts of the positive and negative words used by TV newscasters
to describe the people whose activities are reported.
The thesis statement is more fully developed than the statement of purpose because it must
anticipate the major parts of the paper. Whereas the statement of purpose states the writer’s
destination, the thesis statement shows how he/she will reach it. The thesis statement
is usually also in the form of a complete sentence. Because of the importance of the thesis
statement to the overall development of the paper, it is necessary to form it as precisely
as possible.
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
To decide whether the thesis statement is suitable or not, the following questions should
be considered:
• Does it relate directly and accurately to the topic and the purpose (aim)?
• Does it express the central argument clearly and precisely?
• Could the reader understand the central argument of your paper from reading the thesis
statement?
• Is it broad enough to allow expansion of ideas and interpretations?
• Is it limited enough to eliminate digressions in the paper?
• Is it a complete, objectively phrased statement?
• Can it be supported with concrete facts?
If the thesis statement fulfils all these conditions, it will be invaluable in the development
of ideas and the writing.
2.1.5. Plan the assignment
The following plan is a guide only; it may not suit everyone’s style of working.
However, whatever plan you use, more than one draft of the paper is necessary.
Information on each of the dot points not already explained will be elaborated
on in sections on structure or style. The student should:
• Write a rough outline, jotting down headings. All points should support
the thesis statement and contribute to the purpose.
• Organise the material, putting points in a logical order. ‘Logical’ here means
an order that will best support the thesis and achieve the purpose.
• Classify ideas into main points and minor points and use sub-headings to
show the relationship between minor and major points. Number or organise
divisions logically. (See Appendix D.)
Decide on your
purpose (aim)
Read widely –
take notes
Critically analyse
the material
Decide on your
argument (thesis)
Plan the
assignment
• Write the first draft from beginning to end, letting the ideas flow. Keep
a note of sources of information.
• Be critical and analytical in the points made, and ensure it is not just a list of facts
or opinions.
• Revise the first draft, checking spelling and polishing so the essay reads clearly
and runs smoothly.
• Write the conclusion and introduction. This is called '2, 3, 1' writing.
• Write an abstract, if required.
• Make sure the assignment is balanced; that is, the number of words used in discussing
a point or subtopic is in proportion to its relative importance.
• Have a ‘critical friend’ read the paper for final corrections, both in terms of clarity
of ideas and for mechanical correctness.
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
2.2 Structure of an assignment
Assignments will vary in structure depending on their purpose and the discipline for which
they are being written.
2.2.1 Essays and research assignments
Most assignments using directive words such as analyse, compare, criticise, discuss, etc.,
(see Appendix A) will consist of an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Some may
require a separate section called an abstract or summary. While there are variations in
the content of each of these parts, the following information is a good general guide.
Basic layout of paper
Original Research Paper
Literature Review/Research Essay
Title page
Title page
Abstract
Abstract
Introduction
Introduction
Methods
Results
Body (main points)
Discussion (of results)
Conclusions
Conclusion
Appendices (if applicable)
Appendices (if applicable)
References
References
Bibliography (if required)
Bibliography (if required)
Usually the reference list is the only appendix, in this case ‘Appendices’ is not required.
Disciplines differ as to whether references are included before or after appendices, usually
before.
2.2.2 Title page or cover sheet
This should be clear, neat and uncluttered. Most schools or faculties have a proforma
cover sheet.
2.2.3 Abstract/summary
While many style manuals use the terms abstract and summary interchangeably, some
see a subtle difference. An abstract is sometimes considered to reflect upon what
the essay is about and a summary to describe what the essay contains. The abstract/summary
is not part of the paper itself and should be written last. An abstract/summary should be
no longer than five to ten per cent of the paper.
2.2.4 Introduction
The introduction is the first part of the paper. It must define the subject of the paper, state its
purpose, limit it in scope, and orient the reader as to what is to follow. The thesis statement
(argument) is stated in the introduction, even though it may also have been stated in the
abstract/summary. This is because abstracts/summaries are independent of the papers they
represent, while introductions lead into papers and are incomplete on their own.
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
There are a number of ways of approaching introductions. It may be an historical
background – what has been done in the past, or what research has been carried out
in the past. It will define the subject and narrow it in scope. A statement of purpose
and thesis should be given. The introduction should also include a short explanation of
the main points. At the end of the introduction the reader should know what is to be said
and how the paper will be structured. In a paper of 2000 words, the introduction should
be about 100–150 words. For an example of an introduction to an essay, see Appendix D.
The introduction should be finalised after the body and conclusion.
2.2.5 Body
The body of the paper is the main ideas, with information and evidence to support each
point. This information varies depending on the type of assignment. (See Appendix D.)
It should be written first.
Original research paper
The unit outline or lecturer should be consulted for correct format. This is a guide only.
Materials and methods
In this section, sufficient details of the materials (apparatus?) and methods used should
be supplied to enable someone else to repeat the experiment. Graphs, line drawings and
photographs are useful for illuminating this section.
Results
This section will contain most of the graphic aids. Complex graphs and charts should
be explained, formatted correctly, and given an informative heading. The results section
typically only describes the findings. A full interpretation is in the discussion.
Discussion
Here results are intrepreted and discussed and state what you see them as meaning.
The interpretation should relate to the literature. Suggestions for further research can
be offered.
Research essay
In most research essays, the body is the main section of the paper and written from the
outline. It will contain all the main points in a logical order, and all the sub-points. It is in
the body that the thesis (argument, point of view) stated in the Introduction is developed.
Every part of the argument (thesis) must be surveyed and no material should be introduced
that is not relevant to this argument. All statements must be backed up by evidence
and all ‘evidence’ must be properly acknowledged. (See Chapter 3.) The use of headings
and sub-headings will be discussed in Presentation of an Assignment (p. 19).
Literature review
Refer to Reviews in Chapter 1, page 3.
2.2.6 Conclusion
In an original research paper this is the conclusions are drawn from results and in
a literature review it is a drawing together of the main ideas developed. No new material
is introduced. The conclusion should match the thesis (argument, point of view) stated in
the introduction.
10
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
2.2.7 Appendices
Appendices contain all important supplementary material that would obstruct the main
text but must be cited in the text. Charts, tables, illustrations, letters, sample documents,
lengthy mathematical work, if not immediately necessary in the text, should be put in an
appendix. Appendices are not a ‘catch-all’ for material nor are they to be used to ‘swell’
a paper. Like abstracts/summaries, they are not part of the paper itself, and are not counted
in the number of words. The Appendices for The Written Assignment are an illustration of
suitable types of material for appendices.
2.2.8 References and/or Bibliography
These are discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 4.
More detailed information on the components of a research essay can be found in Huff
(1999), listed in the Annotated Bibliography.
2.2.9 Problem or hypothetical question in the legal discipline
For the legal discipline, when answering a problem or hypothetical question, the method
of approaching the topic differs from that used in conventional assignments. It is helpful
to identify in the opening paragraph what it considered to be the crucial issues of a legal
nature and how it is proposed to answer those issues in turn.
Each issue should be approached in a systematic way. One convention in the legal discipline
is to use the mnemonic ‘IRAC’:
I Issue – identify the issue (or issues) that a hypothetical question raises.
R Rule – state the legal rule (or rules) that will help to resolve the legal issue.
A Application – apply the rule to the relevant facts.
C Conclusion – reach a conclusion on the question of whether the facts satisfy the legal
rule(s).
At the ‘Rule’ stage, it is necessary to consider whether the law is clear or uncertain
on the legal rules to be applied to the issue identified. If the law is uncertain, or if there are
opposing schools of thought about the law, it may be necessary to discuss the uncertainty
in the law and suggest the better or best formulation of the law that is to be carried forward
to the next stage (the ‘Application’ stage).
2.2.10 Scientific, technical and business reports
Because reports vary so greatly in their format and purpose, no attempt will be made here
to discuss them in detail the lecturer should be consulted.
Reports differ from research assignments in both their function and format. Generally
a research assignment is aimed at a narrow, specific audience, most often the professional
peer group of the writer. Scientists write research papers for other scientists so they can
advance the frontiers of knowledge; and others write research papers to explore new ideas
in their different disciplines.
A report is a form of research essay in that it searches for knowledge, but reports cover
a much wider field than research essays. Often they contain recommendations for a course
of action, and they are often aimed at several different kinds of readers.
11
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
Very few people read a report from cover to cover, whereas a research paper is meant to
be read from beginning to end. A report is also generally longer than a research essay and
its separate sections are more clearly visible than in a research essay.
A report consists of three main parts – the Front Matter, the Body and the End Matter.
The Front Matter can vary considerably, but will always contain a
• Title Page
• Executive Summary or Abstract
It may also include a
•
•
•
•
Table of Contents
Letter of Transmittal
Glossary of Terms
Acknowledgements page
In The Body of the report, the headings
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Theory
Background or review
Experimental design or procedure
Results
Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations
are a good starting point for reports in scientific areas, although sometimes not all are
relevant and others may be appropriate. The following guide will help organise material
for a report.
A description of:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
what is intended
why it was intended
what was done
how it was done
the results
the conclusions
the recommendations on what should be done as a result of the
results and conclusions.
The End Matter includes any
• References
• Appendices
• Addenda
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Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
While concise and clear presentation of important facts and all relevant information
is vital, it is the analysis that is of prime importance. An analysis should be presented
in a way that is easily followed. The report should be read while trying to reconstruct
the work with no other information, just as a reader will have to do.
There should be no unanswered questions. Statements such as ‘reasons for this are not
clear’ are more acceptable than trying to gloss over a point.
2.3 Presentation of an assignment – style
While a lecturer or tutor will be concerned mainly with the content of an assignment
in most disciplines, it will be the style and layout that distinguishes a barely satisfactory
assignment from a good one.
Style in writing refers to many things but, in general, it means the way words are used.
Writing style will improve with practise. An important element in developing good writing
skills is reading the works of good writers; for example, good novels, history, philosophy,
current affairs, science, sport, etc.
A few pieces of advice on style are given here, but their value will be minimal without
writing practice.
2.3.1 Audience
It is important to keep the audience in mind when writing an essay or report. Appreciating
a reader’s priorities and background knowledge will ensure the points are clear, concise and
convincing. Generally, it will be written for the lecturer or tutor, but some assignments are
written for a ‘client’ or specific organisation as in a proposal, a report or a submission.
‘I’, ‘me’, ‘my’, ‘we’, ‘our’, ‘ours’, should be avoided in order to make the work sound
objective rather than personal. ‘In my opinion’ and ‘I think’ should be eschewed. Usually
'third person' should be used. However, sometimes lecturers set essays that ask students
to express personal views or relate personal experience; and other essay types, such as
those in areas of human development, may also require first person. The use of the term
'the writer' as in 'in the opinion of the writer, …' is clumsy and unecessary.
There seems to be a trend towards an increased use of the first person in academic papers
and the practice is accepted in a number of scholarly journals. It would be wise to check
with the lecturer or tutor.
2.3.2 Tone
Tone is the combination of two things: namely, the attitude towards your subject
and audience.
In general, the tone of writing should be objective and persuasive. Emotional outbursts
detract from work. In argumentative essays avoid fallacies or stereotypes that weaken
the logic and coherence of the point of view. Avoid using underlining, bold or italics for
emphasis, as emphasis should emanate from the language, not the format. Where bold
type has been used in The Written Assignment, it is to draw students’ attention to words
or phrases when they are skimming a page and this work is not an assignment.
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Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
2.3.3 Language
Simplicity and jargon
Simplicity of language and straightforward expression is preferred. Jargon is appropriate
to an audience in the same field, but can be overused. Most readers prefer plain English,
which conveys meaning simply, clearly and in an uncluttered fashion. Words should not
be used just because they ‘sound’ impressive. The academic discourse of your discipline
(its ‘jargon’ and ideas) must be balanced with clear, straightforward English expression.
Often repetition increases clarity and synonyms may cause confusion.
Colloquialisms
Colloquialisms and slang should not be used. There is a difference between written and
spoken English and you should observe the distinction between conversation and language
suitable in a written document. Never use colloquialisms to show that you are up to date
and do not use contractions such as ‘don’t’, ‘doesn’t’, ‘can’t’.
Inclusive language
Another aspect of language that must be adhered to is non-discriminatory or inclusive
language. QUT has a policy of non-discriminatory presentation. Copies of the booklet ,
Working with Diversity: A Guide to Inclusive Language and Presentation for Staff and
Students, are available from the Equity Section at QUT and on the Internet at www.equity.
qut.edu.au (See Annotated Bibliography.)
QUT’s staff and students represent a broad mix of people, with a diversity of ideas, lifestyles
and cultures. Inclusive language and images ensure that groups and the individuals are not
demeaned or excluded. In contrast, discriminatory language affects the targeted people.
Those who use discriminatory language can be seen as sexist, racist, ignorant or rude.
Avoiding discriminatory language and images requires an awareness and the development
of a range of alternatives. Students should use inclusive language and images
in assignments.
Any visual representations, examples or quotations used in written work must be relevant
to all participants and do not devalue, demean or exclude groups or individuals on
the basis of gender, disability, culture, sexuality, age, etc.
Here are some general points:
Gender
• Using gender-inclusive language means acknowledging both men and women. Avoid
using words like ‘man’, ‘mankind’ or ‘he’ when writing generally about men and women,
and use terms such as ‘staff’ vs ‘manpower’ and ‘spokesperson’ vs ‘spokesman’. Neutral
terms for occupational titles, such as ‘police officer’ and ‘homemaker’ should be used.
Ethnicity
• Using culturally inclusive language means representing all ethnic and cultural groups
as equally valid. Stereotyping must be avoided as it is misleading and ignores the
personal worth of individuals. For example, not all Vietnamese accents are difficult
to understand. There is also diversity among the Indigenous groups within Australia.
Sensitivity must be shown to the preference of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people in their names. Some people may prefer to be known by their regional name,
14
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
e.g., Murri, or to be referred to as ‘an Aboriginal person’ rather than an ‘Aborigine’.
Torres Strait Islanders have a linguistic and cultural identity different from that of the
Indigenous people of mainland Australia and hence should be referred to as such. When
referring to the two cultural groups together, use ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people’ consistently. The use of the correct terminology should be considered part of
the research for assignments.
Disability
• The aim of using inclusive language when referring to people with a disability is to
focus on the individual. People with a disability do not want to be pitied, ignored,
or to be seen as somehow more heroic or ‘special’ than others. Avoid using the term
‘normal’ as a contrast to people with a disability. If it is relevant to refer to a person’s
disability, a general guide is to refer to it as a condition, rather than the disability being
the person. For example, refer to ‘people with epilepsy’ rather than ‘epileptics’.
Sexuality
• Discrimination against people on the basis of their sexual orientation is illegal. To be
inclusive, language should reflect the fact that our community contains people who
are heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual. The terms ‘gay men’ for men and ‘lesbian’
for women are generally accepted within the homosexual community. When used in
the same context as the terms ‘heterosexual men’ and heterosexual women’, the terms
‘homosexual men’ and ‘homosexual women’ are appropriate.
Ageism
• Inclusive language also counters myths about ageing as the majority of older people
are busy, independent and contributing to the social and economic wellbeing of the
community. Using words like ‘pensioners’, ‘geriatric’ and ‘senile’ perpetuates negative
stereotypes about older people. The term ‘older people’ is broadly acceptable and other
popular terms at the present are ‘seniors’, ‘senior citizens’ and ‘mature aged’.
2.3.4 Overwriting
Do not overwrite in an essay. Lecturers and tutors will tend to penalise essays of, say, 4000
words when the assignment called for 1500.
The word count is commonly from the first word in the title to the last in the conclusion.
Hence, words in appendices and in lists of references and bibliographies are not in the
word count. All words count, so those such as ‘a’ and ‘the’ are included. For counting
purposes, word processor programs recognise a word as one or more characters with
a space at either end; so numbers like ‘2002’ are words. The easy way is to let the word
processor program do it.
2.3.5 Padding
Avoid padding out your essay with unrelated comments, irrelevant material, or inflated
and verbose expression. Expression should be succinct and relevant.
2.3.6 Rhetorical questions
The rhetorical question is a question asked for a purpose other than to obtain the information
the questions asks for. For example, ‘Why are you so stupid?’ is likely to be a statement
regarding one’s opinion of the person addressed rather than a genuine request to know.
15
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
Rhetorical questions carry an implicit message for which no supporting evidence
is provided. They tend to appeal to the emotions rather than to logic.
Genuine questions need to be answered immediately. To a great extent, therefore, there
is no need for questions to appear in an essay. Re-writing the question as a statement
requires that reference be made to the relevant literature for supporting argument.
(See Annotated Bibliography.)
2.3.7 Overgeneralisation
Avoid sweeping statements. Unjustified claims should be deleted. Sweeping statements
should be supported with evidence, logic or citation of the literature.
2.3.8 Spelling, punctuation and grammar
Errors in spelling, punctuation or grammar make it difficult for the audience to follow ideas,
however insightful. If you are unsure of how to use various punctuation marks, consult
some of the relevant texts cited in the Annotated Bibliography. For correct spelling consult
a dictionary or use a Spell Check. However, be aware that computers often use American
spelling. Grammar can be checked by using the Grammar Check. A dictionary will help
with the spelling and the correct use of words, while a thesaurus will help find the right
word to express a particular idea..
Like all other aspects of style, many errors in spelling, punctuation and grammar can
be avoided by wide reading of good authors.
2.3.9 Abbreviations
Words other than the names of organisations should be spelt out in full in formal essay
work. Abbreviations such as ‘e.g.’ are acceptable, as is the use of the ampersand, ‘@’ in
some forms of referencing. (See Chapters 3 and 4.) Avoid abbreviations such as ‘Qld’,
‘Aust.’, ‘dept’, govt’, don’t’. (See Appendix B for a guide to abbreviations.)
When using names of organisations, write the name of the organisation in full, followed by
the acronym in parentheses the first time it is introduced; e.g., World Health Organisation
(WHO). Thereafter use the acronym.
2.3.10 Expressing numbers
There are certain guidelines that can be followed. The Publication Manual of the APA (2001)
and The Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (Australian Government Printing
Service [AGPS] 2002) advise the use of words for numbers up to nine, and figures for
numbers 10 and above. Dates are usually written as figures; e.g., The first year of the third
millennium is correctly 2001. However, where they begin a sentence words are preferred;
e.g., Two thousand and one is correctly the first year of the third millennium. Effectively
this means sentences should not start with a number.
Figures are often preferred in works of a mathematical, scientific, technical or statistical
nature, while words are preferred in descriptive or narrative works. Consistency
and common sense are the best guides.
16
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
2.3.11 Paragraphs
Paragraphing is essential as a means of signposting the direction and development of ideas.
As a general rule there should be one developed idea per paragraph. You should check
your discipline for formatting requirements, for example, indenting.
2.3.12 Headings and sub-headings
Opinions vary on the use of headings. Reports, whether they be scientific, technical
or business reports, always use headings and sub-headings. (See Structure of an
assignment, p. 10.) In longer research essays too, it is often necessary to indicate divisions
and sub-divisions of a topic.
However, many assignments are meant to take the form of essays rather than reports,
in which case headings may not be appropriate, depending also on the length of the essay.
The numbering of sections, sub-sections and paragraphs is inappropriate in formal essays.
Check with your lecturer to see whether headings are required.
If it is appropriate to use headings, consistency is important. There are systems of headings.
Some systems use numbers, with combinations of Arabic and Roman numerals; others use
letters of the alphabet, both upper-case and lower-case; some use no letters or numbers,
but different type-face and position to indicate whether the heading is a major division or
a sub-division.
Headings are not meant to be used as a substitute for transitions between paragraphs.
The essay should still flow smoothly if the headings are removed.
For further information on the use of headings, consult the Annotated Bibliography,
in particular Anderson and Poole (1993).
2.3.13 Quantitative and symbolic information
While graphs, equations and tables are common in all fields, they are usually essential
in scientific and technical reports and essays. A brief explanation of how to use such data
is given in Appendix C.
2.3.14 References and bibliographies
Check whether a list of references or a bibliography is required for the assignment
and note the difference between references and bibliography. Generally, assignments will
require a list of references, which are works referred to in the assignment; few assignments
will require a bibliography, material found useful in the writing of the assignment even
though not directly cited. Some bibliographies include references, while others contain
only useful, but not cited, material. Your lecturer should state what is required.
2.3.15 Planning the workload
A common reason given by students in requesting extensions for assignments is ‘pressure
of work’. In many cases this is avoidable. Planning the assignment should begin as soon
as the assignment topics and due dates are known. Preparations should begin early so that
all assignments are completed in good time.
Compiling a study plan can be an efficient form of time management, as it will provide
an opportunity to allocate time appropriately for tasks such as planning, researching and
note taking. An example of this is provided in Butler (1996).
17
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
2.3.16 Submitting the assignment
Familiarise yourself with the faculty and school requirements relating to the submission
of written assignments. The conditions applying to due dates, requests for extensions and
acknowledgement of receipt of assignments are of importance.
2.3.17 The mechanics of presentation
• All assignments require a title page or cover sheet. Your school will supply a cover or
title sheet. The minimum requirements for the title page are: name, student number, unit
name and code, title of assignment, lecturer’s and/or tutor’s name, date the assignment
is due, date submitted.
• Typed and written assignments should be neat and legible and usually typed in double
or one and a half spacing. Long quotations should be typed in single spacing and
indented. (See Chapter 3 for an explanation of the difference between ‘short’ and ‘long’
quotations.)
• A margin (about 4cm) is required on the left-hand side of each page, with at least 2cm
on all other edges. Font size 12, plain type, usually Times New Roman.
• Type on one side of the paper only.
• Clearly set out the References and /or Bibliography with the relevant details.
• Underline or italicise the titles of any books, journals, or other works.
• Number the pages of your assignment except the title page, which is assumed to be page
(i) (Roman numerals). The abstract/summary page is usually numbered (ii). The paper
itself is numbered in Arabic numerals from 1 to the end, beginning on the Introductory
page.
• Do not cover or encase your pages in film or plastic. Such casings make it difficult for
lecturers who want to write on the work.
• Ensure the assignment is properly bound, usually just stapled on the top left. If it has
computer disks or other inclusions it should be, well packaged and labelled.
2.3.18 Editorial checklist
Items to check before you submit your assignment:
• Have you answered the question? Is your purpose clear from the beginning?
• Have you developed your ideas in a logical sequence?
• Have you correctly acknowledged all references, including tapes, photographs,
newspaper items, pamphlets, Internet sources? Is the material in the references/
bibliography accurate?
• Have you checked your expression, spelling and punctuation?
• Have you deleted slang expressions and colloquialisms?
18
Chapter 2 • Preparing and Presenting the Assignment
• Have you used the form and expression most appropriate to the topic?
• Do your transitions link ideas well?
• Have you kept to the required number of words?
• Do you have margins and a title page?
• Have you included a summary/abstract/executive summary?
• Have you given all figures and tables an identifying number and caption?
• Have you referred to all figures and tables in the essay itself to establish their relevance
to the work?
• For larger pieces of work and for reports, have you included a contents page, listing
all sections and sub-sections, figures and tables?
• Have you kept a copy of your assignment either on disk or on paper in case of loss
of the original?
NOTE: Overseas students at QUT can obtain help with assignments through International
Student Services. The Counselling Centre is a resource for all students in genuine
difficulty.
19
Chapter 3
Citing sources of information
Almost every work that is neither fiction nor an account based on personal experience
relies on secondary sources, other publications on the same or related subjects, or on primary
sources, manuscript collections, diaries, personal interviews, parliamentary documents,
etc. (Chicago Manual of Style 2003, 444).
References are works (books, journal articles, documents, non-print media, Internet sources,
etc.) actually referred to or cited from in the paper. There is a need to know, therefore, both
how and what to reference. It follows conventional practices; deciding what to reference
requires some judgment.
3.1 Why use cite sources?
• To validate a point, statement or argument. Opinions carry much more weight if they
are supported by the ideas of experts.
• To give credit to the originator of the thought. Ethical considerations, as well as
the laws of copyright, require authors to acknowledge their sources.
• To permit readers to check the original work and assess it for themselves.
• To add value to a paper by demonstrating familiarity with relevant literature.
3.2 What should be cited?
• Direct quotations. These should be put in inverted commas.
• Any information (ideas or data) obtained from another author, whether that information
be a direct quotation or paraphrased comments.
• Definitions of terms, if necessary.
Some students think references are included in a paper only when a direct quotation is
used. This is not so. All published material of an informative nature (information you did
not know before you read it) should be duly acknowledged. Sources of information of
a general nature, however, such as facts and ideas that are common knowledge, do not need
to be identified. For example, the equation for Einstein’s theory of relativity (E=mc2), the
chemical symbol for water (H2O), or the date of the creation of the Commonwealth of
Australia (1901) do not need acknowledgment. Lecture notes are not normally cited. If you
wish to use material from a lecture, the original source should be referenced. Interviews
20
Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information
and telephone conversations need to be referenced in the text, but are not listed in the list
of references or in the bibliography (see page 31).
3.2.1 Plagiarism
Plagiarism, a failure to acknowledge sources of material correctly, is an offence against
professional standards and is a form of academic dishonesty. Any of the following
acts constitutes plagiarism unless the work is appropriately acknowledged through
referencing:
• copying the work of another student;
• directly copying any part of another’s work;
• summarising the work of another;
• using or developing an idea or thesis derived from another person’s work;
• using experimental results obtained by another;
• copying information directly from the Internet and pasting into your assignment without
acknowledgment.
(QUT Handbook 2003, 18)
Plagiarism, therefore, refers not only to the inclusion of an entire article or section, but also
to the paraphrasing of another’s material. Thus, summarising someone else’s ideas and
putting them into your own words does not free you from the responsibility of referencing
your source. Failure to acknowledge sources of material correctly is an offence against
professional standards.
Plagiarism will be dealt with as outlined in the QUT Handbook; see 9.3.1 and 9.3.3
NESB (Non-English Speaking Background) students often encounter difficulty with
appropriate academic writing and particularly with plagiarism. Non-deliberate plagiarism,
where there is no deliberate intention to cheat or steal ideas, is often related to learning
processes, especially in the areas of language and dealing with knowledge. For NESB
students, plagiarism can be related to cultural and academic expectations and language
proficiency.
(http://clb.ed.qut.edu.au/teaching/tesol/bookletinhouse.pdf 2003)
NESB students, therefore, are especially advised to seek help from International Student
Services or from their lecturers and tutors to ensure they do not unintentionally plagiarise
in their assignment writing.
See the QUT Manual of Policies and Procedures Policy C/9.3 document for more information
on QUT’s procedures for academic dishonesty. This document can be viewed at:
www.qut.edu.au/admin/mopp/C/C_09_03.html.
21
Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information
3.2.2 Copyright
Written material, artistic and dramatic works, computer programs, compilations of data,
cinematographic films, sound recordings, broadcasts, published editions and the work
of performers are protected by copyright law. Generally it will be sufficient simply to
reference the source of the material, but with the more non-traditional forms of material
such as films, recordings and videos, it would be wise to check the requirements for their
use. Some material, for example, will require you to get the written permission of the
owner before you may use it.
QUT’s Copyright Guide is contained in the University’s Manual of Policy and Procedures,
at http://www.tils.qut.edu.au/copyright/crguidefrontpage.html.
More information on how to access advice on copyright is contained in the Annotated
Bibliography.
3.3 How should sources be referenced in text?
Conventions and practices for referencing sources of information vary from discipline to
discipline. It is essential that you be familiar with the main referencing systems so that you
are able to use whichever style is required by individual lecturers or by the journal for which
the paper is being written. Your own school will instruct you on the method of referencing
that is required. The author of The Written Assignment adopts the view that no one system
is superior to all others, but that consistency is the most important consideration.
Most referencing systems are variations of either ‘author-date’ or ‘footnoting’ systems.
Illustrations for three common forms of the ‘author-date’ system are given in this booklet.
General references in the booklet and items listed in the Annotated Bibliography are given
in the system recommended in the Chicago Manual of Style (2003) The Harvard System.
But this is for consistency rather than because that system is considered superior to any
other.
3.4 Author-date systems
These systems were traditionally used by biological and physical scientists and have now
gained wide acceptance by social scientists. Unless given specific instructions to use
another system, one of the author-date systems illustrated in this booklet should be used
in QUT assignments. Most are variations on Harvard, which exists in different forms and
is not published as a complete system in any particular manual. It is not possible now to
refer to THE Harvard System. You may, therefore, find a number of style manuals that
purport to illustrate the Harvard System, yet use slightly different forms of punctuation
and ordering of information.
Author-date systems do not use footnotes for referencing, but are based on parenthetical
documentation within the text, which gives enough information to enable the reader to
locate the item by checking the full citation in a reference list at the end of the paper. As
well as being simple and time-saving, these systems are also flexible in that it is possible
to add or delete entries without disrupting any numbering system.
The three basic elements of a reference in the author-date system are the last name
22
Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information
of the author, the year of publication of the work, and the page number. Note that if the
reference is to a whole work, no page numbers are required. However, if the reference
is to a specific part of a work, page numbers are required. Direct quotations, précis
and paraphrases always require page numbers. Three variations of author-date systems of
referencing are explained in this booklet:
• Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 2002).
• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA 2001)
• Variations of the Harvard System (Chicago Manual of Style 2003)
There are a number of specific differences between the three systems, many of which
are comparatively minor and will be demonstrated in the examples given.
3.4.1 Author’s name
If the author’s name is issued in a sentence, it should be followed by the year of publication,
as in Smith (1989) states that . . . Sometimes you will refer to an author to support
a statement of yours, without quoting or paraphrasing them directly, as in Some authors
have noted that . . . (Smith 1989). See page 26 for examples in all systems.
3.4.2 Year of publication
The year of publication of a work (found in the printing details at the front of a book,
after the copyright symbol ©, should always follow the author’s surname. If the author’s
name is part of the sentence, the year is placed in parentheses immediately following the
name; for example, Butler (1996). If the author’s name is in parentheses, then the year
is written inside the same brackets; for example, (Butler 1996).
3.4.3 Page numbers
If you make a direct quotation, or paraphrase or summarise a point made by another writer
at a particular place in their work, you should include the page number(s) on which their
statements were made. Single pages are abbreviated as either “8” or “p. 8”; multiple pages
are abbreviated as either “3-6” or “pp. 3-6”.
In the AGPS and Harvard systems, place page numbers after the date, inside the same
brackets:
AGPS
Pasmore (1994, p. 10) argues that ‘change is a cognitive and emotional shift’.
OR
‘Change is a cognitive and emotional shift’ (Pasmore 1994, p. 10).
APA
In the APA system place page numbers at the end of a quotation or paraphrase.
Pasmore (1994) argued that “change is a cognitive and emotional shift” (p. 10).
OR
“Change is a cognitive and emotional shift” (Pasmore, 1994, p. 10).
In addition, under the APA system, verbs referring to authors’ actions are written in
the past tense (‘argued’ instead of ‘argues’).
23
Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information
Harvard
The latest version of Harvard does not normally use ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’ to signify page numbers
in citations.
Pasmore (1994, 10) argues that “change is a cognitive and emotional shift”.
OR
“Change is a cognitive and emotional shift” (Pasmore 1994, 10).
3.4.4 Placement of in-text references
In-text references are placed within the punctuation of the sentence they refer to unless
the quote is a long one. (See Short and Long quotations).
3.4.5 Using direct quotations
Students are advised to use the direct quotation sparingly. An essay is more than
a copying-out exercise; it requires individual selection, ordering and development of ideas
and should, therefore, demonstrate the ability to analyse, synthesise, precis and paraphrase
what is read, and relate it to the essay topic. (See Chapter 2, Section 3, Critically analyse
the material.)
Use the direct quotation to support a point. It is up to you as the writer to make the point;
the direct quotation reinforces it (Hewitson 1986, 7).
When you do quote another writer, out of respect for the other writer, you must do so
verbatim; that is, without alteration. There are three exceptions to this rule:
• If necessary, change the case of the first word quoted to fit your sentence. For example,
the first word of a quotation, which may have been a capital, may be changed to lower
case to follow your own words.
• If necessary, insert words to make the quotation understandable out of context.
To indicate words inserted, use square brackets, [ ]. For example: It is a point of
contention as to the degree to which [things like the size of the organisation, the age,
the function, the hostility of the external environment and the technology we use] dictate
how we manage.
• If necessary, delete words to make the quotation more concise. To indicate words
deleted, ellipses, a series of periods or dots (…). One simple rule is that three dots
indicate an omission within a quoted sentence and four marks the omission of one or
more sentences. The omission of one or more paragraphs within a quotation is indicated
by four ellipsis points. When three ellipsis points are used, a space appears before the
first dot and after the final dot. When four are used, the first dot is a true period; i.e.,
there is no space. For example, The Australian spirit is an egalitarian one .... Speaking
on the eve of the new millennium ... the Prime Minister argued passionately for the
Ozzie Battler.
If the writer has made a grammatical or typing error, you still copy their work, with the
note (sic) following it, to indicate that you recognise the mistake. ‘Sic’ means ‘thus’.
There is no set rule for the percentage of an assignment that may be comprised of direct
quotations, just don't overdo it.
24
Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information
The quoted words are enclosed by single quotation marks (‘ ’) under the AGPS system, and
double quotation marks (“ ”) under APA and Harvard systems. If the quotation includes
a quotation made in the original work, the enclosed quotation is enclosed by the opposite
type of quotation marks; for example:
• AGPS
‘Children need experience with “real world” problems’ (Smith 1995, p. 22).
• APA
“Children need experience with ‘real world’ problems” (Smith, 1995, p. 22).
• Harvard
“Children need experience with ‘real world’ problems” (Smith 1995, 22).
In plays or transcripts, if the name of the speaker is given, quotation marks are not
required.
Caesar: The ides of March are come.
Soothsayer: Ay, Caesar; but not gone.
3.4.6 Short and long quotations
What is ‘short’ and ‘long’ is arbitrary, but the most common practice is to consider
quotations of more than 40 words as ‘long’.
A short quotation is incorporated into a sentence without disrupting the flow of the text,
and quotation marks are used:
• AGPS
Cope (2005, p.1) suggests that 'there is a requirement for order in the classroom'.
• APA
Cope (2005) suggests that "there is a requirement for order in the classroom" (p. 1).
or
"There is a requirement for order in the classroom" (Cope, 2005, p. 1).
• Harvard
Cope (2005, 1) suggests that "there is a requirement for order in the classroom".
By contrast, a long quotation is set out as a block quotation. The block is indented,
or put in italics. No quotation marks are necessary.
• AGPS
Some of the difficulties in carrying out competitor analysis are described
by Hussey:
One of the difficulties of competitor analysis is knowing what information to
obtain. The problem often varies between the extremes of having too few data for
meaningful analysis and having so much that it becomes difficult to make sense of
it. (1995, p. 221)
• APA
Some of the difficulties in carrying out competitor analysis are described by Hussey
(1995):
25
Chapter 3 • Citing Sources of Information
One of the difficulties of competitor analysis is knowing what information to
obtain. The problem often varies between the extremes of having too few data for
meaningful analysis and having so much that it becomes difficult to make sense of
it. (p. 221)
• Harvard
Some of the difficulties in carrying out competitor analysis are described
by Hussey:
One of the difficulties of competitor analysis is knowing what information to
obtain. The problem often varies between the extremes of having too few data for
meaningful analysis and having so much that it becomes difficult to make sense of
it. (1995, p. 221)
Double spacing or one and a half spacing should be used both before and after the block
quotation which is in single spacing. There is also a line space before and after the
quotation.
3.4.7 Using indirect speech (paraphrases)
If you wish to use the work of another writer, but do not want to quote directly, you may
paraphrase. Note that this includes instances where you make reference to the ideas
of another writer. An indication that you may need to make reference to another writer
is if you have written “Many people believe that . . .” If indeed many people do agree with
the statement, you should make reference to an authority in the field who has published
such a statement.
Because a paraphrase is not written using exactly the same words as the original, there are
no quotation marks. However, the author’s name and the publication year are still used
to reference the citation. The page number(s) will be needed if the other writer’s idea
or statement you refer to is made on a particular page or pages in the original writing.
If your sentence is a summary of the other writer’s work as a whole, then page numbers
are not needed.
3.4.8 Examples of direct quotations and paraphrases
Lomas wrote the following statement: “It is difficult to believe that Australia’s present
transportation system will be able to cope with the needs of society in the 21st century.”
You could refer to this statement as a quotation or in a paraphrase. For efficiency of space,
these examples are all written using the modern Harvard System.
Quotation: Lomas (1988, 54) states that “it is difficult to believe that Australia’s
present transportation system will be able to cope with the needs of society in the 21st
century.”
Paraphrase: Lomas (1988, 54) states that he doubts the ability of our present system
of transportation to cope with the next century’s requirements.
OR
At least one writer has expressed doubts about the fitness of our transportation system
for future needs (Lomas 1988, 54).
OR
It is difficult to see how Australia’s future transportation needs will be served by
the present system (Lomas 1988, 54).
26
Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations
3.4.9 Examples of citations using the author-date systems
Not all references are entirely straightforward. Examples are given below of the three
main referencing systems. While these examples illustrate some variations, they will not
answer all the questions you are likely to have about referencing. For more detail you
should consult the appropriate style manual. (See the Annotated Bibliography for a full
list of these manuals.) The three styles concentrated on in this booklet are in alphabetical
order of their acronym or usual reference (AGPS, APA, Harvard). The order presented
in this work does not indicate a preference of one style over another.
3.4.10 Australian Government Printing Service (AGPS) style citations
Quoting from one page of a book or journal article with a single author
Tayeb (1996, p. 59) states that ‘In all societies the majority of people want to
do well.’
OR
‘In all societies the majority of people want to do well’ (Tayeb 1996, p. 59).
Paraphrasing from two pages
Rokeach (1968, pp. 110–111) says attitudes are difficult to measure because there
is much controversy over what an attitude is.
Reference to argument of a whole work
Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary
for corporate success.
Example of book or journal article with two authors
Both names should be cited.
Bean and Papadakis (1998, p. 219) say that ‘Overall, popular support for the welfare
state remained strong between 1985 and 1990’.
OR
‘Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and 1990’
(Bean & Papadakis 1998, p. 219).
Note the use of 'and' in the sentence but ampersand (&) in parentheses.
Example of book or journal article with three authors
Vecchio, Hearn and Southey (1996, p. 351) say that ‘organisational decision making
involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation’.
OR
‘Organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and
practices of a given organisation’ (Vecchio, Hearn & Southey 1996, p. 351).
For APA, cite all three authors for the first citation, afterward use one with 'et al.'.
27
Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations
Reference to a work by more than three authors
For AGPS, do not list the names of all authors, but only the first-named author followed
by et al. ‘Et al.’ means ‘and others’. Note the use of the period after al.
The subject is treated in detail by Robbins et al. (2001).
Reference to more than one work by an author or authors in the same year
A lower case letter of the alphabet attached to the publication date distinguishes the different
publications. The order of the letters is dictated by the alphabetical order of the title. For
example, two publications by James Bell in 1981, The Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees
of Africa, would be referenced as Bell (1981a) and Bell (1981b) respectively.
If the publications are cited at the same time, they should be referenced as follows:
Bell (1981a, p. 99; 1981b, p. 88) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that
lasts a lifetime.
OR
‘The study of wildlife is a lifelong adventure’ (Bell 1981a, p. 99; 1981b, p. 88).
Reference to more than one work in the same citation
Names are listed in alphabetical order. When both name and date are in brackets,
a semi-colon separates one citation from another.
(Albert 1985, p. 12; Allen & Kraft 1984, p. 24; Kanter 1983; 1985, p. 99)
OR
Albert (1985, p. 12), Allen and Kraft (1984, p. 24) and Kanter (1983; 1985, p. 99)
demonstrated that . . .
One author quoted in the work of another
For in-text citations of the work of one author by another, provide both authors’ names.
AGPS is silent on the method; the inference in that following is acceptable: Adrian
West (in Thompson 1970, p. 116) recommends …
Quoting from an anonymous author
It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (1973, p. 9) that ‘Australia is blessed with one
of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world.’
OR
‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country
of the world’ (Wild Life of Australia 1973, p. 9).
This second example is not accepted in some disciplines.
Reference to a corporate author
The Australian Government Publishing Service (2002, pp. 119–120) claims that while there
are variations in the conventions for the use of capitals in English speaking countries, there
is an overall trend towards reducing the number of capitals on a page.
OR
The AGPS (2002, pp. 119-120) claims that while there are variations in the conventions
28
Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations
for the use of capitals in English speaking countries, there is an overall trend towards
reducing the number of capitals on a page.
Note that it is acceptable in AGPS style to use well-known abbreviations, contractions
and acronyms, even if they have not previously been explicated in the text. Where
the corporate author is not well known, the name in full should be used the first instance
in the text. The abbreviated form may be used subsequently.
Reference to a newspaper article
If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article.
However, if the author is not named provide, full details in-text, and the name of
the newspaper takes the place of the author. Check with your discipline.
The Courier-Mail (20 April 2003, p. 5) said that...
Reference to an interview, email or conversation (personal
communications)
Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal
(or telephone) interview on 21 April 1999 that . . . .
OR
Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated that . . . (personal
interview, 21 April 1999).
OR
In an interview (or telephone conversation) I conducted on 21 April 1999, Ms Annie
Schultz revealed that . . . .
Details of a personal communication do not need to be included in the reference list.
Check all these with your discipline.
Classical and religious works
These include ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have
page numbers or a date of publication.
Tacitus Agricola, 35.1
For a Biblical reference, indicate the book, chapter, and verse(s). (These are usually
consistent across all versions and translations):
John 3:16 (New International Version)
Citing material from the Internet
Material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be referenced, failure to
do so constitutes plagiarism. However material should be used cautiously; it may not be
reliable, valid, nor referenced.
• Each reference should provide sufficient information for a reader to identify and retrieve
the Internet source used. For instance, the web address the Uniform Resource Location,
(URL) should be the actual web address used i.e., the specific document, rather than a
home page.
29
Chapter 3 • AGPS Citations
• If you have trouble identifying the title of the web page, look at the top of the web page
above FILE on the browser.
• Each reference to an Internet source should be accompanied with the date accessed,
since information on the Internet can be amended regularly.
• All references cited in the text of the assignment must appear in your reference list and
each entry in your reference list must match a citation in the text.
• Always include the date on which you accessed the item and present it according
to the style adopted: e.g., 20 November 2005.
• Web documents often have two dates, an original publication date and a last modified
date. Use only the date the page was last modified.
If the URL has to be broken (i.e., its length is greater than the width of your page), do not
insert a hyphen. Break the URL after a slash and continue it on the next line.
In-text citations of electronic sources, known author
To cite a document (journal article or other) within the text of an assignment, use only the
name of the author, followed by the year of publication or latest update in parentheses.
Jones (2001) concords that the reaction was not appropriate.
In-text citations of internal sources, unknown author
To cite a document without an author use the title.As a last resort use the URL of the
document, encased in ‘< >’ followed by the year of publication in parentheses.
<http://netec.mcc.ac.uk/WoPEc/data/Papers//wopbawlad_007.html> (2001) reported
that “this has significantly eroded the region’s chances of competing in global
markets”.
If page numbers are not available, use the term “para” or the symbol ¶ to acknowledge
which paragraph your quote has come from.
(Myers 2000, ¶ 5)
(American Psychological Association 2003, Conclusion section, para. 1)
Reference to other non-print media
Within the text of the paper or essay, most non-print media can be referenced in the
same way as any print source, using either the author (or producer/director) or the title of
the film, video, production, etc.
All examples of the AGPS citation system shown in the preceding pages obviously do
not by themselves give the reader complete information about sources. Such information
can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a List of References or Bibliography
discussed in Chapter 4.
30
Chapter 3 • APA Citations
3.4.11 Citations of the American Psychology Association (APA) style
Quoting from one page of a book or journal article with a single author
Tayeb (1994) stated that “In all societies the majority of people want to do well”
(p. 59).
OR
“In all societies the majority of people want to do well” (Tayeb, 1996, p. 59).
Paraphrasing from two pages
Rokeach (1968) said attitudes are difficult to measure because there is much controversy
over what an attitude is (pp. 110-111).
Reference to argument of a whole work
Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary
for corporate success.
Example of book or journal article with two authors
When a book or journal article has two authors, both names should be cited every time
the reference occurs in the text.
Bean and Papadakis (1998) said that “Overall, popular support for the welfare state
remained strong between 1985 and 1990” (p. 219).
OR
“Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985 and
1990” (Bean & Papadakis, 1998, p. 219).
Note the use of ampersand (&) only in parentheses
Example of book or journal article with three, four, or five authors
When first making reference to such a work in the text, cite all the authors the first time
the reference occurs. The form is:
Vecchio, Hearn, and Southey (1996) said that “Organisational decision making involves
decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation” (p. 351).
For subsequent citations, in the APA style, the form is:
Vecchio et al. (1996) said that “Organisational decision making involves decisions that
pertain to the problems and practices of a given organisation” (p. 351).
Reference to a work by six or more authors
When a work has six or more authors, always cite the last name of the first author followed
by et al.
The subject is treated in detail by Robbins et al. (2001).
Reference to more than one work by an author or authors in the same year
A lower case letter of the alphabet attached to the publication date distinguishes the different
publications. The order of the letters is dictated by the alphabetical order of the title.
31
Chapter 3 • APA Citations
For example, two publications by James Bell in 1981, The Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees
of Africa, would be referenced as Bell (1981a) and Bell (1981b) respectively.
If the publications are cited at the same time, they should be referenced as follows:
Bell (1981a, 1981b) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts
a lifetime.
OR
‘The study of wildlife is a lifelong adventure’(Bell, 1981a, 1981b).
OR
Bell (1981a, 1981b) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts
a lifetime
Reference to more than one work in the same citation
Names are listed in alphabetical order. When both name and date are in brackets,
a semi-colon separates one citation from another.
(Albert, 1985; Allen & Kraft, 1984; Kanter, 1983, 1985)
In APA there is one exception. You may separate a major citation from another by inserting
the words ‘see also’:
(Albert, 1985; see also Allen & Kraft, 1984; Kanter, 1983, 1985)
One author quoted in the work of another
West (as cited in Thomson, 1970) recommended that nursing education be made
an integral part of the provincial education.
Quoting from an anonymous author
The first few words of the reference list entry, usually the title, and the year should
be cited. If it is the title, it should be italicized and double quotation marks used.
It was stated in the book Wild Life of Australia (1973) that “Australia is blessed with one
of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world” (p. 9).
OR
“Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country
of the world” (Wild Life of Australia, 1973, p. 9).
Reference to a corporate author
The American Psychology Association [APA] (2001) argues that the only words to be
capitalised in reference lists are those commencing the beginning of sentences, the first
word after a colon, or proper nouns (p. 228).
OR
The APA (2001) argues that the only words to be capitalized in reference lists are those
commencing the beginning of sentences, the first word after a colon, or proper nouns
(p. 95).
With the first reference to a corporate author, use the full name of the government entity
and follow this with a readily identified abbreviation, enclosed in square brackets.
The next time you cite this corporate author you can just use the abbreviation.
32
Chapter 3 • APA Citations
Reference to a newspaper article
If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article.
However, if the author is not named, the title of the article is the reference.
In The Courier-Mail, it was reported that . . . (“Ex-governor’s view criticised”, 2003,
p. 5)
Reference to an interview, email or conversation (personal
communications)
Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal
(or telephone) interview on April 21, 1999 that . . . .
OR
Ms Annie Schultz, (personal communication, April 21, 1999) stated that . . . .
OR
In an interview (or telephone conversation) I conducted on April 21, 1999, Ms Annie
Schultz revealed that . . . .
Details of a personal communication do not need to be included in the reference list.
Classical and religious works
This includes ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have
page numbers or a date of publication.
Tacitus Agricola, 35.1
For a Biblical reference, indicate the book, chapter, and verse(s). (These are usually
consistent across all versions and translations):
John 3:16 (New International Version)
Citing material from the Internet
The Internet has greatly enhanced the sharing of information around the world. Most
material accessed from the Internet and used for academic purposes is found on the Web.
As with print media, material from the Internet is covered by copyright law and must be
referenced. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.
Students should observe the following referencing guidelines when using and citing
information from the Internet:
• Each reference should provide sufficient information for a reader to identify and retrieve
the Internet source used. For instance, the web address should be the actual web address
used (i.e., the specific document) rather than a home page.
• Each reference to an Internet source should be accompanied by date of publication
or update, and by the date accessed, since information on the Internet can be amended
regularly. If publication date not available, use access date.
• All references cited in the text of your assignment must appear in your Reference List
and each entry in your Reference List must match a citation in the text.
• If the URL has to be broken (i.e., its length is greater than the width of your page),
do not insert a hyphen. Break the URL after a slash and continue it on the next line.
33
Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations
In-text citations of electronic sources, known author
To cite a document (journal article or other) within the text of an assignment, use only the
name of the author, followed by the year of publication or latest update in parentheses. If
there is no date, write 'n. d.'
Jones (2001) concords that the reaction was not appropriate.
In-text citations of electronic sources, unknown author
To cite a document without an author (journal article or other) within the text of an
assignment, use the title of the document, followed by the year of publication in
parentheses.
URLs in text are stongly discouraged – use title if author unavailable.
Aldolase is present in all animal and plant tissue (Alsolase, n. d., para. 2).
If page numbers are not available, use the term “para” or the symbol ¶ to acknowledge
which paragraph your quote has come from.
(Myers, 2000, ¶ 5)
(American Psychological Association, 2003, Conclusion section, para. 1)
Other non-print media
Within the text of the paper or essay, most non-print media can be referenced in the same
way as any print source, using either the author (or producer/director) or the title of the
film, video, production, etc.
3.4.12 Citations using the Harvard style (Chicago Manual
of Style)
Quoting from one page of a book or journal article with a single author
Tayeb (1996, 59) states that “In all societies the majority of people want to
do well”.
OR
“In all societies the majority of people want to do well” (Tayeb 1996, 59).
A variation in (Tayeb, 1996: 59). This is confusing; consistency is fundamental
and lecturers should be consulted.
Paraphrasing from two pages
Rokeach (1968, 110–111) says attitudes are difficult to measure because there is much
controversy over what an attitude is.
Reference to argument of a whole work
Peters and Waterman (1982) built their whole argument on the cultural traits necessary
for corporate success.
Example of book or journal article with two authors
When a book or journal article has two authors, both names should be cited.
34
Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations
Bean and Papadkis (1998, 219) say that “Overall, popular support for the welfare state
remained strong between 1985 and 1990”.
OR
“Overall, popular support for the welfare state remained strong between 1985
and 1990” (Bean and Papadakis 1998, 219).
Example of book or journal article with three authors
Vecchio, Hearn, and Southey (1996, 351) say that “organisational decision
making involves decisions that pertain to the problems and practices of a given
organization”.
OR
“Organisational decision making involves decisions that pertain to the problems
and practices of a given organization” (Vecchio, Hearn, and Southey 1996, 351).
Reference to a work by more than three authors
For the Harvard system, do not list the names of all authors, but only the first-named author
followed by et al. ‘Et al.’ means ‘and others’. Note the use of the full-stop after al.
The subject is treated in detail by Robbins and others (2001).
OR
In one study (Robbins et al. 2001) the subject is treated in detail.
Reference to more than one work by an author or authors in the same year
A lower case letter of the alphabet attached to the publication date distinguishes the different
publications. The order of the letters is dictated by the alphabetical order of the title.
For example, two publications by James Bell in 1981, The Bears of Alaska and Chimpanzees
of Africa, would be referenced as Bell (1981a) and Bell (1981b) respectively.
If the publications are cited at the same time, they should be referenced as follows:
Bell (1981a, 99; 1981b, 88) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts
a lifetime.
OR
“The study of wildlife is a lifelong adventure” (Bell 1981a, 99; 1981b, 88).
OR
Bell (1981a, 99; 1981b, 88) says that the study of wildlife is an adventure that lasts
a lifetime,
Reference to more than one work in the same citation
Names are listed in alphabetical order. When both name and date are in brackets,
a semi-colon separates one citation from another.
(Albert 1985; Allen and Kraft 1984; Kanter 1983; 1985, 99)
One author quoted in the work of another
The original author is quoted in-text. In the reference list you must acknowledge
the original source was found in a secondary source.
Adrian West (cited in Thomson 1970, 116) recommended that nursing education be
made an integral part of the provincial education.
35
Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations
Quoting from an anonymous author
It is stated in Wild Life of Australia (Anon. 1973, 9) that ‘Australia is blessed with one
of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country of the world.’
OR
‘Australia is blessed with one of the largest varieties of bird life in any one country
of the world’ (Anon. 1973, 9).
Reference to a corporate author
The Chicago Manual of Style [CMS] (2003, 311) argues for the sparse use of capitals
in reference lists, reserving these for the first word in a title or sub-title, and for proper
nouns.
OR
CMS (2003, 311) argues for the sparse use of capitals in reference lists, reserving these
for the first word in a title or sub-title, and for proper nouns.
With the first reference to a corporate author, use the full name of the corporate
or government entity and follow this with a readily identified abbreviation, enclosed
in square brackets. In subsequent references you may use the abbreviated form. If you do
this, ensure you clarify the cross reference in the subsequent references.
Reference to a newspaper article
If the author of the article is named, the reference should be as for a book or an article.
However, if the author is not named, the name of the newspaper is the reference.
In The Courier-Mail (2003, 5) it was reported that....
Reference to an interview, email or conversation
Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated in a personal
(or telephone) interview on April 21, 1999 that . . . .
OR
Ms Annie Schultz, Managing Director of ACL Industries, stated that . . . (personal
interview, April 21, 1999).
OR
In an interview (or telephone conversation) I conducted on April 21, 1999, Ms Annie
Schultz revealed that . . . .
Details of a personal communication do not need to be included in the reference list.
Classical and religious works
This includes ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have
page numbers or a date of publication.
Tacitus Agricola, 35.1
For Biblical reference, indicate the book, chapter, and verse(s). (These are usually consistent
across all versions and translations):
John 3:16 (New International Version)
36
Chapter 3 • Harvard Citations
Citing material from the Internet
The Internet is a vast collection of inter-connected computer networks that has greatly
enhanced the sharing of information within the world. The graphical interface of the World
Wide Web is the most popular method of navigating and sharing information across the
networks. Most material accessed from the Internet and used for academic purposes can be
found on the Web. As with print media, material from the Internet is covered by copyright
law and must be referenced. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.
Students should observe the following referencing guidelines when using and citing
information from the Internet:
• Each reference should provide sufficient information for a reader to identify and retrieve
the Internet source used. For instance, the web address should be the actual web address
used (i.e., the specific document) rather than a home page.
• Each reference to an Internet source should be accompanied by the date accessed, since
information on the Internet can be amended regularly. See note p. 36.
• All references cited in the text of your assignment must appear in your Reference List
and each entry in your Reference List must match a citation in the text.
• If the URL has to be broken (i.e., its length is greater than the width of your page),
do not insert a hyphen. Break the URL after a slash and continue it on the next line.
In-text citations of electronic sources, known author
To cite a document (journal article or other) use the title. As a last resort use only the name
of the author, followed by the year of publication or latest update in parenthesis.
Jones (2001) concords that the reaction was not appropriate.
In-text citations of electronic sources, unknown author
To cite a document without an author (journal article or other) use the title, as a last resort
use the URL of the document, followed by the year of publication in parenthesis.
http://netec.mcc.ac.uk/WoPEc/data/Papers//wopbawlad_007.html (2001) reported that
“this has significantly eroded the region’s chances of competing in global markets”.
If page numbers are not available, use the term “para” or the symbol ¶ to acknowledge
which paragraph your quote has come from.
(Myers 2000, ¶ 5)
(American Psychological Association 2003, Conclusion section, para. 1)
Other non-print media
Within the text of the paper or essay, most non-print media can be referenced in the
same way as any print source, using either the author (or producer/director) or the title of
the film, video, production, etc.
All examples of the Harvard referencing system shown in the preceding pages obviously do
not by themselves give the reader complete information about sources. Such information
can be obtained only by relating the referencing to a List of References or Bibliography,
which is a necessary accompaniment to these systems. Compilation of bibliographies
is discussed in Chapter 4.
37
Chapter 3 • Citing information
3.5 Other systems of referencing
3.5.1 The MLA (Modern Languages Association) system
The MLA system is another author-date system and provides in the text the author
and location, as in the following example:
In the nineteenth century, the supposed golden age of American education, ‘college
faculties acted as disciplinary tribunals, periodically reviewing violations of rules .....’
(Graff 25).
3.5.2 The footnoting or endnoting system
This system, in varying forms, uses footnotes (references at the foot of each page)
or endnotes (references at the end of the paper) to indicate the source of any direct
quotations, and of any ideas, opinions, or statistical material that you have taken – not
necessarily as direct quotations – from another author.
Some examples of the use of the system are shown below, but they are not an exhaustive
coverage of all possibilities.
• Insert a number in your text for each footnote – either at the end of a sentence, after the
name of an author to whom you refer, or at the end of a direct quotation. This number
is called a ‘superscript’ or ‘supernumeral’. Use one series of numbers throughout
the paper, a separate number for each footnote; e.g., 1–20. Place the footnote at the
bottom of the page on which the reference occurs or at the end of the paper. If you wish
to add an extra reference to your paper, you will need to change all the supernumerals
that occur after the new reference.
• In your first reference to a book or article in a footnote, give full publication details
and page; e.g., J. Pierce & R. Dunham, Managing, Glenview, Illinois, Scott/Foresman,
1990, 25. Note that the author’s (or authors’) initials are placed before the surname.
Some footnoting systems omit the name of the publisher in the footnote.
• Thereafter, you may refer to that book or article by using the following
abbreviations:
ibid. (i.e., ibidem, meaning ‘in the same place’.) This is used when references to the
same book or article immediately follow one another:
1. J. Pierce & R. Dunham, Managing, Glenview, Illinois, Scott/Foresman,
1990, 25.
2.
ibid. (to indicate same book, same page)
3.
ibid., 99. (to indicate same book, different page)
op. cit. (i.e., opere citato, meaning ‘in the work cited’.) This is used when references
to the same book or article do not immediately follow each other:
1. J. Pierce & R. Dunham, Managing, Glenview, Illinois, Scott/Foresman,
1990, 62.
2.
B. Bass, Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research and
Managerial Applications, 3rd edition, New York, The Free Press, 1990, 359.
38
Chapter 3 • Citing information
3.
Pierce & Dunham, op. cit., 50.
(You are referring to Pierce and Dunham’s book that you mentioned above, but not
immediately above.)
• If you wish to quote a statement that you have found already quoted by another author,
include in your footnote both the name of the person who made the original statement
and the place where you found it:
1. R. G. Menzies, quoted in L. F. Crisp, The Parliamentary Government of the
Commonwealth of Australia, 3rd ed., London, Longmans, 1963, 165.
• At the end of the article, chapter or paper, place a bibliography arranged in alphabetical
order of authors’ or editors’ surnames, and chronologically for each author where
more than one work of an author is cited. In a ‘bibliography’, include all books and
articles consulted – and found useful – whether or not references were made to them.
In a ‘list of references’, include only those authors you refer to by name in your text.
Bibliographic entries will be discussed in Chapter 4.
3.5.3 The Vancouver System
The Vancouver system is most commonly used in medical literature and also by many
allied health professions. It is a variation on the footnoting or endnoting system, the main
difference being that it allows more than one superior figure to be used at a time and one
number to be repeated when referring to the same citation.
The following are further differences found in the Vancouver system:
• Minimal capitalisation is given to titles of books and articles, which should not be
written in italics.
• Journal articles are not placed within quotation marks.
• All authors should be listed unless there are more than six. When this is the case the
first three should be listed, followed by ‘et al.’.
• Authors’ initials follow the surnames without the use of full stops or a space.
3.5.4 The legal footnoting system
The legal discipline has its own footnoting systems. These vary from country to country. The
Australian conventions are set out in the works listed in the Annotated Bibliography.
In the legal discipline it is not conventional to use the Harvard System or any of its variants.
Occasionally, some legal journals use the Harvard System (or a variant of it), but students
should not use it unless writing for these journals and this type of footnoting referencing
system is stipulated in the journal’s style guide.
With the influence of the ‘Plain English’ movement in the legal discipline, the use
of Latin terms such as ‘infra’ and ‘supra’ is diminishing. Students should use the English
equivalents (i.e., below and above). The works in the Annotated Bibliography provide
a complete list of the English equivalents for Latin terms. Latin terms, may, of course,
be used for legal terms in the body of the assignment if this is appropriate.
39
Chapter 3 • Citing information
Students should never cite material they have not personally consulted. If it is necessary to
refer to a source cited by an author in a work cited that you have not personally consulted,
use the following convention:
See S Fisher, Commercial and Personal Property Law (Butterworths, Sydney, 1997),
p 379 (n 38), citing SJ Stoljar, A History of Contract at Common Law, (ANU Press,
Canberra, 1975), pp 7–15.
Use of the Internet within the legal discipline
If you are preparing assignments or reports within the legal discipline, it is recommended
that you consult with the requirements of your individual school. Within the legal discipline,
there are several variations of referencing and citing material from the Internet available.
3.6 EndNote
EndNote is bibliographic management software that allows researchers to record, organise
and use references and to manage information. It is a powerful tool that will help you
manage your references and write your assignments. QUT holds a site licence that makes
this software available to current QUT staff and students.
EndNote is especially helpful in:
• creating a database (a library) of references for a specific topic;
• directly searching the QUT Library catalogue;
• organising references and images;
• downloading references directly from library catalogues or other remote bibliographic
databases; e.g., ScienceDirect or PsycINFO;
• linking references into word processed documents;
• generating a bibliography in a specific style, especially for publication. EndNote
has over 1000 output styles including AGPS, APA, Harvard and many particular
to individual journals; e.g., Journal of Educational Psychology.
Obtaining EndNote software
Endnote software is available to, and can be used by, all current QUT staff and students
only. Ex-staff and ex-students of QUT are not permitted to retain or use the software.
The software, including an online complete version of the EndNote manual, can be obtained
by either:
• downloading it from the QUT Library website at www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/
download.jsp
• borrowing the appropriate software in CD-ROM format from the Library. There are
several copies of the CD-ROM available at each branch library. To locate the call
number, do a title search in the Library Catalogue on the title EndNote.
40
Chapter 3 • Citing information
Learning more about EndNote
For more information on EndNote go to www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/ where you can
• download the EndNote software available to QUT students and staff;
• choose from several EndNote online tutorials produced by QUT and other
universities;
• access an Online Learning and Teaching (OLT) site dedicated to EndNote training;
• learn more about EndNote filters;
• learn more about EndNote styles;
• download EndNote Connect files for specific library catalogues;
• book online for EndNote training courses.
QUT Library also provides EndNote technical assistance for all staff and postgraduate
students. The contacts of the QUT EndNote Helpdesk are on the following webpage:
www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/assistance.jsp
41
Chapter 4
Compiling lists of references
and bibliographies
Students are often confused in the use of the terms ‘list of references’ and ‘bibliography’.
This confusion is not surprising, as the different referencing systems use the words in
different ways. (See References and Bibliographies, Chapter 2, p. 20, and Chapter 3).
The concentration here will be on conventions used in writing lists of references and
bibliographies for the author-date systems.
It cannot be over-emphasised that there is no one correct form. Authorities differ among
themselves, but the differences are about matters of detail, such as punctuation, rather than
about fundamentals. A particular form should be chosen and then used consistently.
Some professional bodies lay down that a particular form must be used to ensure
consistency; it does not imply that the required form is considered the only correct one.
Always check with your lecturer to find out what is required.
References cited in the text must appear in the reference list. The text citation and reference
list entry must be the same. Because one purpose of listing references is to enable readers
to find and use the sources for themselves, reference data must be complete and correct
(APA, 2001).
4.1 References and bibliographies in the author-date systems
At the end of your essay or paper, place a list of references or a bibliography arranged in
alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames, and chronologically for each author
where more than one work of an author is cited.
• AGPS
The term ‘References’ is used to indicate all those works cited in the text. ‘Bibliography’
is reserved for those works not cited but relevant to the subject. A list of references
is compulsory and a bibliography is optional.
• APA
The term ‘References’ is used to indicate all those works cited in the text.
A Bibliography is not used with the APA system.
• Harvard
The traditional Harvard System uses the terms ‘Works Cited’, ‘Works Consulted’,
‘Literature Cited’, or ‘References’ to refer only to those works cited in the text.
42
Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing
‘Bibliography’ is used for a combined list of all works cited in the text and other relevant
works consulted in the preparation of the text. You should consider carefully which
non-cited works you include in your bibliography and should not use the bibliography
to make your research look more impressive than it actually was.
Be guided by your school or lecturer as to which convention you are to follow.
4.1.1 Examples of entries in lists of references and bibliographies –
AGPS style
BOOKS
The information needed for books is the author’s(s’) name(s), initials, date of publication,
place of publication, publisher, and edition. If more than one place of publication
is identified, use the first one named.
These examples deal only with the cases most commonly encountered by students.
For more information refer to more detailed works such as the style manuals listed in
the Annotated Bibliography.
Book: one author
Generally only the author’s initials should be used. However, the author’s given name may
be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with
the same initials. Do not place a full-stop after the author’s initial(s).
Rowling JK, 2003, Harry Potter and the order of the phoenix, Bloomsbury, London.
Book: two authors
Purdie, N & Smith, D 1999, Case studies in teaching and learning: Australian
perspectives, Prentice Hall, Sydney.
Book: three authors
Meadmore, D, Burnett, B & O’Brien, P 1999, Understanding education: contexts and
agendas for the new millennium, Prentice Hall, Sydney.
Book: more than three authors
All authors’ names are listed in the ‘List of References’ or ‘Bibliography’, even when
et al. is used in the textual reference. (See Chapter 3.)
Robbins, SP, Millett, B, Cacioppe, R & Waters-Marsh, T 2001, Organisational
behaviour: leading and managing in Australia and New Zealand, Prentice Hall,
Sydney.
Book: edition other than the first
Bevington, PR & Robinson, DK 1992, Data reduction and error analysis for
the physical sciences, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill, Melbourne.
Book: authors(s) unknown
Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note
of the author’s name during your reading.
43
Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing
The Macquarie dictionary and thesaurus, 1991, 2nd edn, Herron Publications
by arrangement with The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd.
Book: editor (or compiler, reviser, translator) as ‘author’
Often a book is a collection of writings – called ‘readings’, ‘papers’ or ‘essays’ – by
different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more
persons. Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more
often to one particular article in the book. However, if you were using a system that required
a bibliography, you would include an edited work in the Bibliography.
Hussey, DE (ed.) 1995, Rethinking strategic management, Wiley & Sons, London.
Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by
another
Kabanoff, B 1997, ‘Organisational justice across cultures: integrating organisationlevel and culture-level perspectives’, in PC Earley & M Erez (eds), New perspectives
on international industrial/organisational psychology, New Lexington Press, San
Francisco, pp. 676-712.
If the book states that the author wrote the component part in a different year from the
publication of the book, an alternative form is to put the year of writing after the name
of the author and finish the entry with the book’s full imprint.
Sometimes editors (or compilers) include one or more of their own writings in such
a work. The same form is used, thus requiring repetition of their name.
Book: corporate authorship
It is important that the textual reference agrees in all details with the entry in the List
of References.
Curriculum Corporation 1995, National principles and guidelines for Aboriginal studies
and Torres Strait Islander studies, K-12, Curriculum Corporation, Melbourne.
Government publications
Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated
in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated. They are therefore not
treated here. Refer to the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (AGPS 2002,
220–228), which is available in most libraries.
Quoting from a secondary source
This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find
the words in a secondary source, not in the author’s original writing (the primary source).
The referencing you use should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the
primary source. In the example given in Chapter 3, West’s words were found in a book
written by Thomson. Your List of References should include an entry for Thomson’s
book, not West’s:
Thomson, JG 1970, Nursing education in Ontario, Milestone Press, Toronto.
44
Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing
‘Standard’ reference works
These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new
editions come out fairly frequently. They are entered under the title even though an editor
is mentioned in the title page. Editors come and go over the years and consequently these
works are usually known by title. It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be
mentioned.
The Macquarie illustrated world atlas 1984, Macquarie Library, Sydney.
Unpublished material
Unpublished material is difficult to treat as an entity, as the details will vary according to
the nature of the document. Check with the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers
(AGPS 2002, 207).
PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS
Conference proceedings
Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are listed in the same manner
as multi-author books.
Hart, G, Albrecht, M, Bull, R & Marshall, L 1992, ‘Peer consultation: a professional
development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings’, in Infront, Outback –
Conference Proceedings, Australian Rural Health Conference, Toowoomba,
pp. 143–148.
ERIC documents
Imel, S 2002, Career development for meaningful life work, Washington, DC: Office
of educational research and improvement, ERIC document reproduction service No. ED
467240.
Journal article
Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are
included in the list of references or bibliographic entry for a journal.
French, E 2001, ‘Approaches to equity management and their relationship to women
in management’, British Journal of Management, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 267–285.
Johnson I 2002, ‘The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning’,
International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 99–114.
In scientific works the titles of journals are often abbreviated, but only for the appropriate
readership of the paper. If you were writing an assignment in Education, for example,
and quoting from a scientific journal, you would not abbreviate the title of that journal.
If, however, your assignment was in Physics, it may be appropriate to do so. An example
of a reference in the Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments would be:
Moore, GI, Stacey, FD, Tuck, GJ, Goodwin, BD, & Roth, A 1988, ‘A balance for precise
weighing in a disturbed environment’, J Phys E: Sc. Instru, vol. 21, pp. 534–539.
45
Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing
In scientific publications, when the title is abbreviated, take careful note of how the
abbreviations are presented, as you must present them exactly as they are shown.
This instruction applies to punctuation as well as to the letters in the abbreviations
themselves.
Newspapers
If the name of the author of a newspaper article is known, the same format is used as for
journal articles, with volume and series information being replaced by the day and the
month.
Alexander, M 2003, ‘The tribute that brought a tear to Hayden’s eye’, Sunday Mail,
7 December, p. 13
If the article has no obvious author, and the details have been provided in the in-text citation,
there is no need for an entry in the reference list:
Note that the article “The” is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper’s name.
As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English-speaking
world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication.
Plays and poetry
Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as
the following:
Murray, L Blood, verse 9, line 2.
Williamson, D Don’s Party, act 2.
Referencing external studies material
Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by the University for
students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your List of References:
Sumner, R 1991, ‘Test types’ in CUB443 Module two readings (1993), Queensland
University of Technology, Brisbane.
In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled ‘Test Types’ and is included
in Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993. The book was published
in Brisbane by QUT.
Queensland University of Technology 1993, CUB443 Module One Notes, Brisbane,
QUT.
In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed
to be the University as corporate author. Only the one date (1993) applies in this case.
In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source.
Hence, ‘Sumner (1993, 52) states that . . . ‘ refers the reader to page 52 of the 1993
QUT booklet.
46
Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing
REFERENCING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET
Book chapter on the CMD
Flores, A 1988, ‘Introduction: What kind of person should a professional be?’,
in A. Flores Professional Idea, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, pp. 1–11. Queensland
University of Technology, Course Materials Database, viewed 20 November 2003,
<https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd/HUB007/HUB007_BK_4764.pdf>.
Document available on University program or department Web site
Robertson, M (Acting Copyright Officer) 2003, QUT Copyright Guide,
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, viewed 20 November 2003,
<http://www.tils.qut.edu.au/copyright /crguidefrontpage.html>.
Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original)
Vessenes, PM 2003, ‘The secrets of managing your time’ Journal of Financial Planning,
vol. 16, iss. 8, pp. 30-32, viewed 20 November, 2003, <http://gateway.library.qut.edu.
au:2052/pqdlink?index= 16&did=000000394421021&SrchMode=3&sid=2&Fmt=
6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1069707779&c
lientId=14394>.
Journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from a database (exact
replica of original)
Kabot, S, Masi, W & Segal, M 2003, ‘Advances in the diagnosis and treatment
of autism spectrum disorders’, Professional psychology: Research and practice,
vol. 34, pp. 26-33, viewed 20 November 2003, <http://gateway.library.qut.edu.au:2060/
embimages/pdh2/pro/pro34126.pdf>.
Journal article – (Available only on-line, with no hard copy equivalent)
Glogoff, S 2001, ‘Virtual connections: community bonding on the Net’, First Monday,
vol. 6, no. 3, viewed 20 November 2003, <http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_3/
glogoff/index.html>.
Journal article on the CMD (Course Materials Database)
The CMD provides journal articles in two ways:
1) Scanned images of a print journal;
2) Links to the full text of an article in a full-text database.
The reference below pertains to a journal article from the QUT Course Materials Database
that is a scanned image of a print journal.
When citing a journal article linked from the CMD to a full-text database, use the format
for Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original)
Gillam, L 1993, ‘Experimenting on human subjects: the ethical issues’, Bioethics
News, vol. 12, no. 3. pp. 30–47, viewed 20 November 2003, <https://cmd.qut.edu.
au/cmd/HUB009 /HUB009_AR_7662.pdf>.
47
Chapter 4 • AGPS Referencing
Newspaper article – Internet equivalent of a print newspaper article
King, D ‘Charter a course for green unis’, Australian, 3 October 2001, viewed 20
November 2003, <www.theaustralian.news.com.au>.
Resource materials provided on OLT
Eugarde, S 2001, PYB012 Introduction to Psychology: Abnormal behaviour
(psychological disorders), from Queensland University of Technology Online Learning
and Teaching Web site, viewed 20 November 2003, <https://olt.qut.edu.au/hlth/PYB012/
sec/index.cfm?fa=getFile&rNum=887845>.
Web document with author
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 1997, Australia’s Welfare 1997: Services
and assistance. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, ACT, viewed 20 November
2003, <www.aihw.gov.au /publications/welfare/aw97/>.
Web document – no author identified
The cost of the Troubles survey: Final report 1999, viewed 20 November 2003, www.
incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/publication/research/cott/index.html>.
Website (e.g., organisational or personal homepage, subject gateway)
Amnesty International, London, 2001, viewed 20 October 2003, <www.amnesty.
org/>.
OTHER NON-PRINT MEDIA
As these differ markedly from one another, they cannot all be treated here separately.
However, videos are written in a list of references or in a bibliography as follows:
Babakiueria, 1986, Produced by Julian Pringle. Directed by Don Featherstone,
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Video recording.
48
Chapter 4 • APA Referencing
4.1.2 Examples of entries in lists of references and bibliographies –
APA style
BOOKS
The information needed for books is the author’s(s’) name(s), initials, date of publication,
place of publication, publisher, and edition. If more than one place of publication
is identified, use the first one named.
These examples deal only with the cases most commonly encountered by students.
For more information refer to the APA manual. Check with your school lecturer or unit
outline as to which style you should use.
Book: one author
Generally only the author’s initials should be used. However, the author’s given name may
be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with
the same initials.
R owling, J. K. (2003). Harry Potter and the order of the phoenix. London:
Chapman & Hall.
Book: two authors
Purdie, N., & Smith, D. (1999). Case studies in teaching and learning: Australian
perspective. Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Book: three authors
Meadmore, D., Burnett, B., & O’Brien, P. (1999). Understanding education: Contexts
and agendas for the new millennium. Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Book: three to six authors
Robbins, S. P., Millett, B., Cacioppe, R., & Waters-Marsh, T. (2001). Organisational
behaviour: Leading and managing in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: Prentice
Hall.
Book: more than six authors
For the APA system, cite the names of the first six authors, and replace the seventh and
subsequent authors with et al.
Book: edition other than the first
Bevington, P. R., & Robinson, D. K. (1992). Data reduction and error analysis
for the physical sciences (2nd ed.). Melbourne: McGraw Hill.
Book: authors(s) unknown
Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note
of the author’s name during your reading.
The Macquarie dictionary and thesaurus. (2nd ed.). (1991). West End, Queensland:
Herron Publications by arrangement with The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd.
49
Chapter 4 • APA Referencing
Book: editor (or compiler, reviser, translator) as ‘author’
Often a book is a collection of writings – called ‘readings’, ‘papers’ or ‘essays’ – by
different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more
persons. Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more
often to one particular article in the book.
H ussey, D. E. (Ed.). (1995). Rethinking strategic management. London:
Wiley & Sons.
Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by
another
Kabanoff, B. (1997). Organisational justice across cultures: Integrating organisationlevel and culture-level perspectives. In P. C. Earley, & M. Erez (Eds.), New
perspectives on international/organisational psychology (pp. 676–712). San
Francisco: The New Lexington Press.
If the book states that the author wrote the component part in a different year from
the publication of the book, an alternative form is to put the year of writing after the name
of the author and finish the entry with the book’s full imprint.
Sometimes editors (or compilers) include one or more of their own writings in such
a work. The same form is used, thus requiring repetition of their name.
Book: corporate authorship
It is important that the textual reference agrees in all details with the entry in the List of
References.
Curriculum Corporation. (1995). National principles and guidelines for Aboriginal
studies and Torres Strait Islander studies. Melbourne: K–12, CC.
Government publications
Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated
in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated. They are therefore not
treated here. Government publications are usually written in the AGPS system.
Plays and poetry
Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as
the following:
Murray, Les, Blood, verse 9, line 2.
Williamson, David, Don’s Party, Act 2.
Quoting from a secondary source
This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find
the words in a secondary source, not in the author’s original writing (the primary source).
The referencing you use should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the
primary source. In the example given in Chapter 3, West’s words were found in a book
written by Thomson.
50
Chapter 4 • APA Referencing
Your List of References should include an entry for Thomson’s book, not West’s:
Thomson, J. G. (1970). Nursing education in Ontario. Toronto: Milestone Press.
‘Standard’ reference works
These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new
editions come out fairly frequently. They are entered under the title even though an editor
is mentioned in the title page. Editors come and go over the years and consequently these
works are usually known by title. It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be
mentioned.
The Macquarie illustrated world atlas. (1984). Sydney: Macquarie Library.
PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS
Conference proceedings
Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are referenced in the same
manner as multi-author books.
Hart, G., Albrecht, M., Bull, R., & Marshall, L. (1992). Peer consultation: A professional
development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings. Infront, Outback
– Conference Proceedings (pp. 143–148). Toowomba: Australian Rural Health
Conference.
ERIC Documents
Imel, S. (2002). Career development for meaningful life work (Report No. EDO-CE-02237). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED467240).
Journal article
Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are
included in the list of references or bibliographic entry for a journal.
French, E. (2001). Approaches to equity management and their relationship to women
in management. British Journal of Management, 12(4), 267–285.
Johnson, I. (2002). The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning.
International Journal of Lifelong Education, 12(2), 99–114.
Newspapers
If the name of the author of a newspaper article is known, the same format is used as
for journal articles, with volume and series information being replaced by the day and
the month.
Alexander, M. (2003, December 7). The tribute that brought a tear to Hayden’s eye.
Sunday Mail, p. 13.
If the article has no obvious author, the form of entry is:
Ex-governor’s view criticised. (1999, April 20). Courier-Mail, p. 3.
51
Chapter 4 • APA Referencing
These same details should be provided in the textual citation. (See Chapter 3.)
Note that the article ‘The’ is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper’s name.
As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English-speaking
world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication.
Referencing external studies material
Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by the University
for students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your ‘List of
References’:
Sumner, R. (1991). Test types. In CUB443 Module two readings (1993). Brisbane:
Queensland University of Technology.
In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled ‘Test Types’ and is included in
Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993. The book was published
in Brisbane by QUT.
Queensland University of Technology. (1993). CUB443 Module one notes. Brisbane:
Queensland University of Technology.
In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed
to be the University as corporate author. Only the one date (1993) applies in this case.
In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source.
Hence, “Sumner (1993, p. 52) states that . . .” refers the reader to page 52 of the 1993
QUT booklet.
REFERENCING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET
Information is given here on selected sources from the Internet. Two different styles
of referencing have been provided:
Book chapter on the CMD (Course Materials Database)
Flores, A. (1998). Introduction: What kind of person should a professional be. In A.
Flores (Ed.), Professional ideas (pp. 1–11). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Retrieved
November 20, 2003, from Queensland University of Technology, Course Materials
Database: https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd /HUB007/HUB007_BK_4764.pdf
Document available on university program or department Web site
Robertson, M. (2003). QUT copyright guide. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from
Queensland University of Technology, Division of Technology, Information and
Learning Support Web site: http://www.tils.qut.edu.au/copyright/crguidefrontpage.
html
Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original)
Vessenes, P. M. (2003). The secrets of managing your time [Electronic version]. Journal
of Financial Planning, 16(8), 30–32
52
Chapter 4 • APA Referencing
Journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from a database (exact
replica of original)
Kabot, S., Masi, W., & Segal, M. (2003). Advances in the diagnosis and treatment
of autism spectrum disorders [Electronic version]. Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice, 34, 26–33
Journal article – (Available only on-line, with no hard copy equivalent)
Glogoff, S. (2001, March 7). Virtual connections: community bonding on the Net. First
Monday, 6 (3). Retrieved November 20, 2003, from www.firstmonday.org/issues/
issue6_3/glogoff/index.html
Journal article on the CMD
The CMD provides journal articles in two ways:
1) Scanned images of a print journal;
2) Links to the full text of an article, in a fulltext database.
The reference below pertains to a journal article from the QUT Course Materials Database
that is a scanned image of a print journal.
When citing a journal article linked from the CMD to a fulltext database, use the format
for Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original)
Gilam, L. (1993). Experimenting on human subjects: The ethical issues. Bioethics
News, 12(3), 30-47. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from Queensland University
of Technology, Course Materials Database: https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd/HUB009/
HUB009_AR_7662.pdf.
Newspaper article – Internet equivalent of a print newspaper article
King, D. (2001, October 3). Charter a course for green unis. The Australian. Retrieved
November 20, 2003 from www.theaustralian.news.com.au
Resource materials provided on OLT
Eugarde, S. (2001). PYB012 Introduction to psychology: Abnormal behaviour
(psychological disorders). Retrieved November 20, 2003, from Queensland
University of Technology, Online Learning and Teaching Web site: https://olt.qut.
edu.au/hlth/PYB012/sec/index.cfm?fa =getFile&rNum=887845
Web document with author
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (1997). Australia’s welfare 1997: Services
and assistance. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from http://www.aihw.gov.au/
publications/welfare/aw97/
Web document – no author identified
The cost of the Troubles survey: Final report. (1999). Retrieved November 20, 2003,
from www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/publication/research/cott/index.html
53
Chapter 4 • APA Referencing
Website (e.g., organisational or personal homepage, subject gateway)
Amnesty International. (2001). Amnesty International on-line:Human rights website.
Retrieved October 20, 2003, from www.amnesty.org/
OTHER NON-PRINT MEDIA
As these also differ markedly from one another, they cannot all be treated here separately.
However, videos are written in a list of references or in a bibliography as follows:
Pringle, J. (Producer) & Featherstone, D. (Director). (1986). Babakiueria [Motion
picture]. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
54
Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing
4.1.3 Examples of references and bibliographies – Harvard style
BOOKS
The information needed for books is the author’s(s’) name(s), initials, date of publication,
place of publication, publisher, and edition. If more than one place of publication is
identified, use the first one named.
These examples deal only with the cases most commonly encountered by students.
For more information refer to more detailed works such as the style manuals listed in the
Annotated Bibliography.
Book: one author
Generally only the author’s initials should be used. However, the author’s given name may
be spelt out in full to assist the reader to distinguish the author from another author with
the same initials.
Rowling, J. K. 2003. Harry Potter and the order of the phoenix. London:
Bloomsbury.
An alternative punctuation with Harvard is to use a comma rather than a colon after
the place of publication. Examples given in The Written Assignment will, however, use
the colon.
Book: two authors
Purdie, N. and D. Smith. 1999. Case studies in teaching and learning: Australian
perspectives. Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Note in Harvard that for the second (and subsequent) authors, the initial(s) precede their
name.
Book: three authors
Meadmore, D., B. Burnett and P. O’Brien. 1999. Understanding education: Contexts
and agendas for the new millennium. Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Book: four to ten authors
Robbins, S. P., B. Millett, R. Cacioppe, and T. Waters-Marsh. 2001. Organisational
behaviour: Leading and managing in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: Prentice
Hall.
Book: more than ten authors
For the Harvard system, list the first seven authors mentioned on the title page, followed
by “et al.”
Book: edition other than the first
Bevington, P. R. and D. K. Robinson. 1992. Data reduction and error analysis for the
physical sciences. 2nd ed. Melbourne: McGraw Hill.
55
Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing
Book: authors(s) unknown
Make sure that there really is no named author, not just that you neglected to take note
of the author’s name during your reading.
The Macquarie dictionary and thesaurus. 1991. West End, Qld: Herron Publications
by arrangement with The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd..
Book: editor (or compiler, reviser, translator) as ‘author’
Often a book is a collection of writings – called ‘readings’, ‘papers’ or ‘essays’ – by
different people writing separately, but published under the editorship of one or more
persons. Entries in the List of References do not often refer to the whole work, but more
often to one particular article in the book. However, if you were using a system that required
a bibliography, you would include an edited work in the Bibliography.
Hussey, D. E. ed. 1995. Rethinking strategic management. London: Wiley & Sons.
Book: component part by one author in a work edited (or compiled) by
another
Kabanoff, B. 1997. Organisational justice across cultures: Integrating organisation-level
and culture-level perspectives. In New Perspectives on International/Organisational
Psychology, ed. P. C. Earley and M. Erez, 676-712. San Francisco: The New Lexington
Press.
If the book states that the author wrote the component part in a different year from
the publication of the book, an alternative form is to put the year of writing after the name
of the author and finish the entry with the book’s full imprint.
Sometimes editors (or compilers) include one or more of their own writings in such
a work. The same form is used, thus requiring repetition of their name.
Book: corporate authorship
It is important that the textual reference agrees in all details with the entry in the List of
References.
Curriculum Corporation. 1995. National principles and guidelines for Aboriginal
studies and Torres Strait Islander studies. Melbourne: K–12, CC.
Government publications
Although references to government publications generally follow the patterns indicated
in the previous sections, they tend to become more complicated. They are therefore not
treated here.
Quoting from a secondary source
This is a case of quoting words that you find quoted by somebody else; that is, you find
the words in a secondary source, not in the author’s original writing (the primary source).
The referencing should make this clear, rather than suggesting that you used the primary
source. In the example given in Chapter 3, West’s words were found in a book written by
Thomson.
56
Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing
The References should include an entry for West’s book, followed by the ‘quoted in’
information
West, A. quoted in J. G. Thomson 1970. Nursing education in Ontario. Toronto:
Milestone Press.
‘Standard’ reference works
These are well known reference works, such as atlases and dictionaries, of which new
editions come out fairly frequently. They are entered under the title even though an editor
is mentioned in the title page. Editors come and go over the years and consequently these
works are usually known by title. It is a matter of opinion whether editors should even be
mentioned.
The Macquarie illustrated world atlas. 1984. Sydney: Macquarie Library.
PERIODICALS AND MONOGRAPHS
Conference proceedings
Papers presented at conferences and published as proceedings are referenced in the same
manner as multiauthor books.
Hart, G., M. Albrecht, R. Bull, and L. Marshall. 1992. Peer consultation:
A professional development opportunity for nurses employed in rural settings.
In Infront, Outback – Conference Proceedings, 143–148. Toowoomba: Australian
Rural Health Conference.
ERIC Documents
Imel, S. 2002. Career development for meaningful life work. Washington, DC: Office
of educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 467240).
Journal article
Most of the same rules apply as for a book, but page numbers for the whole article are
included in the list of references or bibliographic entry for a journal.
French, E. 2001. Approaches to equity management and their relationship to women
in management. British Journal of Management, 12 (4): 267–285.
Johnson, I. 2002. The application of Buddhist principles to lifelong learning.
International Journal of Lifelong Education, 12 (2): 99–114.
In scientific works the titles of journals are often abbreviated, but only for the appropriate
readership of the paper. If you were writing an assignment in Education, for example, and
quoting from a scientific journal, you would not abbreviate the title of that journal.
If, however, your assignment was in Physics, it may be appropriate to do so. An example
of a reference in the Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments would be:
Moore, G. I., F. D. Stacey, G. J. Tuck, B. D. Goodwin, and A. Roth. 1988. A balance
for precise weighing in a disturbed environment. J. Phys. E: Sci. Instru. 21:534–539.
57
Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing
In scientific publications, when the title is abbreviated, take careful note of how the abbreviations
are presented, as you must present them exactly as they are shown. This instruction applies
to punctuation as well as to the letters in the abbreviations themselves.
Newspapers
Alexander, M. 2003. The tribute that brought a tear to Hayden’s eye. Sunday Mail,
December 7, 13.
If the article has no obvious author, the form of entry is:
Courier-Mail. 1999. Ex-governor’s view criticised. April 20, 3.
These same details should be provided in the textual citation. (See Chapter 3.)
Note that the article ‘The’ is disregarded when it is the first word of a newspaper’s name.
As names such as Times, Telegraph and so on are found all over the English-speaking
world, it may be necessary to add the place of publication.
Plays and poetry
Plays and poetry may be referenced in terms of lines, scenes and verses such as the
following:
Murray, Les. Blood. verse 9, line 2.
Williamson, David, Don’s Party. Act 2.
Referencing external studies material
Material incorporated into the text from books of readings published by the University
for students studying externally should be referenced as follows in your ‘List of
References’:
Sumner, R. 1991. Test types. In CUB443 Module Two Readings (1993). Brisbane:
Queensland University of Technology.
In this example, the extract from Sumner 1991 is entitled ‘Test Types’ and is included in
Module Two Readings sent to students taking CUB443 in 1993. The book was published
in Brisbane by QUT.
Queensland University of Technology 1993. CUB443 Module One Notes. Brisbane:
QUT.
In this example, if the author of Module One Notes is unknown, the author is then deemed
to be the University as corporate author. Only the one date (1993) applies in this case.
In your own text, give the page number of the QUT booklet, not the original source.
Hence, “Sumner (1993, 52) states that . . .” refers the reader to page 52 of the 1993
QUT booklet.
Unpublished material
Unpublished material is difficult to treat as an entity, as the details will vary according to
the nature of the document. Check the Chicago Manual of Style (2003) for details on how
to reference this.
58
Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing
REFERENCING MATERIAL FROM THE INTERNET
Book chapter on the CMD (Course Materials Database)
Flores, A. 1998. Introduction: What kind of person should a professional be. In A.
Flores (Ed.), Professional Ideas, ed. A. Flores, 1–11. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Queensland University of Technology: Course Materials Database https://cmd.qut.
edu.au/cmd/HUB007/HUB007_BK_4764.pdf (accessed November 20, 2003).
Document available on university program or department Website
Robertson, M. 2003. QUT Copyright guide. Queensland University of Technology,
Division of Technology, Information and Learning Support Web site: www.tils.qut.
edu.au/copyright /crguidefrontpage.html (accessed November 20, 2003).
Journal article – from a full-text database (exact replica of original)
Vessenes, P. M. 2003. The secrets of managing your time. Journal of Financial Planning,
16 (8): 30–32. (accessed November 20, 2003, from ProQuest: Accounting and Tax
database).
Journal article, three to five authors, retrieved from a database (exact
replica of original)
Kabot, S., W. Masi, and M. Segal. 2003. Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of
autism spectrum disorders. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34:26–33.
(accessed November 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database).
Journal article – (Available only on-line, with no hard copy equivalent)
Glogoff, S. 2001. Virtual connections: community bonding on the Net. First Monday,
6 (3). www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_3/glogoff/index.html (accessed November
20, 2003).
Journal article on the CMD
The CMD provides journal articles in two ways:
1) Scanned images of a print journal;
2) Links to the full text of an article in a fulltext database.
The reference below pertains to a journal article from the QUT Course Materials Database
that is a scanned image of a print journal.
When citing a journal article linked from the CMD to a full-text database, use the format
for Journal article – from a full-text database
Gilam, L. 1993. Experimenting on human subjects: the ethical issues. Bioethics News,
12(3): 30–47. Queensland University of Technology, Course Materials Database
https://cmd.qut.edu.au/cmd/HUB009/HUB009_AR_7662.pdf (accessed November
20, 2003).
Newspaper article – Internet equivalent of a print newspaper article
King, D. 2001. Charter a course for green unis. The Australian, October 3, 2001.
www.theaustralian.news.com.au (accessed November 20, 2003).
59
Chapter 4 • Harvard Referencing
Resource materials provided on OLT
Eugarde, S. 2001. PYB012 Introduction to psychology: Abnormal behaviour
(psychological disorders). Queensland University of Technology, Online Learning and
Teaching Web site: https://olt.qut.edu.au/hlth/PYB012/sec/index.cfm?fa=getFile&rNu
m=887845 (accessed November 20, 2003).
Web document with author
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 1997. Australia’s welfare 1997: Services
and assistance. www.aihw.gov.au/publications/welfare/aw97/ (accessed November 20,
2003).
Web document – no author identified
The cost of the Troubles survey: Final report. 1999. www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/home/
publication/research/cott/index.html (accessed November 20, 2003).
Website (e.g., organisational or personal homepage, subject gateway)
Amnesty International. 2001. Amnesty International on-line: Human rights website.
www.amnesty.org/ (accessed October 20, 2003).
Retrieved October 20, 2003, from www.amnesty.org/.
OTHER NON-PRINT MEDIA
As these also differ markedly from one another, they cannot all be treated here separately.
However, videos are written in a list of references or in a bibliography as follows:
Babakiueria. (1986) Produced by Julian Pringle and directed by Don Featherstone.
Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Corporation [Video recording: VHS].
60
Chapter 4 • Referencing
4.2 Writing a bibliography for the footnoting or endnoting system
These systems use the term ‘bibliography’. At the end of your essay or paper, place
a bibliography arranged in alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames, and
chronologically for each author where more than one work of an author is cited. Include
all books and articles consulted – and found useful – whether or not references were taken
from them.
The temptation in using this system is to include ALL works consulted, whether useful
or not. This may make your bibliography look impressive, but it would not be a true
reflection of the range of your reading on a topic.
If you use endnoting you will have two lists at the end of your paper. One list will be
titled ‘References’ with each entry having a number corresponding to the superscript in
the text; entries will be in the order in which they appear in the text. The second list will
be titled ‘Bibliography’.
If you use footnoting you will have the numbered references at the foot of each page,
and then the Bibliography at the end of the paper. Items in a Bibliography are placed
in alphabetical order of authors’ or editors’ surnames. (See Chapter 3.) They are NOT
numbered, as the numbers could be confused with the numbers used for footnotes
or endnotes.
Entries in a bibliography should be as follows:
• For a book
Punch, P. Australian Industrial Law, Sydney, CCH Australia Limited, 1995.
• For an article
Bennis, W. ‘Dealing with the way things are’, Executive Excellence, 8 (2), February
1991, pp. 9-11.
Note that a bibliographic entry is similar to a first reference in a footnote, but differs
in two ways:
• Where the entry in the bibliography is a book, no page numbers are given. Where the
entry is a journal, the page numbers of the entire article are given. Page numbers of
individual references are always given, where possible, in footnotes or endnotes.
• In the bibliography, the author’s surname is put first, followed by the initials. In the
footnote, the initials are put first.
4.3 Legal bibliographies
For books the following form should be used – the author’s surname, followed by the title,
the edition, the publisher and the volume number. The title should be in italics.
Greig, DW & NA Gunningham, Commercial Law, 3rd ed, Sydney, Butterworths,
1988.
61
Chapter 4 • Referencing
For journal articles the following form should be used:
Roberts, HR “The Law Relating to Contracts with Government and Public Authorities”
(1991) 7 QUTLJ 1.
Also see bibliography for more texts.
For electronic serials on the Internet, an example is:
McGregor-Lowndes, Myles and Davidson, Alan. Practical Strategies for Using
Computers in Legal Education. E Law – Murdoch University Electronic Journal
of Law [online]. July, 1995 [cited 1 August 1996]. Available from Internet
<URL: www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v2n2/mcgregor.txt>
Unless requested, it is not necessary or conventional for an annotated bibliography to be
included in legal assignment work. It is not necessary to include a Table of Cases or a
Table of Statutes, unless either or both of these tables are to be included in the assignment
under the assignment instructions.
4.4 Works cited for the MLA system
The MLA system uses a list called ‘Works Cited’ in the same way as the author-date
systems use ‘References’. A reference to a book by one author would appear in the ‘Works
Cited’ as:
Adams, Ian. Political ideology today. Manchester: Manchester University Press,
1993.
An example of an entry for a journal article is:
Fulwiler, Toby. “How Well Does Writing across the Curriculum Work?” College English
46 (1984): 113–25.
Check the bibliography for further good advice.
4.5 Annotated bibliographies
An annotated bibliography gives the bibliographic details of the publication along with a
few sentences describing its content. The publication may be a book, a chapter in a book
of readings, or an article. A useful reference for the writing of annotated bibliographies
is an on-line publication published by the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and listed in
the Annotated Bibliography at the end of this book.
62
Appendix A
Directive words
Analyse
Show the essence of something by breaking it down into its component
parts and examining each part in detail.
Argue
Present the case for and against a particular proposition.
Compare
Look for similarities and differences between propositions.
Contrast
Place the two propositions in opposition in order to show the differences
between them.
Criticise
Give your judgment about the merit of theories or opinions about the
truth of facts, and back your judgment by a discussion of evidence.
Critically'Critically examine … ' The writer should 'examine' carefully and attempt
to find merit or faults, expecially the latter.
Define
Set down the precise meaning of a word or phrase. Show that the
distinctions implied in the definition are necessary.
Describe
Give a detailed or graphic account of the characteristics of the subject.
Differentiate
Show the difference between two things by determining their
distinctions.
Discuss
Investigate or examine by argument, sift and debate, giving reasons for
and against.
Enumerate
List or specify and describe one by one.
Evaluate
Make an appraisal of the worth of something, in the light of its apparent
truth or utility. Include your personal opinion, supported by evidence.
Explain
Make clear, interpret, and account for in detail.
Explore
Thoroughly enquire into a topic by examining and analysing every aspect
of it.
Illustrate
Explain and make clear by the use of concrete examples or by the use
of figure diagrams.
63
Interpret
Bring out the meaning of, and make clear and explicit; usually also giving
your own judgment.
Investigate
Search, study and carefully survey all areas of the subject.
Justify
Defend or show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions.
Outline
Give the main points or general principles of a subject, omitting minor
details, and emphasising structure and relationship.
Prove
Demonstrate truth or falsity by presenting evidence.
Relate
Narrate or show how things are connected to each other and to what
extent they are alike or affect each other.
Review
Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.
Selectively
The writer does not have to cover all aspects of the field, but selects. The
selection is usually clarified in the introduction. 'Selectively review the
reasons for … '
State
Specify details fully and clearly.
Summarise
Give a concise account of the chief points or substance of a matter,
omitting details and examples.
Trace
Identify and describe the development or course of history of a topic
from some point or origin.
[Adapted from Marshall and Rowland 1998, 88.]
64
Appendix B
Abbreviations
©., copyright
c., circa, about a certain date (as in ‘c. 1901’)
cf., confer, compare
ed., eds, editor(s)
edn, edns, edition(s)
e.g., exempli gratia, for example
et al., et alii, ‘and others’ (used when a book has several authors as in ‘P. March et al.’)
etc., et cetera, and so forth
et seq., et sequentes, ‘and following’ (as in ‘pp. 64 et seq.’)
f., ff., ‘and the following’ (to refer to page numbers)
fig., figs, figure(s)
fol., fols, folio(s)
ibid., ibidem, ‘in the same work’ (as previously cited)
id., idem, the same
i.e., id est, that is
loc. cit., loco citato, ‘in the same place (already) cited’ (that is, in the same passage referred
to in a recent reference note)
MS, MSS., manuscriptum(a), manuscript(s)
NB., nota bene, note well
n.d., no date (of publication)
n.p., no place (of publication)
non seq, non sequitur, it does not follow
op.cit., opere citato, in the work (recently) cited
p., pp. page(s)
para., paras, paragraph(s)
PS, PSS, postscriptum(a), postscript(s)
sec., s., ss., section (in legislation)
(sic), ‘thus ss’ (to guarantee exact quotation when the reader might doubt this)
v., vv., verse(s)
v. versus, against
65
Appendix C
The presentation of quantitative
and symbolic information
Numerical values, equations, graphs and tabulated information are common in many fields,
especially in technical or report writing. It is important not only to maintain a consistent style
in presentation of such information but also to present the information in an unambiguous,
concise fashion. This appendix presents some guidelines and conventions that you may
find useful. For further information you should consult the appropriate Standards Australia
publications, (AS1000 1976 and AS2900 1986).
Quantities, units and symbols
A number, by itself, is a rare and usually meaningless entity. Numbers associated with
physical quantities, with a few exceptions, are always accompanied by a unit. The use of
units is not merely an exercise in pedantry, but is absolutely necessary if you wish to convey
useful information. For example, if you asked the question ‘How far is it to the next town?’
and the reply was ‘Twenty’, then you might assume that the town was twenty kilometres
distant. It was, in fact, twenty miles away and you ran out of fuel before reaching it!
A quantity refers to the ‘stuff’ that you are enumerating. For example, volume is a quantity
as are mass, temperature and the number of apples in a box.
A unit defines how a number relates to a given quantity. To take the three examples above:
Volume might be measured in cubic metres or litres, mass in kilograms or tonnes and the
number of apples in the box is ten apples not simply ten, since ‘ten’ can also refer to half
apples.
A symbol in this context is the abbreviation used to refer to a unit in written material.
For example, metres or metre is abbreviated as m.
Australia has now legally adopted the ‘metric system’ or more accurately the Systeme
International d’Unites (SI units). However, there are many non-SI units still in common
use. Table 1 lists some selected quantities and associated units.
66
Table 1. Selected Quantities, Units and Symbols
Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Force
Electric current
Electric potential
Electrical resistance
Energy
Plane Angle
Area
Volume
Frequency
Pressure
Power
Temperature
a
b
c
Unit
metre
millimetre
kilometre
kilogram
milligram
gram
tonne
second
minute
hour
day
year
newton
kilonewton
ampere
volt
ohm
joule
kilojoule
kilowatt hour
degree
minute of arc
second of arc
radian
square metre
hectare
cubic metre
litre
millilitre
hertz
kilohertz
megahertz
pascal
kilopascal
millibar
watt
kilowatt
megawatt
degrees Celsiusa
kelvinb,c
Symbol
m
mm
km
kg
mg
g
t
s
min
h
d
y
N
kN
A
V
Ω
J
kJ
kW h
°
‘
“
rad
m2
ha
m3
l
ml
Hz
kHz
MHz
Pa
kPa
mb
W
kW
MW
°C
K
Names are written or typed wholly in lower case; the exception being Celsius.
The word degree and the symbol ° are not used with kelvin.
If a symbol is derived from a person’s name then the first letter of the symbol is capitalised.
67
In addition to the basic unit (such as metre) prefixes can be used to refer to multiples or submultiples (kilometre, millimetre). Table 2 lists the full set of prefixes available. The prefixes that
are multiples of 1000 are usually preferred; deci and deka are almost never seen and, although
centi and hecto are more common, they should be avoided unless they are the standard for a
particular area; for example, cm are used universally in clothing sizes.
Table 2: List of SI unit prefixes and corresponding multiplier
Prefix
atto femto pico nano micro milli centi deci deka hecto kilo mega giga tera peta exa Symbol
Multiplier
a10-18
f10-15
p10-12
n 10-9
µ10-6
m10-3
c10-2
d10-1
da10
h102
k103
M106
G109
T 1012
P1015
E 1018
Note that the case of the prefix abbreviation is important: compare milli and mega.
A quantity is always written as a single unit not as a combination; for example, 8.32 m is
correct but 8 m 32 cm is incorrect. The exception occurs with plane angles when degrees,
minutes and seconds are used – in this case 47° 29’ 38” – although 47.4939° is often
preferred.
A unit symbol is never modified to indicate plural: 10 kg is correct; 10 kgs is incorrect.
When units are raised to a power, such as cm3 or m2 the corresponding spoken expressions
are ‘cubic centimetres’ and ‘square metres’, not ‘centimetres cubed’ or ‘metres squared’.
The phrase ‘two metres cubed’ would mean raising ‘two metres’ to the power 3 (equivalent
to 8 cubic metres). In addition, the unit name is spoken in full; the letters of the symbol
are not used. For example, ‘5 kilograms’ is correct; ‘5 kay gee’ and ‘5 kay gees’ are
incorrect.
Some common combinations of units such as kph (kilometres per hour) are incorrect.
Under the SI system the k would be interpreted as kilo and the p as pico. In other words,
kph stands for ‘kilo-pico-hours’! The correct method in this case is km.h-1 (preferred) or
km/h. The use of a ‘/’ character to indicate demoninatorial quantities is convenient but may
be misinterpreted when there are several quantities in the denominator (unless parentheses
are used). For example, the unit of pressure, the pascal, is equivalent to kilograms per metre
per squared second. This combination is best written as kg.m-1.s-2 rather than kg/m/s2 or
kg/(m.s2). Note the use of a dot separator between units that are multiplied together. This
avoids confusion between say milli-Newton, mN, and metre by Newton m.N, although in
this case the latter would be better written as N.m to avoid any chance of confusion.
68
Writing numerical values
When numerical values of more than five digits are written the digits should be grouped
in sets of three, starting from the position of the decimal point. The sets should be separated
by a space (half space when typing) and not by commas. When there are four digits the use of
the space is optional. However, if entering the numbers in a table, you should use the space to
maintain vertical alignment with other lines of more than four digits. Numbers less than unity
require a leading zero before the decimal marker: 0.73 is correct, .73 is incorrect.
Many physical quantities have an uncertainty associated with them. For example,
the length of a metal bar might have been measured to within 0.1 mm; the result should
be written in the format (967.7±0.1) mm. Parentheses are used and the units are written
once. If the value has a multiplying power of ten then this should also appear outside
the parentheses: (967.7±0.1)x10-3 m. Never express the value and its uncertainty in different
units or multiplied by different powers of ten.
Tables of data
A table is a good way of presenting collections of numerical (or other symbolic) information.
Several points to note are:
• Maintain alignment of numerical information on the decimal point.
• Use a common multiplying factor if necessary. For example, if you have currents
ranging between 10 µA and 10 mA, express them all in either µA or mA but not
a mixture.
• Place the units and any common multiplying factor in the heading of the row or column;
do not replicate the units on each number.
• If the numbers have a common uncertainty, this can also be placed in the column heading.
If the uncertainties vary, you can use a separate column with appropriate heading or
include them in the same column as the value using the ± symbol.
• Avoid overfilling the boxes within the table. Explanatory notes may be added to a table
by using an appropriate superscript notation.
• Tables should be numbered and have a caption.
Before finalising your table layout, try sketching it out roughly and look at it from
the point of view of a reader who is not familiar with the data being presented. It is far easier
to modify the structure of the table before you have gone to the trouble of typing it.
Figures and Captions
If figures are to be presented, they should be incorporated into the text at an appropriate
location, usually after the first textual reference to the figure and on the same or
next page.
Figures should be numbered and have a caption. The positioning of captions on tables
and figures is not critical, but you should be consistent throughout the assignment.
A different typeface to the main text may be used if available. If the caption is meant
to form a sentence, it should be punctuated and capitalised as such. If the caption is simply
a descriptive name, no full stop is required.
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When referring to tables or figures within the text use the word Table or Figure, followed
by the number; e.g. as shown in Figure 2.
Graphs
Graphs are a useful method of presenting numerical data in such a way as to emphasise
or clarify various inter-relationships; e.g. trends with time.
Graphs are an extremely powerful method of highlighting relationships between data but
unfortunately sometimes are misused. Classic examples of misuse appear in advertising
material where origins are not shown on axes and scales are inappropriately magnified or
reduced. In this case the aim is to deceive, not to enlighten.
There are many possible types of graphs: line graphs, 3D meshes, pie charts, bar charts
etc. The types of graphs used vary widely even within a given discipline. The full scope
of graphing, therefore, is beyond this simple guide and you should peruse works within
your own field to gain an appreciation of any conventions applied or common graphing
techniques used.
However, there are some points you should remember:
• Before preparing a graph, consider carefully what it is that you are trying to achieve
and select graph style, axes and scales to best achieve this.
• Use a descriptive title on your graph.
• Make your graph large enough so that all details can be seen.
• Label any axes with appropriate names and units.
• Use clearly printed labels and legends.
• Uncertainties in measured data should be indicated using error bars.
• Points marked on graphs should be marked using a symbol such as an open circle, filled
box, + symbol etc. and not as points. Points do not reproduce well in photocopying and
can often be obscured by lines drawn at a later stage.
• In general graphs are treated as figures and should be captioned, numbered and referred
to as such.
Equations
Many assignments in technical fields will require you to use equations. Although there
are standard styles for typeset equations, unless you have a wordprocessor and printer
capable of handling the font sizes and graphic symbols needed, you will be unable to
implement these. While you might like to consult the appropriate standard (AS2900.0
Standards Australia 1986), you will find that scientific journals use a variety of styles and
authors always need to refer to the guidelines published by each journal. In general, the
most widely applicable guidelines are:
• Number each equation with a number at the right margin so that it can be referenced
within the body of the text.
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
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(1)
If your work contains several chapters and requires a large number of equations, use
a two level numbering scheme (1.1, 1.2, 1.3 . . . 2.1 . . . etc.). This means that if you
have to revise a chapter then the equation numbers for subsequent chapters will be
unaffected.
• Referring to an equation in the text may be done in several ways; e.g.
. . . the coefficient a in (1) . . .
. . . coefficient a in equation 1 . . .
. . . coefficient a in equ. 1 . . .
If your readers are not likely to be familiar with technical works, then using the word
‘equation’ followed by a number is probably best.
• If you are using a word processor, make sure that when symbols from equations are
referred to in the text they are printed in a font or typeface that matches the appearance
in the equation as closely as possible.
Overall, the most important point is to be consistent within your assignment.
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Appendix D
Outline of an essay
The following is an example of an outline for a fictional essay on The Effects of
Doppleweed1. on People. The information in it is partly fabricated and the entire outline
is in no way the product of genuine research. The example illustrates how you might start
with a topic, develop a statement of purpose from that topic, write a thesis statement from
your purpose and the research you conduct, identify the main points, then break up the
main points into sub-points for the body of your assignment. The system of headings in
the example uses different forms of type, but these headings are there only to demonstrate
how you might check the logic and coherence of your essay in outline form. You may
prefer to use numbers in your outline. You may not be required to use headings at all in a
short essay, in which case your headings would form a basis for the different paragraphs.
Check with unit outline, author or lecturer.
Introduction
You could start by setting the scene for the essay; that is, state what it is about and give
some background information on reasons for the study. Follow this with a statement of
the purpose of the essay. The purpose of this essay is to describe the physical, behavioural
and social effects of doppleweed on a person. State your thesis; that is, where you stand
with respect to the question. It will be argued that doppleweed has both positive and
negative effects on a person, but that the positive effects outweigh the negative ones because
of the stronger evidence of doppleweed’s benefits. State the scope of the essay and an
indication of the main points to follow. The essay will provide an overview of the methods
used in the research and the findings from that research, examining each of the effects in
turn. Negative aspects of doppleweed examined are that it can affect a person’s brain cells
and lungs, change their personality and behaviour, adversely affect their relationships with
other people and possibly be the first step in addiction to harder drugs. Positive aspects
are that it can help people relax and overcome some social inhibitions, it has been found to
assist in the performance of repetitive tasks, it is useful as a pain-killer for cancer sufferers,
unlike cigarettes it is non-addictive and, unlike alcohol, there is no hangover.
Research Method (Not required in literature reviews or essays using secondary
sources such as library materials)
Research was conducted using medical records and case files, empirical research with
clients at outpatient clinics, and anecdotal evidence from interviews with smokers
of doppleweed. (You need to describe the details of these methods in an original
research paper.)
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Body of an essay
Negative effects of doppleweed (First main point)
Effects on a person’s body (First sub-point)
Effects on brain cells
Effects on other organs
Lungs
Liver
Heart
Effects on personality and behaviour (Second sub-point)
Immediate observable effects
Long-term effects
Effects on human relationships (Third sub-point)
Short-term effects
•
Relationships with family
•
Relationships with colleagues
•
Casual relationships
Long-term effects
•
Relationships with family
•
Relationships with colleagues
•
Casual relationships
Addiction to hard drugs (Fourth sub-point)
Positive effects of doppleweed (Second main point)
Relaxation and social contacts (First sub-point)
Evidence of assistance in relaxation
Evidence of assistance in social contacts
Repetitive tasks (Second sub-point)
It may not be necessary to have sub points for every heading. You should never have
only one sub point.
Pain killer (Third sub-point)
Use in cancer patients
Use in acute, short-term trauma
Non-addictive and no hangover (Fourth sub-point)
Comparison with cigarettes and addiction
Comparison with alcohol and hangover
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Conclusion
There should be no new evidence here, the body should be summarised. Any material
contained in the conclusion should already have been discussed in the body of the
paper. The conclusion should link to the thesis statement. From the evidence presented
in this paper, it can be seen that doppleweed has been claimed to affect a person’s brain
cells and lungs, but that findings here have been inconclusive. Doppleweed does change
people’s behaviour, but not their personality; and it affects their relationships with other
people, but not always negatively. There is some correlation with the later use of hard drugs,
but further study needs to be done on other variables, as the correlation may be spurious.
On the other hand, doppleweed has been shown to have a number of beneficial effects
such as relaxation, assistance in the performance of repetitive tasks and as a painkiller
for cancer sufferers. It is also non-addictive and there is no residual hangover. For these
reasons, the benefits of doppleweed would seem to outweigh the dangers.
74
Appendix E
Annotated Bibliography
The QUT Library contains many books on how to write essays, reports etc. for particular
purposes and audiences. These can be found in the Dewey numbers 808.02 – 808.068. The
following list, therefore, is far from exhaustive. Use it as a starting point only.
• American Psychological Association. 2001. Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association. 5th edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological
Association.
The APA Publications Manual instructs students and authors on general style
requirements and provides advice on preparing manuscripts. It also provides explicit
instruction on citing material and preparing a reference list according to the APA
style.
This is the only accepted style in psychology and counselling.
• American Psychological Association. 2005, August 11. APA Style: Electronic
References. www.apastyle.org/elecref.html (accessed November 30, 2005)
This website provides a convenient complement to the APA Publication Manual. Tips
and examples on the APA style of writing and referencing are given. In particular, this
is an excellent item to consult if referencing electronic materials.
• Anderson, J. and M. Poole. 2001. Thesis and assignment writing, 4th edition, Milton
Qld: John Wiley.
A very comprehensive book containing material suitable for both undergraduate and
post-graduate students. It is valuable for the general principles it explains and for the
very up-to-date information it contains, especially on the new electronic tools available
for writers and the importance of non-discriminatory language.
• Australian Copyright Council. 2002. Information sheet G10: An introduction
to copyright in Australia, November.
This information sheet is one of a number of informative publications on the copyright
status of material and the laws relating to its use. These publications can be found on the
web at www.copyright.org.au.
• Australian Government Publishing Service. 2002. Style manual: For authors, editors
and printers, 6th edition, Canberra: AGPS.
75
Has useful sections on such topics as spelling, capitals and punctuation; as well as
a very comprehensive chapter on “References, bibliographies and notes” (chapter 9).
This is a software package which sets up an environment supporting APA style.
• American Psychological Association. 2005. APA-Style Helper 5.1. Washington, D.C.:
American Psychological Association.
• Australian Guide to Legal Citation. 2002. 2nd Edition. Melbourne: Melbourne
University Law Review Association Inc.
This publication provides examples of footnoting (and the citation of legal material).
• Clark-Dickson, D. and Macdonald R. 2005. Clear and precise: Writing skills for today’s
lawyer. Pyrmont, NSW: Thomson Custom Pub.
This book is a general manual for lawyers and other writers on plain English
writing. It is recommended as a general text for students. An informative guide that
provides constructive advice from time management through to the technical aspects
of writing.
• Chicago Manual of Style. 2003. 15th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
A style manual that follows the conventions of the traditional Harvard system
of referencing.
• Curtin University. 2005. http://library.curtin.edu.au/referencing/index.html
A succinct and comprehensive online guide to referencing and citing material in these
styles: Harvard, APA, Vancouver, MLA, Footnotes (Chicago Style)
• Endnote: Assistance on the use of Endnote may be found at the following sites:
www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote/
Download options for EndNote:
www.library.qut.edu.au/endnote//download.jsp
A selection of online tutorials:
wwwlib.qut.edu.au/elearn/endnotetute/
• Gibaldi, J. 2003. MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 6th ed. New York:
Modern Languages Association of America.
A style manual giving a detailed explanation of the MLA system of referencing.
• Huff, A. S. 1999. Writing for scholarly publication. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Part II of this book contains much good advice on the preparation of a research essay
and Part III explains each of the components of the essay. The book is recommended
for those students who wish to read a slightly more detailed explanation of these aspects
of scholarly writing than is provided in The Written Assignment.
• Lindsay, D. 1995. A guide to scientific writing. 2nd ed. Melbourne: Longman
Cheshire.
76
Demonstrates ways of assembling facts, ideas and arguments in a form that
is economical and enjoyable.
• Macquarie Dictionary and Thesaurus. 2004. Melbourne: Macmillan.
The first truly Australian dictionary with emphasis on how Australians use
and pronounce English words. The dictionary and thesaurus were originally published
separately, but this latest edition combines the two.
• Mahoney, D. and A. Bruns. 2004. Studying and writing effectively. Brisbane: QUT
Faculty of Arts.
It seeks to provide students with a comprehensive guide to both preparation and academic
writing. The book was developed from within the Faculty of Creative Industries, but a
generalist approach has been retained.
• Marshall, L. A. and F. Rowland. 1998. A guide to learning independently. 3rd ed.
Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman.
Answers many queries students have when doing first assignments.
• McDermott, J. 1990. Punctuation for now. London: McMillan.
This is a succinct guide on how to punctuate correctly.
• Newman, J., E. Cusick, and A. La Tourette. eds. 2000. The writer’s workbook. London:
Arnold.
While much of this book deals with fictional writing, Chapters 15, 16 and 17 have
valuable information on writing from research, redrafting and editing, and getting
published.
• Petelin, R. and Durham, M. (1998) The professional writing guide: Writing well and
knowing why, Warriewood, NSW; Business & Professional Publishing.
An excellent book on writing style, with much advice to writers on how to make their
writing more understandable, readable and professional.
• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 2001 5th ed.
Washington: American Psychological Association.
A style manual for those wishing to follow the conventions laid down by the APA.
• QUT Library. 2005. Referencing information on all major styles is available through
QUT library homepage: http//www.library.qut.edu.au/reference/writing.jsp
• Rudinow, J. and V. E. Barry. 1999. Invitation to critical thinking. 4th ed. Fort Worth:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
The book focuses on the recognition, analysis, evaluation and composition of arguments
and takes readers through the steps of critical thinking. It is comprehensive, with many
examples, and is recommended for readers who wish to explore the topic of critical
thinking and argument in more detail.
77
• Scientific Style and Format: the CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers.
1994. 6th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Stuhmcke, A. 2001. Legal referencing. 2nd Edition. Sydney: Butterworths.
A guide on citing print and electronic material for students studying in the legal
discipline.
• University of Wisconsin, 2005. The Writing Centre. University of Wisconsin-Madison:
www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ (accessed Novermber 30, 2005).
This on-line site will be of use to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. It has
information on grammar, punctuation and style (note the American spellings), clear
and concise English, and writing annotated bibliographies.
• Working with Diversity: A Guide to Inclusive Language and Presentation for Staff and
Students 2003. Brisbane: QUT Publications.
This booklet is QUT’s official document and gives advice to enable people
to interpret the guidelines correctly. It gives examples and practical suggestions on how
to be inclusive in communication with students, staff and people in the community.
The booklet is also available in electronic form at www.equity.qut.edu.au.
78
Notes
79
Notes
80