Issue 60
The Greek Theatre
Introduction
"Greek thought is characterized by a tension between belief in human rationality and recognition
of irrational and unknowable elements. ...such a view promoted a drama that centers on human
struggles but one in which the supernatural element always reminds us that we have not left the
era of ritual behind altogether."
- Oscar Brockett, History of the Theatre
Over the next year we are going to intermittently address periods in theatre history including the
Medieval era, Commedia Dell'Arte, Noh, Elizabethan, Restoration and more. Our first stop is a
two part newsletter on the Greek Theatre. The era we know as "The Greek Theatre" ran roughly
between 600 and 200 BC. Some say it ended with the arrival of Alexander the Great. Some say it
was with the death of Sophocles. Dates and events tend to be less than exact.
On that note, it's appropriate to comment that research from the time period is not 100% reliable.
It was thousands of years ago after all! What is presented here is for the most part what is most
commonly addressed as the 'facts' of the time.
The evolution of the form we know as western theatre, however, is remarkably well laid out. It
moved from choruses of men singing and dancing hymns in reverence to the God Dionysus, to
choral speaking on many themes, to one actor stepping out of the chorus who introduced
dialogue, then another actor was introduced, and another.
Once you start to analyze the era, given that the facts aren't fully trustworthy, it's amazing how
many forms and concepts that were born in this time period remain in use today, how many
words make up the vocabulary of what we know as the theatre, how many plays are still
performed. It's not too difficult to see why the plays have permanence, all you have to do is look
at the themes and emotions explored by the ancient Greeks. The flaws of the tragic hero popular
in 500 BC are the flaws of many characters in modern works. Emotional outpourings are going
to be relevant in whatever era they are expressed. As Brockett expresses above, that combination
of the rational and the irrational so instilled in the Greeks is familiar to a 21st century audience.
I have worked on one adaptation of a Greek Play, Sophocles' Antigone, which became Agatha
Rex. For the exact reasons just mentioned, it was amazingly easy to modernize. Antigone goes
against the wishes of the king in order to honour her brother. Agatha goes against the principal in
order to support her brother. Though the first involves a death and the second involves going a
dress code, the emotional outpouring remains. The combination of rational and irrational; the
human struggle. This is why these stories remain. Behind any difficult language, behind any stiff
poetic structure, there is an understandable core.
In this newsletter we are going to look at the following:
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Some background on the Ancient Greeks
A theatre timeline from Thespis to the death of Sophocles
Words that originated in the Greek Theatre that we still use today
The Greek Stage
The basic elements of the Greek Theatre
The Ancient Greeks
I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world.
- Socrates
Who were those Ancient Greeks anyway? What were they doing besides creating the
foundations of modern theatre? Here are some details on the people and the times.
Ancient Greece is most fascinating in its contradictions: Athens incorporated the first democratic
government, but still promoted slavery. Freedom was highly valued, unless you were a slave, a
woman or a foreigner. The country was unified when attacked, as well as under religion and
language, but each city-state, (Athens, Thebes, Cornith, Delphi, Sparta) was fiercely independent
and they fought each other constantly. Just as the country was war driven, it was equally arts &
culture driven. It's amazing that these waring city-states (Spartan mothers told their sons, "Either
come back victorious or dead on your shield.") had time for theatre, philosophy, art or politics.
And yet that is what they are most remembered for.
Further, while aspects of the people are what you'd expect for the time - men work, rule and are
educated while women have few rights – this was not always the case. Spartan women had more
freedom than Athenian women, had some education and were expected to maintain a physical
fitness.
The Ancient Greeks believed in a multitude of gods, and centred their lives around them. Athens
was named for the Goddess Athena. The Olympics were held in honour of Zeus, leader of the
gods. The theatre festivals paid tribute to the god Dionysus. Each city state was devoted to a
particular god and felt that god was their protector and guardian. The myths of the gods made up
the stories of the tragedies staged each year and every audience member would be familiar with
the particular myth being presented. Greek god myths had such resonance they were copied by
other countries (see here for a comparison of Greek and Roman gods.)
Hardy is another word to describe the Greeks. Not only was physical fitness a large part of their
daily life, their military life, and competitive life with the first Olympics held in 776BC, but
because the terrain of the island is primarily rocky it took a lot of work to make anything grow.
The Greeks were not a people single-mindedly devoted to the physical. Some incredible thinkers
came out of this time: philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, architects, doctors, and
writers. And of course, it's important to note the other arts the Ancient Greeks are known for
such as sculpture, vase painting and architecture. Something interesting I found in my research is
that artists were not thought of on the same level as writers. They were craftsmen, which was
equal to someone performing a trade. Hard to believe when you look at some of minutely
detailed work and the soaring architectural tributes to the gods. The art of the time has been one
of the elements historians used to learn about the Ancient Greeks.
Even in the 21st century we are constantly under the influence of this fascinating civilization.
Important Greeks
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Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Epicurus, Aristotle
Writers: Homer, Aesop
Leaders: Pericles
Mathematicians: Pythagoras, Archimedes
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Historians: Herodotus, Thucydides
Poets: Hesiod, Pindar
Medicine: Hippocrates
Astronomer: Ptolemy
Greek gods
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Zeus – Leader of the gods
Hera – Wife of Zeus
Aphrodite – Goddess of Love
Demeter – Goddess of the Harvest
Ares – God of War
Dionysus – God of Wine
Athena – Goddess of wisdom and skill
Hermes – God of travel
Artemis – Goddess of the Hunt
Apollo – God of music and healing
Hades – King of the Underworld
Poseidon – God of the Sea
Important Events
The Alphabet
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The first Greek Alphabet was developed between 850 and 700 BC
Democracy
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510 BC Athens created the first democratic government.
From the Greek demokratia – rule of the people. (Demo: people/ Kratos: power)
Citizens allowed a voice and a vote.
Women, slaves, and foreigners were not allowed to vote.
The Olympics
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The Greeks believed in competition and physical fitness.
Called the Olympic games as it was held in Olympia.
The first Olympics held in 776BC and went until banned by the Romans in 393 AD.
Events: boxing, wrestling, running, Equestrian (horse and chariot racing) and the
pentathlon (discus, running, wrestling, javelin, jumping) and Pankration, a combination
of wrestling and boxing.
Wars
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Trojan War 1200 BC
Persian War between Persia and Greece. Greece is victorious. 490-479 BC
Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. Sparta is victorious. 431-404 BC
Alexander The Great conquers Greece. 336-323 BC
A Timeline of Greek Theatre
The genius who accomplished the transition from dithyramb to drama was Thespis of Icaria.
Playwright, actor, stage director, and producer all in one, Thespis is credited with a number of
innovations. He is said to have connected the chorus with a plot; he seems to have evolved the
protagonist, destined to dilemma and forced to answer the ever-questioning chorus; he discarded
the cruder dithyrambic make-up by making use of unpainted linen masks; and if we care to trust
Horace, Thespis travelled about with a company of strolling players on a wagon.
- Alois Maria Nagler, A Source book in Theatrical History
Though the plays and playwrights listed here are the ones who are known to us, hundreds of
plays and many writers have been lost. Think about why these particular playwrights and these
particular plays have survived while others have not.
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534 - Tragedy is introduced into the Festival of Dionysia
534 - Thespis wins the first play competition in tragedy at the festival of Dionysia.
525 - Aeschylus is born.
500 - The first satyr play is introduced into competition
496 - Aeschylus' first dramatic competition
496 - Sophocles is born.
493 - Theatre of Dionysus built
480 - Euripides is born
486 - Introduction of Comedy into the Festival. The winner of the first prize for comedy
is Chionides.
484 - Aeschylus' first win.
472 - Persians (Aeschylus)
472 - A second actor separate from the chorus is introduced by Aeschylus.
468 - Sophocles wins over Aeschylus
467 - Seven Against Thebes (Aeschylus)
458 - Oresteia:Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides (Aeschylus)
456 - Aeschylus died
450 - Aristophanes is born
449 - Prize for best actor was introduced
445 - Ajax (Sophocles)
442 - Sophocles introduces a third actor
441 - Antigone (Sophocles)
440 - Rhesus (Euripides)
440 - Comedy is prohibited.
438 - Alcestis (Euripides)
437 - The prohibition of Comedy is repealed
431 - Medea (Euripides)
429 - Oedipus the King (Euripides)
428 - Hippolytus (Euripides)
423 - The Clouds (Aristophanes)
422 - The Wasps (Aristophanes)
421 - Peace (Aristophanes)
415 - Trojan Women (Euripides)
414 - The Birds (Aristophanes)
411 - Lysistrata (Aristophanes)
410 - The Bacchae (Euripides)
406 - Euripides dies.
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405 - Sophocles dies.
405 - The Frogs (Aristophanes)
401 - Oedipus at Colonus (Sophocles)
385 - Aristophanes dies.
380 - In The Republic Plato writes about banning Theatre as it encourages emotion over
reason
342 - Meander is born.
330's - In Poetics, Aristotle defines comedy and tragedy and writes about the Three
Unities: time, place, action
Words, Words, Words
Thespian: an actor or actress, relating to the theatre, derived from Thespis.
Chorus
Greek: Khoros
Original meaning:A group of dancers or singers.
Modern meaning: The word has a dual meaning referencing both music and theatre.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/chorus
In the Greek Theatre: The chorus started out singing and dancing the dithyrambs in praise of
Dionysus. As theatre evolved so did the role of the chorus. They moved from being a group of
dancers and singers to representing the common man. In later plays the chorus gave commentary
and reflected on the action. As time went on, plays depended on the chorus less and less.
Orchestra
Greek: Orkhestra
Original meaning: dancing place
Modern meaning: A group of musicians, the area reserved for those musicians.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/orchestra
In the Greek Theatre: The orchestra was a semicircular area where the action took place.
Scene
Greek: Skene
Original Meaning: Hut or tent
Modern Meaning: Most commonly used in theatre as individual parts of a play.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/scene
In the Greek Theatre: A building at the back of the orchestra. As the festivals evolved this
building was often decorated, which is why it has turned into the word for scenery.
Theatre
Greek: Theatron
Original Meaning: Viewing place/watching place
Modern Meaning: Means both the building in which a piece takes place, and also the craft of
theatre. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/theater
In the Greek Theatre: Referred only to the seating where the audience gathered to watch the
plays.
Actor
Greek: hypokrites
Original Meaning: One who pretends, interprets - also has been defined as "answerer," as in one
who answers back to the chorus.
Modern Meaning: A person who acts. A performer. Doer.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/actor
In the Greek theatre: In the beginning, there were no actors, only a chorus group. Over time,
one actor was introduced and interacted with the audience, then two and finally three.
Tragedy
Greek: tragoidia
Original Meaning: Goat Song - Tragos (Goat)/Odie (Song)
Modern Meaning: In theatre, tragedy references stories with somber circumstances and
unhappy endings. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tragedy
In the Greek theatre: Aristotle defines tragedy as: an imitation of an action that has serious
implications, is complete, and of a certain magnitude. It includes incidents that arouse pity and
fear. The main character is better than actual life.
Comedy
Greek: Komoidia
Original Meaning: Merry making singer
Modern Meaning: A humourous work with a happy ending.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/comedy
The Greek Stage
In Ancient Greece, all of the plays were performed outdoors in huge amphitheatres. The most
notable theatres of the time were at Epidarus (especially known for its acoustics), Delphi, and the
theatre of Dionysus in Athens.
The theatres had to accommodate large crowds (thousands and thousands of spectators) as well
as large casts. There could be up to 50 members of the chorus.
The initial setting for the theatres was a tent in front of a circle of dirt with the audience sitting
on a hillside. Over time, theatres were literally built into the hill. They were first made of wood
and then stone. The tent was replaced with an actual building.
Theatre Architecture
The main areas of the amphitheatre are:
skene: (meaning - Hut or tent) Building behind Orchestra. There were often one or two entrances
on the side, usually decorated as a palace, or temple, depending on what was needed in the play.
orchestra: (meaning - dancing place) A semi circular area in front of the skene. This was the
playing area.
Parados: (meaning - passageway) Gangway entries for the chorus on either side of the skene.
theatron: (meaning - viewing place) The area where the spectators sat. Originally referred to just
the audience.
Thymele: (meaning - altar) A platform in the orchestra. It is suggested that the leader of the
chorus stood on it to speak. It's also suggested that this is an altar for Dionysus, but it doesn't
seem likely that one would stand on an altar. There were possibly two platforms side by side.
These amphitheatres are well known for their acoustics. The theory is that the theatres were built
so that someone sitting in the very back row could hear the actors. Imagine if you had to play to
an audience of 14,000! According to this article about a research study out of Georgia Institute of
Technology, it was the Greeks' arrangement of the seats that aided with the acoustics.
Extra Staging Elements
Machina - A crane used to hoist actors into the air, and give the illusion of flight. Often used
during the deux ex machina (god enters by machine).
Ekkyklema - A wagon that was used to bring in characters who had died offstage.
The Competitions
Of the dramas which were performed at the Great Dionysia, the tragedies, at least, were
generally new pieces; repetitions do not however seem to have been excluded from any
Dionysiac festival...
- A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. (ed) Sir William Smith
Before there were competitions, drama at Dionysus festivals consisted of the dithyramb - a hymn
chanted and sung in praise of Dionysus by a large chorus. Dithyramb evolved into more
formalized storytelling, which evolved into the play structure we're familiar with today.
So the legend goes, the first organized Tragedy festival was held in 534BC with Thespis as the
first winner. The annual festivals honouring Dionysus had been a longstanding tradition and
were held all over Greece. The festival we know most about was called the City Dionysia (or
Great Dionysia) in Athens.
The festivals were days long, at first with just tragedies, then satyr plays and finally adding
comedies. The eventual festival structure went as follows:
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There were two days of Introduction and Procession where the participants were
introduced, sacrifices to Dionysus were made and there was a parade.
Three playwrights competed with a Tetrology (four plays) which consisted of a tragic
trilogy and a comedic satyr play, also on the same topic.
Three to five playwrights competed with comedies. Each playwright competed with one
play.
The festival ended with the awarding of prizes. Some record a monetary prize, some say
it was just a wreath and prestige.
The process to compete was somewhat involved. Playwrights had to apply to the chief magistrate
(Archon Eponymous) to have their play accepted and receive a chorus. If accepted they were
also assigned a financier, a Choragus, who paid for the production. Think of them as the first
producers! If a patron subsidized a production, they also got out of paying their taxes that year.
More often than not the playwright also directed the play, and sometimes acted as well. In the
records, playwrights were referred to didaskalos, which means teacher/trainer. This is because
they trained or directed the chorus and action.
Competition winners were chosen in a pretty democratic manner. There was no one overseeing
judge. Ten judges were chosen at random:
Ten lists of judges from among the ten Athenian tribes were deposited in ten urns, one for each
tribe. Sealed and deposited under guard in the Acropolis, the urns were protected by a sentence
of death to anyone who tampered with them. On the first day of the festival, the urns were placed
in the Theatre of Dionysis, the site of the performances, before all whose names were in the urns.
The archon drew one name from each urn; each of these ten judges took a solemn oath to render
an impartial verdict.
- The Making of Theatre History by Paul Kuritz
At the end each judge cast a vote but only five were used to declare a winner. Five ballots were
picked, again randomly, and that was how the winner was chosen.
Who is Dionysus?
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god of wine and fertility
A patron of the theatre
Son of Zeus and Semele, a mortal
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Two sides of his nature - the joy of celebration and also rage
Roman Counterpart: Bacchus
The cult of Dionysus dates back to 1200 BC
Elements of Greek Drama
Aristotle defines the six elements of tragedy as follows: plot, character, thought, diction, song
spectacle.
The Playwright
Before the formal introduction of theatre, the playwright encompassed all roles: writer, actor and
director. Because the Greeks documented the winners of their competitions, we know the names
of many Ancient Greek playwrights. However we only have complete plays from four
(Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes) and fragments from a fifth (Meander).
The Actors
Thespis was, theoretically, the first to separate from the chorus creating an actor. Aeschylus
introduced a second actor and Sophocles introduced a third. The rule then became that no more
than three actors could be on stage at the same time. This is why scenes were primarily among 2
or 3 characters. Because the actors used masks, it was possible for each actor to play the part of
one character. Actors were always men, never women, so men played female roles. In fact,
actors were expected to be able to play both genders and all ages. Due to the outdoor settings,
and the large audiences, subtle acting was not possible. Actors wore large masks instead of
makeup and acted with large simple gestures.
The Chorus
Laughter on American television has taken the place of the chorus in Greek tragedy. In other
countries, the business of laughing is left to the viewers. Here, their laughter is put on the screen,
integrated into the show. It is the screen that is laughing and having a good time.
- Jean Baudrillard
The chorus was always made up of amateurs who practised for months and months. At first, the
duties of the chorus were basically the same as when they performed the dithyramb - to sing and
dance. As theatre evolved the chorus began to take a role - they became a specifically designated
group in a play, as opposed just a random group of men. They represented the common man, the
voice of the audience. In a tragedy they acted as a counter balance to the flaws of the main
character. They would watch and comment on the action. Aside from the group there was always
a leader, the Choryphaeus. The leader was able to interact with the actors. The size of the chorus
could be upwards of 50 men but were more often around 15. As theatre evolved playwrights
began to rely more and more on the actors and less and less on the chorus.
The Masks
All actors wore masks in the Greek Theatre. They were made of wood, cloth or leather and made
to show certain emotions. The masks were oversized, covering the entire head, and often had a
large mouth, which may have helped with amplification. Using masks also helped the three
actors play multiple parts - one character could be played by the three different actors over the
course of the play. It shouldn't take too long to realize that the traditional "Comedy" and
"tragedy" masks we know today come from the Greeks.
The Costumes
Costumes also helped the audience know what kind of character the actors were playing be it
rich or poor, male or female. Actors wore a gown (a chiton) and tall boots (cothurnuses) to help
them become larger than life. It also differentiated them from the Chorus who wore flat shoes.
When the men played women, they often added padding to their chest and behind.
Tragedy, Comedy, Satyr
"As tragedy by painful emotions elevates us to the most dignified views of human nature, as
being, according to Plato's expression, "the imitation of the most beautiful and excellent life," so
Comedy calls forth the most unrestrained frolicsomeness from an altogether jocular and
degrading contemplation of things."
The Theatre of the Greeks, by Philip Wentworth Buckham
Tragedy
Greek Tragedy evolved to follow a number of specific criteria. They focused on stories based on
the distant past, be it myth or historical. Everyone in the audience would have known the basic
story for the plays they were seeing, although playwrights were given licence to alter the story as
they saw fit.
The stories centred on a main character who, by definition, is better than the common man. This
main character has imperfections and flaws, and their downfall is caused by their own choices.
More often than not, the pride of the character gets in the way and they fail to realize their
mistake until it's too late, no matter how many times they are warned by the chorus.
The main character at the end must pay dearly for their actions. It's clear to see that Greek
Tragedy thrives on big issues and big emotions.
Other Elements
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Late point of attack - what we see of the story is the final chapter.
Violence and death takes place offstage.
The use of messengers.
The Structure
The structure of a Greek Tragedy was fairly standard.
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Prologue: The introduction to the the main character and background of the play.
Parodos: The entrance song of the chorus. Sets the tone of the play.
Episode: Dialogue between characters and chorus.
Stasima: At the end of each episode, the chorus reflects on what has been said and done.
The play flips back and forth between Episode and Stasima three to six times.
Exodos: The final resolution.
Aristotle on Tragedy: Tragedy is an imitation of an action that has serious implications, is
complete, and of a certain magnitude. It uses a heightened language and includes incidents that
arouse pity and fear in the audience. At the end, there must be an emotional purging, a catharsis,
caused by the pity and fear.
The Parts of Tragedy
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Plot - The story has a self-contained beginning, middle and end. There is a always a
discovery of self by the main character. (from ignorance to knowledge) accompanied by a
drastic change of action (from good fortune to bad).
Character - The main character must be good, moral, believable, and consistent.
Thought - The sense and meaning that goes into the lines.
Diction - The expression of the words.
Song - This refers to the chorus.
Spectacle - The staging of the play.
The Three Unities
Aristotle also spoke of these unities as the mark of great theatre.
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The Unity of Action: The story should only have one plot from beginning to end (no
sub-stories)
The Unity of Place: The story should take place in one location.
The Unity of Time: The story should take place over one day.
The Tragic Hero
Aristotle named six elements for the tragic hero: Hamartia (tragic flaw), hubris (pride),
anagnorisis (discovery) peripeteia (change in fortune), nemesis, (fate) and catharsis (emotional
purging).
The tragic hero is the main character in a tragedy. They are a good person of noble birth but have
a lot of pride (or some other fatal flaw) and therefore makes mistakes. They are not perfect. They
refuse to accept their situation, even though everyone else including the audience knows the hero
is wrong. Because of that, the tragic hero brings about their own downfall. When the hero finally
realizes they have erred, it's too late and their destruction is inevitable.
Satyr
Satyr: a half man, half beast. Known for rude and lascivious behaviour. The companion of
Dionysus.
Only one satyr play remains today - Euripides' Cyclops. But the tone and sentiment behind the
genre is very clear. There's no two ways about it. Satyr plays are lewd, bawdy, lascivious, and
burlesque. They're downright dirty. The chorus appeared as Satyrs adorned with large phalluses.
A satyr play is all about providing comic relief, with little character or story development, at the
end of a trilogy of tragedy.
The evolution of satyr plays also come directly from the choral singing and dancing in tribute to
Dionysus. Eventually the satyr play became attached to the tragedy competition. The playwrights
who wrote the tragedies would tack on a fourth comedic play, which was usually a mockery of
gods and heroes. Satyr plays eventually would take the same structure as tragedy.
Comedy
The functions of the comic poet as they developed in Athens and as Aristophanes interpreted
them were threefold: one, to reconcile man to his world; two, to save the city; and three,
to release man from troubles.
- The Art of Greek Comedy Katherine Lever
Comedy was introduced at the City Dionysia in 486 but there is evidence that comedic plays had
been performed earlier at other festivals.
While the stories of Greek tragedy were always found in the past, the comedies remained in the
present. The stories reflected on and made fun of the people and events of the day including
politics, literature, society, and war. The characters were not of noble birth. The style was always
exaggerated, full of farce and fantasy with an inevitable happy ending. Further to that, in the
work of Aristophanes there was always some 'happy idea' that was to be gained by the end of the
play whether it be peace or pleasure.
The chorus in a comedy was larger than that in a tragedy. They may represent a human or nonhuman group (e.g. Aristophanes' The Birds). Half the chorus was usually on the side of the main
character and the other half was against the main character. There was not the same reverence to
characters as in a Tragedy.
The genre is split into three eras: Old Comedy (contemporary topics, with the satirizing of public
officials and events known directly to the audience) Middle Comedy (mostly lost) and New
Comedy (more romantic, more stock characters, less fantasy, less political commentary). The
surviving plays of Aristophanes are an example of Old Comedy, and those of Meander represent
New Comedy.
The elements of a Greek comedy are pretty straightforward:
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Prologue: Sets the tone.
Parode: The chorus enters. This section is sung.
Agon: The word means contest. This section is a debate between characters. Whoever
speaks first always loses.
Parabasis: The chorus speaks directly to the audience. There are more than one of these.
These are the modern theatre equivalent of the 'aside.'
Episodes: Dialogue between characters which elaborates on the Agon.
Exode: The final exit with the suggestion that everyone is off to a revel or celebration.
Aristotle on comedy: While tragedy examines characters who are better than us with serious
flaws, comedy is the imitation of characters who are worse than actual life and have ridiculous
faults.